AP World MC Exam

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His admission that he was born into a fortunate condition

"Writing now, at an age beyond sixty, I must admit that we do not understand the operations of God's wisdom and are, therefore, unable to tell the causes of the terrible inequalities that we see around us,—why so many people should have so little to make life enjoyable, while a few others, not through their own merit, have had gifts poured out to them from a full hand. We acknowledge the hand of God and His wisdom, but still we feel horror at the misery of many of our brethren. We who have been born in a more fortunate condition—we to whom wealth, education, and liberty have been given—cannot, I think, look upon the unintellectual and toil-bound life of those who cannot even feed themselves sufficiently by the meager wages they have earned with so much sweat, without experiencing some feeling of injustice, some sting of pain. This consciousness of wrong has produced in many enthusiastic but unbalanced minds a desire to make all things right by pursuing equality. But any careful observer of our society, or any student of our history has to admit that, as unjust as it may seem, inequality is part of the natural order of things. You can make all men equal today, but God has so created them that they shall become unequal again tomorrow. The very word 'equality' presents to the imaginations of men ideas of communism, of ruin, and insane democracy. Instead of obsessing about equality, we should be working toward reducing inequalities—provided, of course, that we do so gradually and without any sudden disruption of society." Which of the following pieces of information that Trollope reveals about himself in the passage might best explain his contention that economic inequalities ought to be addressed "gradually and without any sudden disruption of society"?

interethnic conflicts in Africa led to political fragmentation and ultimately limited Africans' ability to resist imperialism

"Your Highness, dear Major Leutwein! I received your long letter late last night. I take it from this letter that you accuse me of various misdeeds and seem to claim the right to condemn me to death as if I were a common criminal. You seem to try to reason with me by force of guns. You say that I arrogantly claim to be the ruler over certain territories. This is my answer: You white men know very well that this territory of which you speak has been under my rule since the death of my grandfather. The Herero nation attacked my grandfather's Nama nation without any cause, but he fought them back and conquered them. Later these same tribes attacked me as well. I conquered them a second time. So these lands that you seek are mine by double right of conquest. This has been an old rule of war. Obviously you cannot see any other way of getting hold of these lands, so you are attacking me by force. You say that you are sorry that I do not accept German protection and do not pledge my allegiance to the German emperor. Here is my answer: I have never in my life seen the German emperor and I am sure he has never seen me. Therefore, I could not have possibly hurt him. God has made us both rulers in different parts of the world. I don't think that one can call someone guilty if he wants to remain an independent ruler over his land and his people. If you intend now to have me killed because of my love of independence, this is not shame or harm. If I have to die, I shall do so as an honest man defending my property and my rights." Witbooi's point of view in discussing his right to rule the Nama lands "by double conquest" is historically significant mostly because it illustrates how

Indian nationalism was inspired predominantly by Indian cultural and political traditions

"[Nineteenth-century] Indian liberal ideas, I argue, were foundational to all forms of Indian nationalism and the country's modern politics. Yet Indian liberalism was both wider in scope, and more specific in its remedies, than what is commonly called nationalism. To put it in its most positive light, Indian liberalism represented a broad range of thought and practice directed to the pursuit of political and social liberty. Its common features were a desire to re-empower India's people with personal freedom in the face of a despotic government of foreigners, entrenched traditional authority, and supposedly corrupt domestic or religious practices. Indian liberals sought representation in government service, on grand juries and, later, on elective bodies. They demanded a free press, freedom of assembly and public comment. Liberals broadly accepted the principle of individual property rights, subject to various degrees of protection for the masses against economic exploitation. Liberals emphasized education, particularly women's education. Educated women would help to abolish domestic tyranny, reinstate the ancient Hindu ideal of companionate marriage and improve the race. But a fine line was to be drawn between instructing women and permitting excessive license in gender relations, which was seen as a Western corruption." Many Indian historians after independence would likely have objected to Bayly's characterization of Indian liberalism on the basis of their belief that

Emerging women's suffrage and feminist movements

"[Nineteenth-century] Indian liberal ideas, I argue, were foundational to all forms of Indian nationalism and the country's modern politics. Yet Indian liberalism was both wider in scope, and more specific in its remedies, than what is commonly called nationalism. To put it in its most positive light, Indian liberalism represented a broad range of thought and practice directed to the pursuit of political and social liberty. Its common features were a desire to re-empower India's people with personal freedom in the face of a despotic government of foreigners, entrenched traditional authority, and supposedly corrupt domestic or religious practices. Indian liberals sought representation in government service, on grand juries and, later, on elective bodies. They demanded a free press, freedom of assembly and public comment. Liberals broadly accepted the principle of individual property rights, subject to various degrees of protection for the masses against economic exploitation. Liberals emphasized education, particularly women's education. Educated women would help to abolish domestic tyranny, reinstate the ancient Hindu ideal of companionate marriage and improve the race. But a fine line was to be drawn between instructing women and permitting excessive license in gender relations, which was seen as a Western corruption." The Indian liberal view of women discussed in the passage is best understood in the context of which of the following?

The French did not wish to change the religion of the people of Egypt.

'In the name of Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate. On behalf of the French Republic which is based upon the foundations of liberty and equality, General Bonaparte addresses all Egyptian people: O ye Egyptians, some may tell you that we have come here to abolish your religion, but that is a lie. The real purpose of our campaign is to restore your rights from your oppressors—the Mamluk** rulers of Egypt. Know that all people are equal and that only differences in the degree of reason, virtue, or knowledge may be used to elevate one person above another. But what reason, virtue, or knowledge do the Mamluks have that gives them the right to claim the most fertile land, the most desirable dwellings, and the highest government positions in Egypt? None whatsoever.' 1798-1801 Which of the following claims does Napoleon make about religion in the document al-Jabarti quotes

Political parties embracing mass politics and broader popular participation in the democratic process

'The Liberal Party believing that there are no just grounds for denying women the right to vote, will enact a measure providing for equal suffrage upon it being established by petition that it is desired by women numbering 15% of the votes cast in the Province in the preceding general election.' The policy position of the Manitoba Liberal Party quoted in the appeal is best seen as a continuation of which of the following broader trends in the late 1800s and early 1900s?

As a commercial enterprise, the British Royal Niger Company hoped that Lugard's voyage would allow it to expand its exports of African raw materials to Europe and its imports of European finished goods to Africa.

(d) to collect detailed information of every kind about the regions you visit, but especially to make inquiries as to the existence of gold—either gold sands in rivers or gold lodes in rock; . . . (f) to impress upon all African chiefs how advantageous it would be for them to have Europeans bringing goods to their country, which can only be done if they sign the treaties; . . . The instructions to Lugard in articles (d) and (f) best reflect which of the following regarding the purpose of the board of directors' letter?

West Africa was becoming a source of important raw materials for Europe's industrializing economies.

(h) to note especially carefully the prevalence of gum arabic trees, shea butter trees, and rubber vines* in each region you visit." Which aspect of the historical situation in West Africa in the 1890s best explains the board of directors' instructions to Lugard in article (h) of the letter?

By the mid-twentieth century China was still plagued by infectious diseases associated with poverty, while by the end of the twentieth century it had overcome those diseases.

A comparison with the United States highlights the nature of China's achievements. China was seventeen years behind America's life expectancy in 1900 (30 versus 47) and that gap actually widened to twenty-five years (44 versus 69) by mid-century. Yet by 2000, the gap had narrowed to only six years, with China's average life expectancy at 71 and the United States' life expectancy at 77. The changes in life expectancy in China described in the paragraph are most likely attributable to which of the following?

Census records from New York and Buenos Aires detailing the birthplaces of individuals

A historian researching international migration patterns of the nineteenth century would find which of the following sources most useful?

Governmental efforts of multinational states to promote a new nationalist identity that would help prevent the emergence of ethnic separatism

After the abdication of the last Qing emperor in China in 1912, the new republican government adopted a new national flag (the so-called five-races-together-in-harmony flag) in which five stripes represented the five main ethnic groups: the Han Chinese, the Manchus, the Tibetans, the Uighurs, and the Mongols. The adoption of the new flag is an example of which of the following processes?

increased rights for laborers

All of the following contributed to the rise of industrialization in western Europe and North America during the nineteenth century EXCEPT

new grain crops developed in the Green Revolution

All of the following factors contributed to significant growth in worldwide population from 1750 through 1900 EXCEPT

a socialist economic system

All of the following resulted from the French and Russian Revolutions EXCEPT

coastal enclaves for trade and a few settlements

Before 1870, the European presence in Africa was characterized primarily by

Japan

Between 1750 and 1900, which of the following industrializing states created an empire?

Claiming to uphold the rule of law and oppose government corruption had become the norm for those seeking political power, even for military leaders seeking to challenge elected governments.

But we have come to realize that national unity is no longer possible. The Nigerian constitution that was adopted after independence in 1960 installed the North in perpetual dominance over Nigeria. Thus were sown, by design or by default, the seeds of factionalism and hate, of struggle for power, and the worst type of political deception. National independence was followed by successive crises, each leading to the near disintegration of the country. Last year alone, tens of thousands of Eastern and Southern Nigerians were killed in pogroms by Northerners in all parts of the country, including the capital, Lagos. We are now facing a situation in which there are only two possible outcomes: either perpetual domination of the rest of the country by the North, not by consent but by force and fraud, or a dissolution of the [Nigerian] federation bond." Which of the flowing best explains how the immediate historical situation of the proclamation of Biafran independence from Nigeria informed the author's statements in the paragraph?

Economic imperialism

But what is of far more value, the Congo River basin has over 40 million moderately industrious and workable people. It is among them that the European trader may fix his residence for years and develop commerce to his profit with very little risks involved. In dwelling over the advantages possessed by the Congo here, it has been my goal to rouse this spirit of trade. I do not wish to see the area become a place where poor migrants from Europe would settle. There are over 40 million natives here who are poor and degraded already merely because they are surrounded on all sides by hostile forces of nature and man, denying them contact with the civilizational elements that might have ameliorated the unhappiness of their condition. If you were to plant European pauperism amongst them, it would soon degenerate to the low level of native African pauperism. Instead, the man who is wanted is the enterprising merchant who receives the raw produce from the native in exchange for the finished product of the manufacturer's loom. It is the merchant who can direct and teach the African pauper what to gather in the multitude of things around him. Merchants are the missionaries of commerce adapted for nowhere so well as for the Congo River basin where there are so many idle hands and such abundant opportunities." Based on the paragraph, Stanley's vision of the future of the Congo River basin can best be seen as part of which of the following late-nineteenth-century developments?

Because of the ethnic and religious diversity of Caribbean colonial societies, there was no prejudice against newcomers, and immigrants, including Indian laborers, were generally welcomed by local populations.

Compared with late-nineteenth-century East or South Asian migrants to other world regions, the ancestors of the populations in the Caribbean likely received a somewhat better reception in their host societies for all of the following reasons EXCEPT:

The creation of Indian ethnic enclaves in Caribbean societies

Considering global trends in late-nineteenth-century migration movements, the Indian migrations to the Caribbean most likely led to which of the following short-term effects?

select human groups would dominate those less fit

Darwin's theories were interpreted by Social Darwinists to indicate that

Weapons

During the nineteenth century, Asian and African rulers usually desired transfer of which of the following western technologies most?

Intense nationalism, fueled by mass media, often forced the hand of military and political leaders.

I now receive fresh news of even more serious Russian preparations for war on my Eastern frontier. Responsibility for the safety of my empire forces me to take defensive and preventive measures. In my endeavors to maintain the peace of the world, I have gone to the utmost limit possible. The responsibility for the disaster that is now threatening the civilized world will not be laid at my door. At this moment, you still have the power to avert war. Nobody is threatening the honor or power of Russia, and you can well afford to await the result of my mediation. My friendship for you and your empire, transmitted to me by my grandfather on his deathbed, has always been sacred to me and I have often supported Russia in the past when she was in serious trouble." Wilhelm II's assurances that "nobody is threatening the honor or power of Russia" and that the tsar can "well afford" to await the results of attempts to defuse the crisis best testify to the importance of which of the following factors in the outbreak of the First World War?

The United States

In addition to Japan, which of the following non-European states created an empire in the Asia-Pacific region in the late nineteenth century?

Electricity, steel, and chemicals

In contrast to initial industrialization, the second Industrial Revolution in the last half of the nineteenth century was particularly associated with the mass production of which of the following?

Western-dominated large-scale transnational businesses

In founding the Mitsubishi company,* my goal has been to help recover for Japan the right of seaborne shipping, so we no longer have to delegate it to foreigners. I regard this not only as my business interest but also as my duty as a citizen. If we don't succeed as a company, it would be useless for the government to try to renegotiate the unequal treaties, or to attempt to further develop Japan's economy. The government knows this, and that is why it protects our company. And we need the government's protection to compete against foreign rivals, such as the [British] Peninsula and Oriental Steam Navigation Company. Recently, the P&O Company has been working to set up a new line between Yokohama [in Japan] and Shanghai and is attempting to claim rights over the [Japanese] ports of Nagasaki, Kobe, and Yokohama. The P&O Company is backed by its massive capital, large fleet of ships, and experience operating in Hong Kong and China. How can we compete against such a giant if we do not have the backing of our national government?" The commercial rivalries discussed best illustrate the interplay between nineteenth-century economic development in Japan and the development of

The Soviet government used the pretext of the ongoing civil war to engage in repressive policies against entire sections of its population.

In our city, Kazan (and as I mentioned, this also happens in all major cities), there live many former factory owners and other members of the bourgeoisie. Even though their factories and businesses have been nationalized, if you enter their apartments you would see them still living as they did in the 'good old times.' These gentlemen do not seem to know that the Civil War is still raging and that power is in the hands of the workers. As in the past, they continue to reside in the most luxurious, spacious, and warm apartments, with luxurious furniture. In their kitchens, you would still see hired cooks with white caps and uniforms, and in their households you would still see a variety of servants. In the summer they still go out to their country houses to 'relax.' When I see this, I become almost ashamed of our proletarian revolution. Why has no attention been paid to this yet? Why are workers not being moved into the bourgeois apartments and the bourgeois into workers' cellars? Why is their furniture and other belongings not being confiscated and distributed to the workers? And anyway, why has this gang of bourgeois parasites not yet been destroyed? Which of the following aspects of the immediate historical situation in which the letter was written best explains the author's demands toward the end of the paragraph?

Theories of natural selection could be applied to nations, races, and social classes.

In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Social Darwinists made which of the following arguments?

multinational empires

In the nineteenth century, the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires were two examples of

Practices that inhibit female activities

In the nineteenth century, women's use of bound feet (China), white face paint (Japan), and corsets (western Europe) are examples of which of the following?

Liberalism

In the period from 1750 to 1850, which of the following political ideologies was gaining increasing influence in western Europe and parts of the Atlantic world?

The leaders of the Haitian Revolution came from a different social class than did the leaders of the French Revolution.

In what way did the Haitian Revolution differ from the French Revolution?

Japan during the Meiji Restoration

Industrialization in Russia during the nineteenth century most closely resembled industrialization in which of the following regions?

Industrialization in both countries was achieved largely through state direction rather than through private initiative.

Japan's industrialization during the Meiji period and the Soviet Union's industrialization during the 1920s and 1930s had which of the following characteristics in common?

The Qing Empire

Japanese expansion in the late nineteenth century is most directly explained in the context of the decline of which of the following empires?

imperialist aspirations contributed to motivating the policies of fascist states

Moreover, Germany has never demanded colonies for military purposes, but exclusively for economic purposes. It is obvious that in times of general prosperity the value of certain territories may decrease, but it is just as evident that in times of distress such value increases. Today, Germany lives in a time of difficult struggle for foodstuffs and raw materials. Sufficient imports are conceivable only if there is a continued and lasting increase in our exports. Therefore, as a matter of course, our demand for colonies for our densely populated country will be put forward again and again." In the context of the late 1930s, the arguments that Hitler makes are most significant in explaining how

the preservation of cultural and economic ties between former colonies and metropoles, as immigrant communities maintained some connections to their countries of origin

Nonetheless, although the villager from India and the villager from Ireland or Italy may have been subject to the same economic laws, they were poles apart when it came to their migrant experiences. 'Before I came [to England] my mother told me not to cut off my hair,*** but I told her frankly, "Ma, they cut it off in Bombay, even before we board the ship." ' The straightforward acceptance by a Sikh immigrant that the symbols of his religion would have to go if he were to find work in British foundries and factories suggests a profoundly pragmatic attitude that was shared by most other Indian migrants—they were not going to let religion get in the way of livelihood. Contrary to the author's implicit argument in the paragraph regarding South Asian migrants' determination to integrate into British society, the migration of former colonial subjects to imperial metropoles typically resulted in

Unlike European immigrants, South Asian immigrants had to suppress parts of their culture and remove important religious symbols to fit into British society.

Nonetheless, although the villager from India and the villager from Ireland or Italy may have been subject to the same economic laws, they were poles apart when it came to their migrant experiences. 'Before I came [to England] my mother told me not to cut off my hair,*** but I told her frankly, "Ma, they cut it off in Bombay, even before we board the ship." ' The straightforward acceptance by a Sikh immigrant that the symbols of his religion would have to go if he were to find work in British foundries and factories suggests a profoundly pragmatic attitude that was shared by most other Indian migrants—they were not going to let religion get in the way of livelihood. Which of the following best explains why the author brings up the example of the Sikh migrant cutting his hair before coming to England as a way of supporting his argument that the experiences of South Asian and European immigrants to Britain were "poles apart"?

The British failure to provide mass education in India, for fear that doing so would encourage resistance against imperial rule

Poem 1 "The world calls us coolie.* Why doesn't our flag fly anywhere? How shall we survive, are we slaves forever? Why aren't we involved in politics? From the beginning we have been oppressed. Why don't we even dream of freedom? Only a handful of oppressors have taken our fields. Why has no Indian cultivator risen and protected his land? Our children cry out for want of education. Why don't we open science colleges?" *An insulting term for South or East Asian manual workers In Poem 1, the sentiments regarding education and politics are best understood in the context of which of the following?

British colonization of India

Social Darwinism was used to justify which of the following during the nineteenth century?

Source 1 emphasizes the importance of religious identities and solidarities as drivers of human behavior, whereas Source 2 emphasizes the importance of ethno-linguistic identities and solidarities as drivers of human behavior.

Source 1 "Beloved brothers in Christ, here again we should see and admire the boundless love of God toward us, that He has placed over us this great empire of the Ottomans. The Empire is a mighty obstacle to the Latin heretics in the West. By contrast, to us, the Orthodox people of the East, the Empire has been a means of salvation. For God has continued to put into the heart of the Sultan of these Ottomans an inclination to keep free the religious beliefs of our Orthodox faith and to protect us, even to the point of occasionally chastising Christians who deviate from their faith. Brothers, lately you would have heard a lot about this new system of 'liberty' originating in France. But let us examine the concept more carefully to see if it can be reconciled with good civil government and safety for the citizens. We see from the example of the French Republic that a national, democratic form of government can only provide 'liberty' if the word is taken to mean the freedom to simply act upon one's appetites and desires. But true Christian liberty, properly understood, means something quite different: to be free to live according to both divine and human laws. In other words, it is to live free to follow your conscience and free of any trouble with the authorities. Seen in this light, the new French system of liberty is a path leading to destruction, confusion, overturning of good government, or, simply speaking, a new ambush of the devil to lead us Orthodox Christians astray." Source 2 "I address you in Hungarian today* because reviving our language is like cleansing the mirror of our history, so that the flies buzzing around may not deprive us of its light. It is a sad fate for a nation to perish—especially a nation such as ours that can boast of brilliant feats and that has only sunk to its present condition through the bitter workings of fate. It is of no use to try to accept with stern philosophy, common sense, and cold blood that all men are equal in everything, that the whole human race is a single nation. No! We are national beings and we were raised with our Hungarian selves that way, so that we can never be Germans, or French, or Poles, or Spaniards. We long for glory in this life as Hungarian sons of the Hungarian nation and, in the next, we pray that the angels of the heavens may know us as Hungarians. It is time for the mind of the Hungarian nation to be clarified through a revival of our mother-tongue. How can our educated classes study the languages of Europe, if we are forgetting our own? How could we lift up our people, most of whom live in the countryside, if we cannot offer them books to read in the language they speak? What we urgently need is a group of scholars who would be paid solely to translate works from Latin, French, German, and Greek into Hungarian—this would do more good for the refinement of the country's mind than a thousand Latin and German schools." Which of the following is an accurate comparison between the views expressed in the two sources?

Source 1 rejects the ideas because of the threat they represent to multinational empires, whereas Source 2 rejects the ideas because of the universal and equalizing nature of their claims.

while the council and the bank were intended to provide benefits to all members, a small group of states were allowed to retain permanent decision-making power

Source 1 "The purposes of the new international organization should be: 1. To maintain international peace and security and take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to peace and to settle international disputes by peaceful means. 2. To develop friendly relations among nations to strengthen universal peace. 3. To achieve international cooperation in the solution of international economic, social, and other humanitarian problems. A Security Council to make decisions related to maintaining peace will be established that should consist of one representative of each of eleven members of the organization. Representatives of the United States of America, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, the Republic of China, and France, should have permanent seats." Agreement reached by the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and China, Washington D.C., 1944 Source 2 "The purposes of the new international bank are: 1. To assist collectively in the reconstruction and development of members' countries by facilitating cooperation among member states in the restoration of economies destroyed or disrupted by war and the encouragement of the development of productive facilities and resources in less developed countries. 2. To promote private foreign investment by means of guarantees or participations in loans to member countries. 3. To promote the long-range balanced growth of international trade, thereby assisting in raising productivity, the standard of living, and conditions of labor in member countries' territories. The Executive Directors shall be responsible for the conduct of the general operations of the bank, and for this purpose, shall exercise all the powers delegated to them by the Board of Governors. Five of the executive directors will be appointed by the five members having the largest number of shares in the bank. The other directors will be elected from the other member states. The purposes of the International Monetary Fund are: 1. To promote international monetary cooperation through a permanent institution that facilitates consultation and collaboration on international monetary problems. 2. To facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade." The ideas behind the establishment of the council referred to in Source 1 and the ideas behind the establishment of the bank referred to in Source 2 are most similar in that

The institution established in Source 1 was intended to prevent war, while the institutions established in Source 2 were intended to promote economic development and international trade.

Source 1 "The purposes of the new international organization should be: 1. To maintain international peace and security and take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to peace and to settle international disputes by peaceful means. 2. To develop friendly relations among nations to strengthen universal peace. 3. To achieve international cooperation in the solution of international economic, social, and other humanitarian problems. A Security Council to make decisions related to maintaining peace will be established that should consist of one representative of each of eleven members of the organization. Representatives of the United States of America, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, the Republic of China, and France, should have permanent seats." Agreement reached by the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and China, Washington D.C., 1944 Source 2 "The purposes of the new international bank are: 1. To assist collectively in the reconstruction and development of members' countries by facilitating cooperation among member states in the restoration of economies destroyed or disrupted by war and the encouragement of the development of productive facilities and resources in less developed countries. 2. To promote private foreign investment by means of guarantees or participations in loans to member countries. 3. To promote the long-range balanced growth of international trade, thereby assisting in raising productivity, the standard of living, and conditions of labor in member countries' territories. The Executive Directors shall be responsible for the conduct of the general operations of the bank, and for this purpose, shall exercise all the powers delegated to them by the Board of Governors. Five of the executive directors will be appointed by the five members having the largest number of shares in the bank. The other directors will be elected from the other member states. The purposes of the International Monetary Fund are: 1. To promote international monetary cooperation through a permanent institution that facilitates consultation and collaboration on international monetary problems. 2. To facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade." Which of the following best describes a difference between the purpose of the institution established in Source 1 and the purpose of the institutions established in Source 2 ?

The new organizations should facilitate greater international cooperation.

Source 1 "The purposes of the new international organization should be: 1. To maintain international peace and security and take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to peace and to settle international disputes by peaceful means. 2. To develop friendly relations among nations to strengthen universal peace. 3. To achieve international cooperation in the solution of international economic, social, and other humanitarian problems. A Security Council to make decisions related to maintaining peace will be established that should consist of one representative of each of eleven members of the organization. Representatives of the United States of America, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, the Republic of China, and France, should have permanent seats." Agreement reached by the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and China, Washington D.C., 1944 Source 2 "The purposes of the new international bank are: 1. To assist collectively in the reconstruction and development of members' countries by facilitating cooperation among member states in the restoration of economies destroyed or disrupted by war and the encouragement of the development of productive facilities and resources in less developed countries. 2. To promote private foreign investment by means of guarantees or participations in loans to member countries. 3. To promote the long-range balanced growth of international trade, thereby assisting in raising productivity, the standard of living, and conditions of labor in member countries' territories. The Executive Directors shall be responsible for the conduct of the general operations of the bank, and for this purpose, shall exercise all the powers delegated to them by the Board of Governors. Five of the executive directors will be appointed by the five members having the largest number of shares in the bank. The other directors will be elected from the other member states. The purposes of the International Monetary Fund are: 1. To promote international monetary cooperation through a permanent institution that facilitates consultation and collaboration on international monetary problems. 2. To facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade." Which of the following best describes a main idea common to both passages?

Electricity, steel, and chemicals

The "second Industrial Revolution" in the last half of the nineteenth century was associated with the mass production of which of the following groups of products?

Revolutionary demands based on Enlightenment political ideas

The North and South American independence movements of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries shared which of the following?

resettling Partition refugees led to an economic crisis in rural Punjab, leading to further population movements

The Partition of India in 1947 had a profound effect on Indian emigration to Britain. During the Partition, in Punjab alone . . . over 5 million Muslims fled or were forced to go, on trains, ox-cart and by foot, from India to West Punjab in Pakistan. Over 3 million Hindus and Sikhs escaped the other way, to settle in East Punjab. But the population transfer was carried out with terrible violence and slaughter . . . as religious communities took revenge on one another. Refugees flooded into Delhi, others tried to settle on newly divided parcels of land on both sides of the border. But the influx of newcomers also meant that the landholdings of residents already settled in East Punjab had to be sliced up, into smaller and smaller pieces, with the new parcels averaging as little as two and a half acres in some places. Punjabis had been shaken loose from their land and . . . for those of them on both sides of the border who decided to move on from this precarious existence, England was merely the last in a series of migrations." The argument regarding the connection between the Partition of India in 1947 and Punjabi migrations to Britain in the 1950s is most directly supported by the author's claim that

Britain had large reserves of coal.

The industrialization of Great Britain's economy in the mid-eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries is most directly explained by which of the following?

Women taking on new roles that had been formerly occupied by men

The man's wealth filled my mind with the idea that I, too, would like to go to the country of the wizards and gain some of their wealth. After a long time, my father gave me his blessing and my mother took leave of me with tears. My father gave me some money and I went with five other boys from our village to take a steamship from Hong Kong. The engines that moved the ship were wonderful monsters, strong enough to lift mountains. On a global scale, the gender makeup of the migrants best helps to explain which of the following social changes in home societies in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries?

the high likelihood that increasing longevity would lead to an increase in overall healthcare costs

The weak progress in China in the first half of the century, 1900-1950, was undoubtedly related to the political chaos, foreign invasion, and civil war that characterized China's history in that period. On the other hand, the marked acceleration in health care improvements in the second half of the century, 1950-2000, was achieved due to political stability and strong government commitment to equitable health policies. While not dismissing the usefulness of traditional Chinese medicine, there is strong evidence that the application of modern medical science through hospitals and field-based health-systems operated by well-trained health professionals has a major impact on health outcomes. Social factors are also at work, perhaps the most important of these being the development of universal literacy and the increase in gender equality." The authors' argument in the paragraph concerning the effect of "social factors" on the effectiveness of a country's healthcare system likely refers to all of the following general trends in the twentieth century EXCEPT

The movements to reform countries' political systems by expanding the franchise

This consciousness of wrong has produced in many enthusiastic but unbalanced minds a desire to make all things right by pursuing equality. But any careful observer of our society, or any student of our history has to admit that, as unjust as it may seem, inequality is part of the natural order of things. You can make all men equal today, but God has so created them that they shall become unequal again tomorrow. The very word 'equality' presents to the imaginations of men ideas of communism, of ruin, and insane democracy. Instead of obsessing about equality, we should be working toward reducing inequalities—provided, of course, that we do so gradually and without any sudden disruption of society." Trollope's characterization of democracy can best be seen as a direct reference to which aspect of the historical situation in the late nineteenth century?

The French Revolution has advanced the principles of Enlightenment.

Thus developed an understanding that the natural rights of man are inalienable and cannot be forfeited and a strongly expressed desire for freedom of thought, trade, and profession. There also developed a desire to alleviate people's suffering, to eliminate all criminal laws against political dissenters, and to abolish torture. A desire arose for a milder system of criminal legislation that could give complete security to the innocent. All of these principles gradually filtered down from philosophical works to every class of society whose education went beyond basic literacy. These principles became the common faith of all people." Which of the following is an implicit claim that the author makes

The difference between the economic effects of direct and indirect imperialism

To be sure, the immense productivity of English textile workers from the early nineteenth century on made this branch of British industry superior to all of its former competitors, colonial and noncolonial alike. But while other countries could shield themselves from this danger by introducing protectionist tariffs, such protection did not exist in the British colonies. So here, in the case of the destruction of Indian textile industry, we see the importance of the colonial situation, namely the colonies' political dependence on the West, in arresting their economic development." Wesseling's argument in the paragraph best illustrates which of the following important distinctions within the practice of imperialism in the nineteenth century?

Together with access to coal deposits, which environmental factor most directly contributed to Great Britain's early industrialization?

a means for integrating economic activities in regional and national markets

Waterways such as canals and rivers were important in the process of early industrialization because they provided

An unprecedented amount of territory colonized in a short period of time

Which of the following best characterizes Western imperialist expansion in the late nineteenth century?

They started a process that eventually led to a communist revolution.

Which of the following best characterizes the significance of the events in Russia in the winter of 1917?

The increased presence of Asian indentured servants on Hawaiian plantations

Which of the following best explains the changes in the population of the Hawaiian Islands from 1872 to 1878 ?

The increased supply of inexpensive consumer goods

Which of the following best explains the general increase in the living standards of industrial workers between 1800 and 1914 ?

The factory system concentrated production in relatively few locations, and the new transportation infrastructure allowed more goods and people to reach these locations in less time.

Which of the following best summarizes the way in which the development of the factory system and the development of new transportation infrastructure such as railways worked together as factors facilitating British industrialization?

Significant increases in demand for fossil fuels for industrial uses

Which of the following best supports the argument that the last three decades of the nineteenth century were a turning point in world history?

India

Which of the following countries or regions led the world in the production of cotton cloth in 1700?

Greater dependence on foreign markets by Africans and Latin Americans

Which of the following describes the major impact of the introduction of coffee growing in places like Kenya and El Salvador after 1880 ?

The threat of the use of nuclear weapons

Which of the following developments in the period after 1945 most directly prevented localized conflicts from escalating into global wars?

The proliferation of Cold War proxy conflicts

Which of the following developments or processes in the late twentieth century best explains the participation of foreign troops in the Angolan Civil War

Both were attracted by employment opportunities.

Which of the following is a similarity between European and Asian immigrants to the Americas during the nineteenth century?

China effectively lost its economic independence to Europe as a result of military losses to European forces.

Which of the following most accurately describes the interactions between China and Europe in the nineteenth century?

Because less labor was needed on farms, more people moved to urban areas to work in factories.

Which of the following most directly explains the importance of improved agricultural productivity to the industrialization of economic production in western Europe in the period 1750-1900 ?

An increased use of slave labor within Africa

Which of the following occurred in nineteenth-century Africa as a result of the end of the transatlantic slave trade?

Resistance to preserve traditional political structures threatened by direct European territorial expansion

You say that you are sorry that I do not accept German protection and do not pledge my allegiance to the German emperor. Here is my answer: I have never in my life seen the German emperor and I am sure he has never seen me. Therefore, I could not have possibly hurt him. God has made us both rulers in different parts of the world. I don't think that one can call someone guilty if he wants to remain an independent ruler over his land and his people. If you intend now to have me killed because of my love of independence, this is not shame or harm. If I have to die, I shall do so as an honest man defending my property and my rights." Witbooi's perspective is historically significant because it most directly illustrates which of the following rationales for African people resisting European imperial encroachment?

low probability that armed resistance would be successful because of the military advantages of Europeans

You say that you are sorry that I do not accept German protection and do not pledge my allegiance to the German emperor. Here is my answer: I have never in my life seen the German emperor and I am sure he has never seen me. Therefore, I could not have possibly hurt him. God has made us both rulers in different parts of the world. I don't think that one can call someone guilty if he wants to remain an independent ruler over his land and his people. If you intend now to have me killed because of my love of independence, this is not shame or harm. If I have to die, I shall do so as an honest man defending my property and my rights." Witbooi's statement in the paragraph that he would likely be killed in the process of resisting the Germans is historically significant because it shows that Africans understood the

Imperialism

"Again, another marked characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon is what may be called an instinct or genius for colonizing. His unequaled energy, his indomitable perseverance, and his personal independence, made him a pioneer. He excels all others in pushing his way into new countries." The sentiments expressed in the quotation above are most supportive of which of the following concepts?

Sufficient wages for factory workers to live full, comfortable lives

"Eight hours' daily labour is enough for any human being, and under proper arrangements sufficient to afford an ample supply of food, raiment and shelter, or the necessaries and comforts of life, and for the remainder of his time, every person is entitled to education, recreation and sleep." The excerpt above emphasizes which of the following solutions to the exploitation of industrial laborers?

European colonizers' claim that their rule had improved life in the colonies

"Every denial of justice, every beating by the police, every demand of [colonial] workers that is drowned in blood, every scandal that is hushed up, every punitive expedition . . . brings home to us the value of our old societies. They were communal societies, never societies of the many for the few. They were societies that were not only pre-capitalist, but also anti-capitalist. They were democratic societies, always. They were cooperative societies, fraternal societies. I make a systematic defense of the societies destroyed by imperialism." Césaire's statement above was most likely made in response to

Exemption of foreigners from the laws of the country in which they live

"Extraterritoriality" can best be described as which of the following?

The British wished to extract more raw materials for their domestic industry.

"It is not too much to hope that, with the building of a branch railway to this region, European piece goods might be imported so as to undersell the native cloth. And the effect would be that not only would a larger supply of the raw material be obtained—for the cotton that is now spun into yarn in Berar would be exported—but also the large local population now employed in spinning and weaving would be made available for agricultural labor, and thus the jungle land might be broken up and the cultivation extended." Which of the following best explains the motivation behind the policy outlined in the passage?

The development of steam-powered ships made it easier and safer for people to cross the oceans.

"Italians establish everywhere in Argentina the types of businesses in which they are employed in Italy: a pasta factory, a distillery, a sawmill, a lime furnace. Indeed, our compatriots engage in all types of industries and trades. Some are money brokers, some are blacksmiths, some are jewelers, some build houses, some are mechanics, and some are mill owners. In the rural districts, many people engage in multiple trades. Our immigrants in these areas might at once be a blacksmith and a shoemaker, a cook and a tailor, or a porter and a bricklayer. Our immigrants are willing, gracious, happy, and always trusting in a better future." Which of the following best explains why transoceanic migration increased significantly in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries?

The application of Enlightenment ideas

"Liberty and justice consist of restoring all that belongs to others; thus, the only limits on the exercise of the natural rights of woman are perpetual male tyranny; these limits are to be reformed by the laws of nature and reason." The passage above is an example of which of the following processes occurring in the eighteenth century?

After a brief period of supporting the war effort, the Indian National Congress continued its anti-imperialist agitation, with Gandhi launching a Quit India campaign in 1942.

"Many years later [Prime Minister] Clement Attlee wrote that, if someone asked him, 'What exactly, did Winston [Churchill] do to win the war?' he would have to say 'talk about it.' Edward R. Murrow, the American news correspondent, said much the same thing when he wrote of Churchill's mobilization of words. The effect of his speeches to the nation on British morale is incalculable and can be described, without hyperbole, as transforming. . . . Churchill's words also gripped the attention—as they were meant to—of both politicians and people in the United States and anywhere else that an English-speaking population had access to them. They seriously irritated the Nazis and arguably contributed to Hitler making ill-advised strategic decisions such as switching [German] bombing raids in Britain from airfields to civilian centers. . . . [The speeches themselves] were the first great battle of the Second World War, fought and won, not with Hurricanes* and Spitfires* but with words, passion, and history. . . . In the year that followed the German invasion of France [in May 1940], there was overwhelming evidence of a new-found British social cohesiveness and mutual loyalty. The complete isolation of Britain, fighting on alone, which Hitler not unreasonably assumed would make it a soft target, had precisely the reverse effect. Churchill turned on the 'island nation' rhetoric, and the British people across all classes, with very few exceptions, echoed him. . . . It is impossible not to be struck by the degree to which Britain, which had been such a divided society between the wars, managed to pull together when it mattered most. . . . The unions and employers, so bitterly at odds for so long, now worked together . . . so that no undue [government] pressure needed to be applied to have factories, many of them, of course, staffed by women, working 24 hours a day, seven days a week. The collaborative push made a critical difference to the production of munitions in general, but especially of war planes, which in turn made the difference between winning and losing the Battle of Britain." All of the following statements are factually accurate. Which could be most directly used to modify Schama's argument that the war provided "overwhelming evidence of a new-found British social cohesiveness and mutual loyalty"?

He wanted to support his argument that Britons were completely mobilized for the war effort.

"Many years later [Prime Minister] Clement Attlee wrote that, if someone asked him, 'What exactly, did Winston [Churchill] do to win the war?' he would have to say 'talk about it.' Edward R. Murrow, the American news correspondent, said much the same thing when he wrote of Churchill's mobilization of words. The effect of his speeches to the nation on British morale is incalculable and can be described, without hyperbole, as transforming. . . . Churchill's words also gripped the attention—as they were meant to—of both politicians and people in the United States and anywhere else that an English-speaking population had access to them. They seriously irritated the Nazis and arguably contributed to Hitler making ill-advised strategic decisions such as switching [German] bombing raids in Britain from airfields to civilian centers. . . . [The speeches themselves] were the first great battle of the Second World War, fought and won, not with Hurricanes* and Spitfires* but with words, passion, and history. . . . In the year that followed the German invasion of France [in May 1940], there was overwhelming evidence of a new-found British social cohesiveness and mutual loyalty. The complete isolation of Britain, fighting on alone, which Hitler not unreasonably assumed would make it a soft target, had precisely the reverse effect. Churchill turned on the 'island nation' rhetoric, and the British people across all classes, with very few exceptions, echoed him. . . . It is impossible not to be struck by the degree to which Britain, which had been such a divided society between the wars, managed to pull together when it mattered most. . . . The unions and employers, so bitterly at odds for so long, now worked together . . . so that no undue [government] pressure needed to be applied to have factories, many of them, of course, staffed by women, working 24 hours a day, seven days a week. The collaborative push made a critical difference to the production of munitions in general, but especially of war planes, which in turn made the difference between winning and losing the Battle of Britain." Which of the following best explains why Schama uses the claim that the British government did not have to apply any "undue pressure" on either factory owners or factory workers during the war?

New mass media such as radio greatly expanded the reach of governments' mobilization efforts.

The increase in millenarian movements in the nineteenth century

"The [Qing] government sponsored a number of projects designed to bolster the navy. The idea was to adopt Western technology but not the values and philosophies that produced it—China would learn from the West, equal it, and then surpass it." The philosophy behind the late-nineteenth-century Chinese policy mentioned above was part of which of the following?

The development of rival economic theories differing with respect to their views of free trade

Data on migration of rural populations to urban areas

A historian researching factors that contributed to the rise of industrial production in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries would find which of the following types of sources most helpful?

Fossil fuels

Adoption of which of the following power sources has contributed the most to increasing the energy available to humans?

Religion has been a force holding back the progress of humanity.

At last, man could proclaim his rights out loud, rights that for so long had been ignored. He could submit all opinions to his own reason and use that reason to search for truth. Every man learned with pride that nature had not forever condemned him to base his beliefs on the opinions of others or the superstitions of antiquity. Which of the following is an implicit claim that the author makes

The political independence of colonies in both North and South America

By 1830 revolutions in the Atlantic world resulted in which of the following changes?

The Japanese emperor

During the eighteenth century, which of the following reigned, but did not rule?

The decline of the Indian textile industry's share of global manufacturing

Many historians have argued that by the late nineteenth century the industrialized nations of Europe had achieved global economic dominance more through force and coercion than through the superiority of their industrial products. Which of the following nineteenth-century developments would best support this contention?

the Industrial Revolution

Most world historians would agree that the key to European predominance in the world economy during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was

Neither Source 1 nor Source 2 explicitly supports the idea.

Gift gathering for women back home

Source 1: "Wartime travel brought soldiers and carriers into contact with foreign ways of life, resulting in cultural exchange. . . . There is evidence also of Hausa [a West African people] 'experiments in architecture of grass and bamboo construction' while the troops were in East Africa, as well as enthusiasm for gathering souvenirs such as cowries and other East African shells 'with the intention of presenting necklaces and waist belts to their women folk.' . . . . Contact with European science and technology was another factor that contributed to change in Nigeria. Before the war, the men know only the casual, nature-oriented time-sense of the village; army life taught them a new concept of punctuality, compatible with reveille, parades, drills, and deadlines. Many Nigerians took their first ride on a train and saw their first car, aeroplane, and motion picture. Large numbers learned to shoot and care for modern weapons—not only rifles, but machine-guns and artillery. Also, soldiers learned basic hygiene, water sterilization, and other methods of disease control and health care. Thousands of Nigerians received their first vaccination and took their first pill during the war." Which of the following does the author of Source 1 NOT cite as evidence of European science and technology contributing to cultural change in Nigeria?

The casualty rate after July 1916

Source 2: "African deaths in combat can be contrasted with those suffered by the French using a variety of standards. As a percentage of all the soldiers mobilized during the war, Senegalese losses were slightly less than those incurred by the French. The picture changes significantly, however, when only combatants are considered. Using this criterion, Senegalese losses were nearly 20 per cent higher than those sustained by their French counterparts. . . . African soldiers seldom served in the cavalry, artillery, engineering and aviation units, where casualties were substantially lower. . . . If only infantry fatalities are considered, . . . French and African losses between 1914 and 1918 were virtually identical: they amounted to slightly over 22 per cent in both cases. . . . This interpretation . . . neglects, however, to consider [that] . . . the Senegalese were not employed in significant numbers as combatants in Europe before July 1916. Prior to this time, African losses accounted for less than 10 per cent of their eventual wartime total, . . . it was precisely because of the staggering dimensions of French losses during the first 22 months of the war . . . that resistance to the massive recruitment of West Africans and their deployment on the Western Front was overcome. If the time factor is taken into consideration, a very different picture begins to emerge. It indicates that during the last two-and-a-half years of the war, Senegalese casualties in Europe were approximately twice as high as those suffered by French infantry combatants." Which of the following does the author of Source 2 most directly cite as evidence of a higher casualty rate among Senegalese soldiers in combat than among French soldiers in combat?

The promotion of rapid industrialization

The policies of the Meiji reformers brought about which of the following in Japan?

The creation of a wage-earning working class concentrated in urban areas

Which of the following was a widespread social consequence of industrialization in the 1800s?

Increased demand for commodities such as cotton and palm oil

Which of the following was among the first results of the European Industrial Revolution in other parts of the world?

Extremist groups using propaganda to target specific minority populations

"1. Every Hutu should know that a Tutsi woman, wherever she is, works for the interest of her ethnic Tutsi group. Consequently, we should consider a traitor every Hutu who marries a Tutsi woman, befriends a Tutsi woman, or employs a Tutsi woman as a secretary. 2. Every Hutu should know that our Hutu daughters are more suitable and dutiful in their roles as women, wives, and mothers of the family. . . . 4. Every Hutu should know that every Tutsi is dishonest in business. Their only aim is supremacy for their ethnic minority group. As a consequence, every Hutu is a traitor who makes a business partnership with a Tutsi, invests his money in a Tutsi enterprise, lends money to a Tutsi, or gives business favors to a Tutsi. 5. All strategic posts, political, administrative, economic, military, and those in the area of security, should be entrusted to the Hutu. 6. The majority of the education sector must be Hutu. 7. The Rwandan armed forces should be exclusively Hutu. No member of the military should marry a Tutsi. 8. The Hutu should stop having mercy on the Tutsi." The "Hutu Ten Commandments" is best explained as being part of which of the following continuities in twentieth-century history?

The role of British imperial policy in reversing the development of Indian textile manufacturing

Chinese leaders had made it clear that meeting the goals of the Great Leap Forward was the highest priority facing the country.

"Iron smelting and steel making in the Shaoyang region of Hunan province are rapidly developing on a mass scale. In a short period in the fall of 1958, 12,378 local blast furnaces have been built in this area. The main reason for this remarkable progress in such a short time is that this region has fully carried out the Communist Party's directive to let all the people work in iron and steel production, in keeping with the party's general plan of building socialism. Iron and steel production is not simply a technical job; it is also a political task. Therefore, the first condition for the rapid increase in production was for local party leaders to have the entire party membership mobilized. When the current push to increase production began, many 'experts' wanted to have big foreign blast furnaces. They were not interested in building small local furnaces. They thought we should wait until we've had the opportunity to buy elaborate equipment. Actually, that line of thinking would have resulted in producing less, more slowly, and more expensively. Under the timely guidance of the Party, those tendencies were firmly rejected and the policy of throwing all resources into iron and steel production and letting political cadres take charge was carried out. The strength of the masses is tremendous. All the problems of funds, raw materials, equipment, provisions, etc., which in the past seemed so hard to solve, disappeared before the resourcefulness of the people. In one Hunan county, 67,000 people worked non-stop for three days and nights and built 1025 blast furnaces. Many people, hearing the Party's call, walked over 30 miles to join the work, carrying timber and bamboo and their own food and clothes. In the town of Szetu, local people collected more than 1.6 million yuan [Chinese unit of currency] for the iron and steel effort, with one 50-year-old woman contributing more than 200 yuan, her life savings. Shoemakers donated more than 180,000 pairs of sandals for those building the furnaces. In the town of Tienping, the people solved the housing crisis [of furnace workers coming to the town but not having a place to sleep] by vacating more than 500 rooms in their houses and turning them over to the workers. The people also composed the following song: The Communist Party is really wonderful. In three days more than a thousand furnaces were built. The American imperialists will run off, tails between legs. The Chinese people will now surpass Britain. The East wind will always prevail over the West wind." Which of the following aspects of the immediate historical situation in China in 1958 best explains the author's perspective in the passage?

As a government official, the author would have felt compelled to overstate the success of communist policies of resource redistribution to demonstrate his loyalty to the party.

"Iron smelting and steel making in the Shaoyang region of Hunan province are rapidly developing on a mass scale. In a short period in the fall of 1958, 12,378 local blast furnaces have been built in this area. The main reason for this remarkable progress in such a short time is that this region has fully carried out the Communist Party's directive to let all the people work in iron and steel production, in keeping with the party's general plan of building socialism. Iron and steel production is not simply a technical job; it is also a political task. Therefore, the first condition for the rapid increase in production was for local party leaders to have the entire party membership mobilized. When the current push to increase production began, many 'experts' wanted to have big foreign blast furnaces. They were not interested in building small local furnaces. They thought we should wait until we've had the opportunity to buy elaborate equipment. Actually, that line of thinking would have resulted in producing less, more slowly, and more expensively. Under the timely guidance of the Party, those tendencies were firmly rejected and the policy of throwing all resources into iron and steel production and letting political cadres take charge was carried out. The strength of the masses is tremendous. All the problems of funds, raw materials, equipment, provisions, etc., which in the past seemed so hard to solve, disappeared before the resourcefulness of the people. In one Hunan county, 67,000 people worked non-stop for three days and nights and built 1025 blast furnaces. Many people, hearing the Party's call, walked over 30 miles to join the work, carrying timber and bamboo and their own food and clothes. In the town of Szetu, local people collected more than 1.6 million yuan [Chinese unit of currency] for the iron and steel effort, with one 50-year-old woman contributing more than 200 yuan, her life savings. Shoemakers donated more than 180,000 pairs of sandals for those building the furnaces. In the town of Tienping, the people solved the housing crisis [of furnace workers coming to the town but not having a place to sleep] by vacating more than 500 rooms in their houses and turning them over to the workers. The people also composed the following song: The Communist Party is really wonderful. In three days more than a thousand furnaces were built. The American imperialists will run off, tails between legs. The Chinese people will now surpass Britain. The East wind will always prevail over the West wind." Which of the following best explains why the passage is likely NOT a reliable source of information regarding the level of popular support and enthusiasm for the Chinese government's push for iron and steel in 1958?

To offer a vision of Mexican history that could be used as a basis for nation building

"Spirits of Moctezuma, Cuauhtémoc and other Aztec heroes, as once you celebrated that feast before being slaughtered by the treacherous sword of the Spanish conquistadors, so now celebrate this happy moment in which your sons have united to avenge the crimes and outrages committed against you, and to free themselves from the claws of [Spanish] tyranny and fanaticism. To the 12th of August 1521—the day that the chains of our serfdom were fastened—there now succeeds the 14th of September 1813—when these chains are broken forever." Judging from the excerpt above, which of the following was the main purpose of Morelos' speech?

The provisions of the Treaty of Versailles that ended the First World War

The increases in agricultural productivity that freed up laborers for work in factories

"There is no town in the world where the distance between the rich and the poor is so great, or the barrier between them so difficult to be crossed. The separation between the different classes, and the consequent ignorance of each other's habits and condition, are far more complete in this place than in any other country in Europe, or even in the rural areas of Britain. There is far less personal communication between the master cotton spinner and his workmen and between the master tailor and his apprentices than there is between the Duke of Wellington and the humblest laborer of his estate, or than there was between King George III and the lowliest errand boy in his palace. I mean this not as a matter of blame, but I state it simply as a fact." The rapid growth of nineteenth-century industrial cities such as Manchester is best understood in the context of which of the following economic developments?

Passing reforms designed to improve the conditions of industrial workers

"Without a revolutionary theory there can be no revolutionary movement. The role of vanguard fighter can be fulfilled only by a party that is guided by the most advanced theory. We have said that there could not have been Social-Democratic consciousness among the workers. It could only be brought to them from without. The history of all countries shows that the working class, exclusively by its own effort, is able to develop only trade union consciousness, i.e., the conviction that it is necessary to combine in unions, fight the employers, and strive to compel the government to pass necessary labor legislation. The theory of socialism, however, grew out of the philosophic, historical, and economic theories elaborated by educated representatives of the propertied classes, the intellectuals. Our worst sin with regard to organization is that by our amateurishness we have lowered the prestige of revolutionaries in Russia." In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, some governments responded to the growing popularity of ideas such as the ones expressed in the passage by doing which of the following?

The concept of the civilizing mission

But one hundred years ago, in its forward march to the south, to its natural borders, reclaiming the right to its ancient lands, our empire took possession of the Crimea and restored it to its ancient state of enlightenment and peace. In the past one hundred years, many cities in the European style were built, ports were opened, good roads were constructed and, most importantly, numerous educational institutions were established that spread the light of knowledge and science among the Muslim Crimean Tatars who, until now, had dwelled in ignorance. In Crimea arrived the happiest of days!" In its description of the condition of the Crimean Tatars, the paragraph most directly provides evidence of the influence of which of the following?

An increase in the number of Indian women engaging in occupations that had formerly been held by men

Considering global trends in late-nineteenth-century migration movements, the specific migrations most likely contributed to which of the following social or political changes in India?

Government officials

Members of which of the following groups led opposition to industrialization in both Qing China and the Ottoman Empire?

challenged monarchical governments

One important similarity between the American Revolution and the French Revolution is that they both

the United States and Russia

Slavery and serfdom were abolished in the 1860s in

The role of the desire for natural rights in independence movements

Some historians have argued that the Haitian Revolution (1791—1804) marks the beginning of the process of decolonization that culminated in the dissolution of European colonial empires after the Second World War. Historians who take this position are likely to place the greatest emphasis on the importance of which of the following in the decolonization process?

the Industrial Revolution

The changes in the distribution of cities in the period 1800 to 1900 C.E. best illustrate the impact of

The greater degree of labor specialization

The development of the factory system most directly explains which of the following characteristics of the Industrial Revolution in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries?

Social Darwinism

They are fundamentally incapable of giving way to each other. Hence, glowering and poised for a fight, they have engaged in battle in the world of evolution, the great arena where strength and intelligence have clashed since earliest times, the great theater where for so long natural selection and progress have been played out." The quotation above by an early-twentieth-century Chinese revolutionary illustrates the influence of

Socialists

This consciousness of wrong has produced in many enthusiastic but unbalanced minds a desire to make all things right by pursuing equality. But any careful observer of our society, or any student of our history has to admit that, as unjust as it may seem, inequality is part of the natural order of things. You can make all men equal today, but God has so created them that they shall become unequal again tomorrow. The very word 'equality' presents to the imaginations of men ideas of communism, of ruin, and insane democracy. Instead of obsessing about equality, we should be working toward reducing inequalities—provided, of course, that we do so gradually and without any sudden disruption of society." Trollope's arguments are most clearly intended to offer an alternative to the arguments made by which late nineteenth-century group?

The increased number of women in the workforce

Which of the following was a major factor that contributed to changes in family dynamics in both Great Britain and Japan during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries?

It became the basis of various theories asserting that Europeans were naturally superior to other peoples.

Which of the following was a major unintended effect of the publication of Charles Darwin's 1859 work On the Origin of Species?

The Tutsi were heavily favored and promoted to positions of power under European colonial rule, while the Hutu were not.

"1. Every Hutu should know that a Tutsi woman, wherever she is, works for the interest of her ethnic Tutsi group. Consequently, we should consider a traitor every Hutu who marries a Tutsi woman, befriends a Tutsi woman, or employs a Tutsi woman as a secretary. 2. Every Hutu should know that our Hutu daughters are more suitable and dutiful in their roles as women, wives, and mothers of the family. . . . 4. Every Hutu should know that every Tutsi is dishonest in business. Their only aim is supremacy for their ethnic minority group. As a consequence, every Hutu is a traitor who makes a business partnership with a Tutsi, invests his money in a Tutsi enterprise, lends money to a Tutsi, or gives business favors to a Tutsi. 5. All strategic posts, political, administrative, economic, military, and those in the area of security, should be entrusted to the Hutu. 6. The majority of the education sector must be Hutu. 7. The Rwandan armed forces should be exclusively Hutu. No member of the military should marry a Tutsi. 8. The Hutu should stop having mercy on the Tutsi." All of the following statements about the Hutu and Tutsi ethnic groups in Rwanda are factually accurate. Which would best explain how the attitudes expressed in the "Hutu Ten Commandments" were a reaction to past developments in Rwandan history?

Both the Tutsi and Jews were persecuted based on ethnic prejudice.

"1. Every Hutu should know that a Tutsi woman, wherever she is, works for the interest of her ethnic Tutsi group. Consequently, we should consider a traitor every Hutu who marries a Tutsi woman, befriends a Tutsi woman, or employs a Tutsi woman as a secretary. 2. Every Hutu should know that our Hutu daughters are more suitable and dutiful in their roles as women, wives, and mothers of the family. . . . 4. Every Hutu should know that every Tutsi is dishonest in business. Their only aim is supremacy for their ethnic minority group. As a consequence, every Hutu is a traitor who makes a business partnership with a Tutsi, invests his money in a Tutsi enterprise, lends money to a Tutsi, or gives business favors to a Tutsi. 5. All strategic posts, political, administrative, economic, military, and those in the area of security, should be entrusted to the Hutu. 6. The majority of the education sector must be Hutu. 7. The Rwandan armed forces should be exclusively Hutu. No member of the military should marry a Tutsi. 8. The Hutu should stop having mercy on the Tutsi." Which of the following best explains the similarity between Hutu views of the Tutsi in the "Hutu Ten Commandments" and the treatment of Jews in Nazi Germany?

People have natural rights that can be established through rational inquiry.

"After long periods of error, philosophers have at last discovered the true rights of man and how they can all be deduced from the single truth: that man is a perceptive being capable of reason and acquiring moral ideas. At last, man could proclaim his rights out loud, rights that for so long had been ignored. He could submit all opinions to his own reason and use that reason to search for truth. Every man learned with pride that nature had not forever condemned him to base his beliefs on the opinions of others or the superstitions of antiquity. Thus developed an understanding that the natural rights of man are inalienable and cannot be forfeited and a strongly expressed desire for freedom of thought, trade, and profession. There also developed a desire to alleviate people's suffering, to eliminate all criminal laws against political dissenters, and to abolish torture. A desire arose for a milder system of criminal legislation that could give complete security to the innocent. All of these principles gradually filtered down from philosophical works to every class of society whose education went beyond basic literacy. These principles became the common faith of all people." Which of the following is the main claim that the author makes in the passage?

The increasing growth of European empires

"All the world knows that since the first days of the Ottoman state, the lofty principles of the Qur'an and the rules of the Shari'a were always perfectly preserved. Our mighty sultanate reached the highest degree of strength and power, and all its subjects reached the highest degree of ease and prosperity. But in the last one hundred and fifty years, because of a succession of difficult and diverse causes, the sacred Shari'a was not obeyed nor were the beneficent regulations followed; consequently, the empire's former strength and prosperity have changed into weakness and poverty. It is evident that countries not governed by the Shari'a cannot survive. . . . Full of confidence in the help of the God, and certain of the support of our Prophet, we deem it necessary and important from now on to introduce new legislation in order to achieve effective administration of the Ottoman government and provinces." The changes in Ottoman status alluded to in the passage were most directly the result of which of the following?

Bolívar rejected Spanish mercantilist policies that restricted free trade in Latin America.

"Americans today . . . who live within the Spanish system occupy a position in society no better than that of serfs destined for labor, or at best they have no more status than that of mere consumers. Yet even this status is surrounded with galling restrictions, such as being forbidden to grow European crops, or to store products which are royal monopolies, or to establish factories of a type the Peninsula itself does not possess. To this add the exclusive trading privileges, even in articles of prime necessity, and the barriers between American provinces, designed to prevent all exchange of trade, traffic, and understanding." The quotation above best supports which of the following conclusions about the author's motives for resistance to Spanish colonial rule in Latin America?

Development of nationalism

"And God gave unto the Polish kings and knights freedom, that all might be brothers, both the richest and the poorest. The king and the men of knightly rank received into their brotherhood still more people.... And the number of brothers became as great as a nation, and in no nation were there so many people free and calling each other brothers as in Poland." The passage above best reflects which of the following?

The imposition of free-trade regimes on countries such as China, the Ottoman Empire, and Latin American countries through military or diplomatic pressure from Western countries

"By 1830 an English textile worker was already producing with his mechanical spinning machine 350 to 400 times as much yarn per hour as an Indian craftsman with his traditional spinning wheel. The consequences for Indian textile production were fatal. In 1814 India imported one million meters of English textiles, in 1820 it imported 13 million and in 1890 more than two billion. British rule in India gave the British manufacturers free rein and made the protection of indigenous producers impossible. It stands to reason that Karl Marx condemned the driving force behind British expansion in India by calling it the 'millocracy' [meaning rule by the owners of textile mills]. . . . To be sure, the immense productivity of English textile workers from the early nineteenth century on made this branch of British industry superior to all of its former competitors, colonial and noncolonial alike. But while other countries could shield themselves from this danger by introducing protectionist tariffs, such protection did not exist in the British colonies. So here, in the case of the destruction of Indian textile industry, we see the importance of the colonial situation, namely the colonies' political dependence on the West, in arresting their economic development." Which other process in the mid to late nineteenth century most directly led to situations in which non-Western countries found it very difficult to protect their indigenous industries from Western competition, as described in the passage?

Many Marxists criticized imperialism for arresting the economic development of the colonies and reducing them to mere raw material export economies, and Wesseling appears to agree with that criticism.

The development of new methods of production during the second industrial revolution

"By the end of the nineteenth century, Germany had advanced beyond Britain in terms of economic output. The prime reason for this development was that Germany developed newer industries, while Britain continued to stress textile production. Formerly an agricultural country, the German Empire has come to be regarded as one of the leading industrial nations of the world and, in the chemical industries, Germany has for some time occupied a leading place. One of the most successful chemical and pharmaceutical firms in Germany is the Bayer company. Bayer employs 3,500 people alone at its plant in Leverkusen,* and the factory is so gigantic that all of these people are barely noticed when a visitor tours it. The laboratories are arranged very much in the same manner as the university laboratories in Britain. Each workstation receives a supply of electricity, compressed air, steam, and hot and cold water. The research chemists are paid a salary of about 100 British pounds for the first year. If a chemist has shown himself to be useful in his first year, he may receive a longer contract and may receive royalties on any processes that he invented." The emergence of the German industries referred to in the passage is most directly explained by which of the following processes in the nineteenth century?

Nationalist movements

"Compatriots throughout the country! We have made concessions for peace during our negotiations with the French to end the war.* But the more concessions we made, the more the French colonialists were determined to maintain their control over Vietnam despite their promises. No! We would rather sacrifice everything than lose our country and return to slavery. Compatriots! Rise up! Men and women, old and young, regardless of religion, political parties, or nationalities, all the Vietnamese must stand up to fight the French colonialists to save the Fatherland. Those who have rifles must use their rifles. Those who have swords must use their swords. Those who have no swords must use their spades, hoes, and sticks. Everyone must endeavor to oppose the colonialists and save their country. Soldiers, self-defense guards, militiamen! The hour of national liberation has struck! We must sacrifice to our last drop of blood to save our country. We must be ready to endure any hardship. With the determination to sacrifice, victory will be ours! Long live an independent and unified Vietnam! Long live the victorious resistance!" *In 1945 Ho Chi Minh proclaimed an independent republic of Vietnam and war with France broke out in 1946. As portrayed by Ho Chi Minh in the passage, the Vietnamese independence movement appears most similar to which of the following types of nineteenth-century and early-twentieth-century movements?

Vietnam gained its independence through a violent uprising rather than a negotiated settlement.

"Compatriots throughout the country! We have made concessions for peace during our negotiations with the French to end the war.* But the more concessions we made, the more the French colonialists were determined to maintain their control over Vietnam despite their promises. No! We would rather sacrifice everything than lose our country and return to slavery. Compatriots! Rise up! Men and women, old and young, regardless of religion, political parties, or nationalities, all the Vietnamese must stand up to fight the French colonialists to save the Fatherland. Those who have rifles must use their rifles. Those who have swords must use their swords. Those who have no swords must use their spades, hoes, and sticks. Everyone must endeavor to oppose the colonialists and save their country. Soldiers, self-defense guards, militiamen! The hour of national liberation has struck! We must sacrifice to our last drop of blood to save our country. We must be ready to endure any hardship. With the determination to sacrifice, victory will be ours! Long live an independent and unified Vietnam! Long live the victorious resistance!" As indicated by the passage, Vietnam's achievement of independence differed in what way from the achievement of independence by many other former colonies?

stronger because the Second World War weakened imperialist powers

"Compatriots throughout the country! We have made concessions for peace during our negotiations with the French to end the war.* But the more concessions we made, the more the French colonialists were determined to maintain their control over Vietnam despite their promises. No! We would rather sacrifice everything than lose our country and return to slavery. Compatriots! Rise up! Men and women, old and young, regardless of religion, political parties, or nationalities, all the Vietnamese must stand up to fight the French colonialists to save the Fatherland. Those who have rifles must use their rifles. Those who have swords must use their swords. Those who have no swords must use their spades, hoes, and sticks. Everyone must endeavor to oppose the colonialists and save their country. Soldiers, self-defense guards, militiamen! The hour of national liberation has struck! We must sacrifice to our last drop of blood to save our country. We must be ready to endure any hardship. With the determination to sacrifice, victory will be ours! Long live an independent and unified Vietnam! Long live the victorious resistance!" Compared to the position of anticolonial movements earlier in the twentieth century, the prospects for movements such as Ho Chi Minh's in the mid-twentieth century could most accurately be described as

The extent to which wealthy Russians continued to live exactly as they did before the revolution (second paragraph).

"Dear Comrade Lenin! I cannot avoid pointing out an outrageous phenomenon that can still be observed all over our Soviet Russia. Even though it has been more than two years since power in Russia has been in the hands of the Soviets, in all major cities certain things can be observed that do not at all indicate the existence of a dictatorship of the proletariat. I want to point out the most insulting one. In our city, Kazan (and as I mentioned, this also happens in all major cities), there live many former factory owners and other members of the bourgeoisie. Even though their factories and businesses have been nationalized, if you enter their apartments you would see them still living as they did in the 'good old times.' These gentlemen do not seem to know that the Civil War is still raging and that power is in the hands of the workers. As in the past, they continue to reside in the most luxurious, spacious, and warm apartments, with luxurious furniture. In their kitchens, you would still see hired cooks with white caps and uniforms, and in their households you would still see a variety of servants. In the summer they still go out to their country houses to 'relax.' When I see this, I become almost ashamed of our proletarian revolution. Why has no attention been paid to this yet? Why are workers not being moved into the bourgeois apartments and the bourgeois into workers' cellars? Why is their furniture and other belongings not being confiscated and distributed to the workers? And anyway, why has this gang of bourgeois parasites not yet been destroyed? I am turning to you, Comrade Lenin, as our leader and the most loyal friend of the proletariat, and I am waiting so that this issue, which concerns me and many other honest communists, can be resolved by an appropriate decree." Considering the purpose of the letter, it most likely overstates which of the following?

supported the Bolsheviks in their nationalization of industrial property but urged them to seize the upper classes' private property as well

"Dear Comrade Lenin! I cannot avoid pointing out an outrageous phenomenon that can still be observed all over our Soviet Russia. Even though it has been more than two years since power in Russia has been in the hands of the Soviets, in all major cities certain things can be observed that do not at all indicate the existence of a dictatorship of the proletariat. I want to point out the most insulting one. In our city, Kazan (and as I mentioned, this also happens in all major cities), there live many former factory owners and other members of the bourgeoisie. Even though their factories and businesses have been nationalized, if you enter their apartments you would see them still living as they did in the 'good old times.' These gentlemen do not seem to know that the Civil War is still raging and that power is in the hands of the workers. As in the past, they continue to reside in the most luxurious, spacious, and warm apartments, with luxurious furniture. In their kitchens, you would still see hired cooks with white caps and uniforms, and in their households you would still see a variety of servants. In the summer they still go out to their country houses to 'relax.' When I see this, I become almost ashamed of our proletarian revolution. Why has no attention been paid to this yet? Why are workers not being moved into the bourgeois apartments and the bourgeois into workers' cellars? Why is their furniture and other belongings not being confiscated and distributed to the workers? And anyway, why has this gang of bourgeois parasites not yet been destroyed? I am turning to you, Comrade Lenin, as our leader and the most loyal friend of the proletariat, and I am waiting so that this issue, which concerns me and many other honest communists, can be resolved by an appropriate decree." The letter's significance as a source of information on popular attitudes to Bolshevik revolutionary policies lies in the fact that it suggests that some Soviet citizens

The Soviet Union and other communist states in Eastern Europe collapsed largely because of economic inefficiencies created by centralized economic planning and attempts to eliminate all economic and social inequalities.

Soros ignores the fact that the adoption of free-market policies by states around the world in the late twentieth century increased standards of living for many people.

"I argue that the current state of affairs is unsound and unsustainable. Financial markets are inherently unstable and there are social needs that cannot be met by giving market forces free rein. Unfortunately, these defects are not recognized. Instead, there is a widespread belief that markets are self-correcting. . . . It is claimed that the common interest is best served by allowing everyone to look out for his or her own interests and that attempts to protect the common interest by collective decision making distort the market mechanism. This idea was called laissez-faire in the nineteenth century. . . . I have found a better name for it: market fundamentalism. . . . To put the matter simply, market forces, if they are given complete authority even in the purely economic and financial arenas, produce chaos and could ultimately lead to the downfall of the global financial system. . . . Capitalism needs a counterweight because the capitalist system by itself shows no tendency toward equilibrium. The owners of capital seek to maximize their profits. Left to their own devices, they would continue to accumulate capital until the situation became unbalanced." Which of the following best explains how a supporter of free trade and market deregulation would counter Soros' critiques of free markets in the passage?

Market forces are constrained to a large extent by regulations imposed by governments, international economic institutions, and regional trade agreements.

"I argue that the current state of affairs is unsound and unsustainable. Financial markets are inherently unstable and there are social needs that cannot be met by giving market forces free rein. Unfortunately, these defects are not recognized. Instead, there is a widespread belief that markets are self-correcting. . . . It is claimed that the common interest is best served by allowing everyone to look out for his or her own interests and that attempts to protect the common interest by collective decision making distort the market mechanism. This idea was called laissez-faire in the nineteenth century. . . . I have found a better name for it: market fundamentalism. . . . To put the matter simply, market forces, if they are given complete authority even in the purely economic and financial arenas, produce chaos and could ultimately lead to the downfall of the global financial system. . . . Capitalism needs a counterweight because the capitalist system by itself shows no tendency toward equilibrium. The owners of capital seek to maximize their profits. Left to their own devices, they would continue to accumulate capital until the situation became unbalanced." Which of the following would most likely be cited to explain a weakness in Soros' arguments in the passage about the power granted to free-market forces in the global economy?

The transition from preindustrial to industrial production through the actions of private entrepreneurs or companies

"In late nineteenth-century Tsarist Russia, the state participated directly in the nation's economy to an extent unequaled in any Western country. For example, in 1899 the state bought almost two-thirds of all metallurgical production in Russia. By 1900, the state controlled some 70 percent of the railways and owned vast tracts of land, numerous mines and oil fields, and extensive forests. The economic well-being of Russian private entrepreneurs thus depended in large measure on decisions made by the state authorities in St. Petersburg. This was a major reason why a large portion of the Russian middle class took a very timid approach to politics in this period. Russia's economic progress, particularly in the last decade of the nineteenth century, was remarkable by every standard. Railway trackage virtually doubled, coal output in southern Russia jumped from just under 3 million tons in 1890 to almost 11 million tons in 1900. In the same region, the production of iron and steel rose from about 140,000 tons in 1890 to almost 1,250,000 in 1900. Also, between 1890 and 1900 Russian production of cotton thread almost doubled and that of cotton cloth increased by about two-thirds. By 1914 the Russian Empire was the fifth-largest industrial power in the world, though its labor productivity and per-capita income still lagged behind those in Western Europe." As described in the passage, the pattern of economic development in Russia in the nineteenth century differed most strongly from which other pattern of economic development during the same period?

The creation of new social classes and class consciousness

"In late nineteenth-century Tsarist Russia, the state participated directly in the nation's economy to an extent unequaled in any Western country. For example, in 1899 the state bought almost two-thirds of all metallurgical production in Russia. By 1900, the state controlled some 70 percent of the railways and owned vast tracts of land, numerous mines and oil fields, and extensive forests. The economic well-being of Russian private entrepreneurs thus depended in large measure on decisions made by the state authorities in St. Petersburg. This was a major reason why a large portion of the Russian middle class took a very timid approach to politics in this period. Russia's economic progress, particularly in the last decade of the nineteenth century, was remarkable by every standard. Railway trackage virtually doubled, coal output in southern Russia jumped from just under 3 million tons in 1890 to almost 11 million tons in 1900. In the same region, the production of iron and steel rose from about 140,000 tons in 1890 to almost 1,250,000 in 1900. Also, between 1890 and 1900 Russian production of cotton thread almost doubled and that of cotton cloth increased by about two-thirds. By 1914 the Russian Empire was the fifth-largest industrial power in the world, though its labor productivity and per-capita income still lagged behind those in Western Europe." The economic changes in rapidly industrializing countries such as the Russian Empire in the late nineteenth century led most directly to which of the following social or intellectual changes during the same period?

Meiji Japan

"In late nineteenth-century Tsarist Russia, the state participated directly in the nation's economy to an extent unequaled in any Western country. For example, in 1899 the state bought almost two-thirds of all metallurgical production in Russia. By 1900, the state controlled some 70 percent of the railways and owned vast tracts of land, numerous mines and oil fields, and extensive forests. The economic well-being of Russian private entrepreneurs thus depended in large measure on decisions made by the state authorities in St. Petersburg. This was a major reason why a large portion of the Russian middle class took a very timid approach to politics in this period. Russia's economic progress, particularly in the last decade of the nineteenth century, was remarkable by every standard. Railway trackage virtually doubled, coal output in southern Russia jumped from just under 3 million tons in 1890 to almost 11 million tons in 1900. In the same region, the production of iron and steel rose from about 140,000 tons in 1890 to almost 1,250,000 in 1900. Also, between 1890 and 1900 Russian production of cotton thread almost doubled and that of cotton cloth increased by about two-thirds. By 1914 the Russian Empire was the fifth-largest industrial power in the world, though its labor productivity and per-capita income still lagged behind those in Western Europe." The rapid growth of industrial output in Russia during the 1890s was most likely comparable to the growth of industrial output in which other state during the same period?

mobilize popular support by showing that the Taiping rebellion does not represent a legitimate challenge to Qing rule

"In the past, at the end of the Han, Tang, Yuan, and Ming dynasties, bands of rebels were innumerable, all because of foolish rulers and misgovernment, so that none of these rebellions could be stamped out. But today [the emperor] is deeply concerned and examines his character in order to reform himself, worships Heaven, and is sympathetic to the people. He has not increased the land tax, nor has he conscripted soldiers from households. . . . It does not require any great wisdom to see that sooner or later the [Taiping] bandits will all be destroyed." In the passage above, Zeng Guofan's purpose in listing the policies of the current Qing emperor is most likely to

The Confucian notion of the dynastic cycle

"In the past, at the end of the Han, Tang, Yuan, and Ming dynasties, bands of rebels were innumerable, all because of foolish rulers and misgovernment, so that none of these rebellions could be stamped out. But today [the emperor] is deeply concerned and examines his character in order to reform himself, worships Heaven, and is sympathetic to the people. He has not increased the land tax, nor has he conscripted soldiers from households. . . . It does not require any great wisdom to see that sooner or later the [Taiping] bandits will all be destroyed." Zeng Guofan's analysis of the situation in China in 1854 was likely influenced by which of the following?

Since it targets an international audience across the Cold War divide, the pamphlet presents an idealized, propaganda-tinged vision of Chinese accomplishments.

"Iron smelting and steel making in the Shaoyang region of Hunan province are rapidly developing on a mass scale. In a short period in the fall of 1958, 12,378 local blast furnaces have been built in this area. The main reason for this remarkable progress in such a short time is that this region has fully carried out the Communist Party's directive to let all the people work in iron and steel production, in keeping with the party's general plan of building socialism. Iron and steel production is not simply a technical job; it is also a political task. Therefore, the first condition for the rapid increase in production was for local party leaders to have the entire party membership mobilized. When the current push to increase production began, many 'experts' wanted to have big foreign blast furnaces. They were not interested in building small local furnaces. They thought we should wait until we've had the opportunity to buy elaborate equipment. Actually, that line of thinking would have resulted in producing less, more slowly, and more expensively. Under the timely guidance of the Party, those tendencies were firmly rejected and the policy of throwing all resources into iron and steel production and letting political cadres take charge was carried out. The strength of the masses is tremendous. All the problems of funds, raw materials, equipment, provisions, etc., which in the past seemed so hard to solve, disappeared before the resourcefulness of the people. In one Hunan county, 67,000 people worked non-stop for three days and nights and built 1025 blast furnaces. Many people, hearing the Party's call, walked over 30 miles to join the work, carrying timber and bamboo and their own food and clothes. In the town of Szetu, local people collected more than 1.6 million yuan [Chinese unit of currency] for the iron and steel effort, with one 50-year-old woman contributing more than 200 yuan, her life savings. Shoemakers donated more than 180,000 pairs of sandals for those building the furnaces. In the town of Tienping, the people solved the housing crisis [of furnace workers coming to the town but not having a place to sleep] by vacating more than 500 rooms in their houses and turning them over to the workers. The people also composed the following song: The Communist Party is really wonderful. In three days more than a thousand furnaces were built. The American imperialists will run off, tails between legs. The Chinese people will now surpass Britain. The East wind will always prevail over the West wind." Which of the following best explains the significance of the intended audience of Yin Zeming's pamphlet in shaping the author's narrative?

The importance of raw materials to the development of industrial economies

"It is not too much to hope that, with the building of a branch railway to this region, European piece goods might be imported so as to undersell the native cloth. And the effect would be that not only would a larger supply of the raw material be obtained—for the cotton that is now spun into yarn in Berar would be exported—but also the large local population now employed in spinning and weaving would be made available for agricultural labor, and thus the jungle land might be broken up." A historian interpreting the policies advocated for in the passage would most likely argue that they are best explained in the context of which of the following?

Grassroots citizens' organizations forming to protest the economic and social injustices in the Communist bloc, such as the Solidarity labor union in Poland

"It seems that the only way we have of opposing totalitarianism is to reject its lies and start living the truth. Of course, to oppose the government in a society such as ours is very different from opposing a democratic government in an open society. In a repressive society such as ours dissent must start first on the level of individual thinking and conscience, rather than actual political action. The power of our opposition to the Communist regime is, for now, a potential power, which is hidden throughout the whole of society. But once enough members of society have joined our ranks, then this potential power can spring forth (when, where, and under what circumstances it is difficult to predict) into something visible: a real act of political protest, a social movement, a sudden explosion of civil unrest. This is why the regime persecutes dissidents for even the most modest attempts to tell the truth. Why was Solzhenitsyn* driven out of his own country? Certainly not because he wielded any real power or because any of the regime's representatives felt he might unseat them and take their place in government. No—Solzhenitsyn's expulsion was a desperate attempt to plug up a wellspring of truth which the regime feared might one day produce unpredictable consequences. They feared Solzhenitsyn because they realized that the crust of lies they have built around us is very fragile. As long as it seals off completely the entire society, it appears to be made of stone. But the moment someone breaks through in one place, when one person cries out, 'The king has no clothes!' then everything suddenly appears in another light and the whole system can suddenly find itself on the verge of disintegrating." As expressed in the passage, Havel's vision of effecting change in the communist bloc was most consistent with which of the following developments?

the signing of nuclear arms control treaties between the United States and the Soviet Union

"It seems that the only way we have of opposing totalitarianism is to reject its lies and start living the truth. Of course, to oppose the government in a society such as ours is very different from opposing a democratic government in an open society. In a repressive society such as ours dissent must start first on the level of individual thinking and conscience, rather than actual political action. The power of our opposition to the Communist regime is, for now, a potential power, which is hidden throughout the whole of society. But once enough members of society have joined our ranks, then this potential power can spring forth (when, where, and under what circumstances it is difficult to predict) into something visible: a real act of political protest, a social movement, a sudden explosion of civil unrest. This is why the regime persecutes dissidents for even the most modest attempts to tell the truth. Why was Solzhenitsyn* driven out of his own country? Certainly not because he wielded any real power or because any of the regime's representatives felt he might unseat them and take their place in government. No—Solzhenitsyn's expulsion was a desperate attempt to plug up a wellspring of truth which the regime feared might one day produce unpredictable consequences. They feared Solzhenitsyn because they realized that the crust of lies they have built around us is very fragile. As long as it seals off completely the entire society, it appears to be made of stone. But the moment someone breaks through in one place, when one person cries out, 'The king has no clothes!' then everything suddenly appears in another light and the whole system can suddenly find itself on the verge of disintegrating." In addition to the factors exemplified by the passage, the end of the Cold War was also directly hastened by all of the following EXCEPT

The way in which government efforts to suppress criticism and restrict freedom of speech proved ineffective in stemming public discontent within communist regimes

"It seems that the only way we have of opposing totalitarianism is to reject its lies and start living the truth. Of course, to oppose the government in a society such as ours is very different from opposing a democratic government in an open society. In a repressive society such as ours dissent must start first on the level of individual thinking and conscience, rather than actual political action. The power of our opposition to the Communist regime is, for now, a potential power, which is hidden throughout the whole of society. But once enough members of society have joined our ranks, then this potential power can spring forth (when, where, and under what circumstances it is difficult to predict) into something visible: a real act of political protest, a social movement, a sudden explosion of civil unrest. This is why the regime persecutes dissidents for even the most modest attempts to tell the truth. Why was Solzhenitsyn* driven out of his own country? Certainly not because he wielded any real power or because any of the regime's representatives felt he might unseat them and take their place in government. No—Solzhenitsyn's expulsion was a desperate attempt to plug up a wellspring of truth which the regime feared might one day produce unpredictable consequences. They feared Solzhenitsyn because they realized that the crust of lies they have built around us is very fragile. As long as it seals off completely the entire society, it appears to be made of stone. But the moment someone breaks through in one place, when one person cries out, 'The king has no clothes!' then everything suddenly appears in another light and the whole system can suddenly find itself on the verge of disintegrating." The passage can best be used to illustrate which of the following developments in the 1970s and 1980s?

Unlike European migrants, South Asian migrants often served as indentured laborers.

"Italians establish everywhere in Argentina the types of businesses in which they are employed in Italy: a pasta factory, a distillery, a sawmill, a lime furnace. Indeed, our compatriots engage in all types of industries and trades. Some are money brokers, some are blacksmiths, some are jewelers, some build houses, some are mechanics, and some are mill owners. In the rural districts, many people engage in multiple trades. Our immigrants in these areas might at once be a blacksmith and a shoemaker, a cook and a tailor, or a porter and a bricklayer. Our immigrants are willing, gracious, happy, and always trusting in a better future." Which of the following best explains a difference between European and South Asian migration during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries?

Nonindustrialized regions often experienced large population increases that made it more difficult for people to find local jobs.

"Italians establish everywhere in Argentina the types of businesses in which they are employed in Italy: a pasta factory, a distillery, a sawmill, a lime furnace. Indeed, our compatriots engage in all types of industries and trades. Some are money brokers, some are blacksmiths, some are jewelers, some build houses, some are mechanics, and some are mill owners. In the rural districts, many people engage in multiple trades. Our immigrants in these areas might at once be a blacksmith and a shoemaker, a cook and a tailor, or a porter and a bricklayer. Our immigrants are willing, gracious, happy, and always trusting in a better future." Which of the following best explains why people from nonindustrialized regions constituted the majority of migrants in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries?

Canada's economy grew during most of the early twentieth century under British rule, and Canadian troops willingly helped the British Empire defend its colonial territories in Asia and Africa.

"Japan's colonial policy aims at extending into its colonies the principle of paternalistic protection followed in the home land. The protection of industry and education, which is a characteristic feature of Japanese administration at home, has largely been transplanted to the Korean peninsula. The results that have followed the industrialization of Korea, for both the native population and the Japanese administration, may be summarized as follows: 1. The development of industries has increased capital in the country and helped Korean society in a general advance toward a capitalistic stage of development. 2. As a result of industrialization, the Japanese administration's financial resources have been increased. 3. Korean mineral products are of kinds that are scarce in Japan proper and consequently there is little competition between Korean and Japanese mineral products. Administration by Japan, the inflow of Japanese capital, and the provision of public education have all tended toward a fundamental transformation of native Korean society. The Koreans are being rapidly modernized and even their inherent seclusive nature is undergoing a marked change. Under their former corrupt rulers, the people were reduced to abject poverty and misery and resigned themselves to fatalism, having been robbed of all incentives to earn and save money. Under Japanese government, however, the Korean people have begun to be active and industrious once again." All of the following statements about Canada in the early twentieth century are factually accurate. Which would most likely help to explain why Yanaihara thought that his claims regarding Korea might be well received by a Canadian audience?

Yanaihara wished to justify continued Japanese colonial rule of Korea to potentially hostile Western states.

"Japan's colonial policy aims at extending into its colonies the principle of paternalistic protection followed in the home land. The protection of industry and education, which is a characteristic feature of Japanese administration at home, has largely been transplanted to the Korean peninsula. The results that have followed the industrialization of Korea, for both the native population and the Japanese administration, may be summarized as follows: 1. The development of industries has increased capital in the country and helped Korean society in a general advance toward a capitalistic stage of development. 2. As a result of industrialization, the Japanese administration's financial resources have been increased. 3. Korean mineral products are of kinds that are scarce in Japan proper and consequently there is little competition between Korean and Japanese mineral products. Administration by Japan, the inflow of Japanese capital, and the provision of public education have all tended toward a fundamental transformation of native Korean society. The Koreans are being rapidly modernized and even their inherent seclusive nature is undergoing a marked change. Under their former corrupt rulers, the people were reduced to abject poverty and misery and resigned themselves to fatalism, having been robbed of all incentives to earn and save money. Under Japanese government, however, the Korean people have begun to be active and industrious once again." Which of the following best explains a likely significant purpose behind Yanaihara publishing his article in a Canadian journal?

They show that some members of the Japanese elite sought to justify aggressive Japanese colonial efforts in China and the Pacific region.

"Japan's colonial policy aims at extending into its colonies the principle of paternalistic protection followed in the home land. The protection of industry and education, which is a characteristic feature of Japanese administration at home, has largely been transplanted to the Korean peninsula. The results that have followed the industrialization of Korea, for both the native population and the Japanese administration, may be summarized as follows: 1. The development of industries has increased capital in the country and helped Korean society in a general advance toward a capitalistic stage of development. 2. As a result of industrialization, the Japanese administration's financial resources have been increased. 3. Korean mineral products are of kinds that are scarce in Japan proper and consequently there is little competition between Korean and Japanese mineral products. Administration by Japan, the inflow of Japanese capital, and the provision of public education have all tended toward a fundamental transformation of native Korean society. The Koreans are being rapidly modernized and even their inherent seclusive nature is undergoing a marked change. Under their former corrupt rulers, the people were reduced to abject poverty and misery and resigned themselves to fatalism, having been robbed of all incentives to earn and save money. Under Japanese government, however, the Korean people have begun to be active and industrious once again." Which of the following best explains the long-term historical significance of the views expressed by Yanaihara in the passage?

Rival great power alliances

"Just yesterday, you sent me a telegram appealing to my friendship and called upon me to act as an intermediary and help resolve the conflict between you and the Austro-Hungarian government. But I understand that, even as you did that, your troops were being mobilized against Austria-Hungary. This makes my attempts at meditation almost pointless. Nonetheless, I continued in my efforts today. I now receive fresh news of even more serious Russian preparations for war on my Eastern frontier. Responsibility for the safety of my empire forces me to take defensive and preventive measures. In my endeavors to maintain the peace of the world, I have gone to the utmost limit possible. The responsibility for the disaster that is now threatening the civilized world will not be laid at my door. At this moment, you still have the power to avert war. Nobody is threatening the honor or power of Russia, and you can well afford to await the result of my mediation. My friendship for you and your empire, transmitted to me by my grandfather on his deathbed, has always been sacred to me and I have often supported Russia in the past when she was in serious trouble." The passage can best be used to explain the role of which of the following in bringing about the First World War?

Russia was acting in support of Serbia, which was facing an imminent Austro-Hungarian attack following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

place European expansion in the Congo in the context of other imperial ventures that had seemed difficult at first but have subsequently turned out to be highly valuable

"Let us take North America, for instance, and the richest portion of it—the Mississippi basin—to compare with the Congo River basin in Africa. When early explorers such as de Soto first navigated the Mississippi and the Indians were the undisputed masters of that enormous river basin, the European spirit of enterprise would have found only a few valuable products there—mainly some furs and timber. The Congo River basin is, however, much more promising at the stage of underdevelopment. The forests on the banks of the Congo are filled with precious hardwoods; among the climbing vines in the forest is the one from which rubber is produced (the best of which sells for two shillings per pound), and among its palms are some whose oil is a staple article of commerce and others whose fibers make the best cordage. Stanley's description of the riches of the Congo can best be seen as an attempt to

The alienation of Soviet citizens from their government's official rhetoric of class struggle and anti-capitalism

"Many of my fellow students here have personal collections of stereo recordings of the best rock bands. I know you are a fan of the Beatles, but I must say that they are not among the most popular because they are considered out of date. It is more common here to listen to Deep Purple, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Yes, Queen, Wings, King Crimson, Alice Cooper, Uriah Heep, etc. I underlined those that I like the most. The records with rock music that one can find on the black market here are quite expensive. For example, Uriah Heep's album Salisbury costs 70 rubles, and Paul McCartney's album Ram costs 50 rubles if they are new and still sealed in their original cellophane wrap. But if they have been opened they cost about half that. What are the prices like in Leningrad? We also have a quite well developed system of exchanging and sharing rock records here. Do you have one too? Now, about the blue jeans that I had asked you to get for me: if you manage to obtain them, how much would they cost? If the price is reasonable, I will send you a money order. OK? I gave you my sizes in the past, but in case you lost them—length is 5 or 6; waist 46 or 48." A historian studying the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s would most likely use the letter above to illustrate which of the following?

Young people outside the Communist bloc would have been unlikely to need to buy Western goods on the black market.

"Many of my fellow students here have personal collections of stereo recordings of the best rock bands. I know you are a fan of the Beatles, but I must say that they are not among the most popular because they are considered out of date. It is more common here to listen to Deep Purple, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Yes, Queen, Wings, King Crimson, Alice Cooper, Uriah Heep, etc. I underlined those that I like the most. The records with rock music that one can find on the black market here are quite expensive. For example, Uriah Heep's album Salisbury costs 70 rubles, and Paul McCartney's album Ram costs 50 rubles if they are new and still sealed in their original cellophane wrap. But if they have been opened they cost about half that. What are the prices like in Leningrad? We also have a quite well developed system of exchanging and sharing rock records here. Do you have one too? Now, about the blue jeans that I had asked you to get for me: if you manage to obtain them, how much would they cost? If the price is reasonable, I will send you a money order. OK? I gave you my sizes in the past, but in case you lost them—length is 5 or 6; waist 46 or 48." Considering the global context of the 1970s, which of the following would have been the most significant difference between young people living outside the Communist bloc and the two young men in the source?

The globalization of consumer culture despite the rivalries of the Cold War

"Many of my fellow students here have personal collections of stereo recordings of the best rock bands. I know you are a fan of the Beatles, but I must say that they are not among the most popular because they are considered out of date. It is more common here to listen to Deep Purple, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Yes, Queen, Wings, King Crimson, Alice Cooper, Uriah Heep, etc. I underlined those that I like the most. The records with rock music that one can find on the black market here are quite expensive. For example, Uriah Heep's album Salisbury costs 70 rubles, and Paul McCartney's album Ram costs 50 rubles if they are new and still sealed in their original cellophane wrap. But if they have been opened they cost about half that. What are the prices like in Leningrad? We also have a quite well developed system of exchanging and sharing rock records here. Do you have one too? Now, about the blue jeans that I had asked you to get for me: if you manage to obtain them, how much would they cost? If the price is reasonable, I will send you a money order. OK? I gave you my sizes in the past, but in case you lost them—length is 5 or 6; waist 46 or 48." The letter above could best be used to illustrate which of the following aspects of the historical context of the late twentieth century?

A movement to articulate an alternative vision of society

"Nobody has one exclusive sphere of activity but each can become accomplished in any branch he wishes, society regulates the general production and thus makes it possible for me to do one thing today and another tomorrow, to hunt in the morning, fish in the afternoon, raise cattle in the evening, [and] criticize after dinner." Marx's statement in the passage above is best understood in the context of which of the following responses to the development and spread of global capitalism in the nineteenth century?

The European "scramble" to acquire territories in Africa through both peaceful and military means

"OBJECTIVES OF YOUR JOURNEY In these parts of West Africa, France has obtained a few treaties with powerful chiefs, on the basis of which she claims immense regions in the great bend of the Niger River. She also sends French adventurers into a recognized British sphere of influence to make further treaties with native persons who claim to be the rulers or kings of certain regions. The goal of your journey therefore will be to (a) in places where the French pretend they have made treaties with the native rulers, to obtain a written declaration from the rulers that such statements are false, and then to make treaties for us; (b) in places where the French have made no such pretense, to secure treaties accompanied by a short declaration that no previous treaties have been made with any European; . . . (d) to collect detailed information of every kind about the regions you visit, but especially to make inquiries as to the existence of gold—either gold sands in rivers or gold lodes in rock; . . . (f) to impress upon all African chiefs how advantageous it would be for them to have Europeans bringing goods to their country, which can only be done if they sign the treaties; . . . (h) to note especially carefully the prevalence of gum arabic trees, shea butter trees, and rubber vines* in each region you visit." The rival British and French claims over the Niger River region in the 1890s were most directly a part of which of the following processes?

The French do not believe in either Christianity or Islam.

"On Monday news reached us that the French* had printed a proclamation in Arabic and had sent it around to be read in public, calling upon Egyptians to obey them. A copy of that document came into my possession and I will quote it here: 'In the name of Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate. On behalf of the French Republic which is based upon the foundations of liberty and equality, General Bonaparte addresses all Egyptian people: O ye Egyptians, some may tell you that we have come here to abolish your religion, but that is a lie. The real purpose of our campaign is to restore your rights from your oppressors—the Mamluk** rulers of Egypt. Know that all people are equal and that only differences in the degree of reason, virtue, or knowledge may be used to elevate one person above another. But what reason, virtue, or knowledge do the Mamluks have that gives them the right to claim the most fertile land, the most desirable dwellings, and the highest government positions in Egypt? None whatsoever.' In that proclamation, their statement 'In the name of Allah, etc.' suggests that they agree with Islam. But in reality they are opposed to both Christianity and Islam and do not hold fast to any religion. They are materialists who deny the Hereafter and Resurrection, and who reject Prophethood and religious Messengership. In politics, too, they do not have a single ruler, like other countries, who can speak on their behalf." Which of the following claims does al-Jabarti make about the French?

Britain had contributed to human progress by taking over new colonies in Africa.

"The Australian nation is another case of a great civilization supplanting a lower race unable to make full use of the land and its resources. The struggle means suffering, intense suffering, while it is in progress; but that struggle and that suffering have been the stages by which the White man has reached his present stage of development, and they account for the fact that he no longer lives in caves and feeds on roots and nuts. This dependence of progress on the survival of the fitter race, terribly harsh as it may seem to some of you, gives the struggle for existence its redeeming features; it is the fiery crucible out of which comes the finer metal." Based on the passage, the author would most likely have agreed with which of the following statements?

European states' competition to acquire overseas colonies

"The Australian nation is another case of a great civilization supplanting a lower race unable to make full use of the land and its resources. The struggle means suffering, intense suffering, while it is in progress; but that struggle and that suffering have been the stages by which the White man has reached his present stage of development, and they account for the fact that he no longer lives in caves and feeds on roots and nuts. This dependence of progress on the survival of the fitter race, terribly harsh as it may seem to some of you, gives the struggle for existence its redeeming features; it is the fiery crucible out of which comes the finer metal." In the late 1800s, attitudes such as the one expressed in the passage had contributed most directly to which of the following?

reinforce the idea to the German people that past injustices required Germany to continue its military buildup and engage in future territorial expansion

"The German people once built up a colonial empire without robbing anyone and without violating any treaty. That colonial empire was taken away from us unreasonably. First, it was said that the natives in those colonies did not want to belong to Germany. But, who asked them if they wished to belong to some other power and when were these natives ever asked if they had been content with the power that formerly ruled them? Second, it is stated that the colonies were not administered properly by the Germans, but Germany had these colonies only for a few decades and they were in a process of development. Third, it is said that the colonies are of no real value. But, if that is the case, then they can be of no value to any other state. Moreover, Germany has never demanded colonies for military purposes, but exclusively for economic purposes. It is obvious that in times of general prosperity the value of certain territories may decrease, but it is just as evident that in times of distress such value increases. Today, Germany lives in a time of difficult struggle for foodstuffs and raw materials. Sufficient imports are conceivable only if there is a continued and lasting increase in our exports. Therefore, as a matter of course, our demand for colonies for our densely populated country will be put forward again and again." Based on the historical situation in which the speech was given, Hitler's most significant motivation for giving the speech was likely to continue to

By pointing out the hypocrisy of Soviet policies, he hoped to encourage a more confrontational stance on the part of the United States government.

"The Russian strategy can be seen at work on many fronts. In Austria the Russians claim 50% of all Austrian industry. In Paris they fight for an arrangement that will allow Yugoslavia to dominate Trieste. In Berlin they carry on a continued press campaign against the Western world but ban our newspapers from the sector if they contain the slightest criticism of Soviet policy. They control the University of Berlin because it is in their sector and impose rigid political tests upon the student body, but they also control the schools of all sectors through the domination of the Berlin Magistrate, established before our entrance. Thus far, it has been impossible to eliminate their Communist textbooks from the western sectors. They always appeal to the Potsdam accord* when it serves their ends and violate it when it suits their purposes. Their officers travel in our zone, marking factory equipment for dismantlement and shipment to Russia. But what they do in their zone is shrouded in mystery and there is some evidence that they are setting this equipment up, not in Russia but in Russian Germany. With millions of troops spread through the whole of Eastern Europe, they are now engaged in a press campaign against Western armies of occupation." Which of the following best explains Niebuhr's likely purpose in recounting Soviet actions in postwar Europe?

He was concerned that Americans would be reluctant to see their recent allies in the Second World War as a threat.

"The Russian strategy can be seen at work on many fronts. In Austria the Russians claim 50% of all Austrian industry. In Paris they fight for an arrangement that will allow Yugoslavia to dominate Trieste. In Berlin they carry on a continued press campaign against the Western world but ban our newspapers from the sector if they contain the slightest criticism of Soviet policy. They control the University of Berlin because it is in their sector and impose rigid political tests upon the student body, but they also control the schools of all sectors through the domination of the Berlin Magistrate, established before our entrance. Thus far, it has been impossible to eliminate their Communist textbooks from the western sectors. They always appeal to the Potsdam accord* when it serves their ends and violate it when it suits their purposes. Their officers travel in our zone, marking factory equipment for dismantlement and shipment to Russia. But what they do in their zone is shrouded in mystery and there is some evidence that they are setting this equipment up, not in Russia but in Russian Germany. With millions of troops spread through the whole of Eastern Europe, they are now engaged in a press campaign against Western armies of occupation." Which of the following best explains Niebuhr's sense of alarm about Soviet intentions in occupied Eastern Europe?

To change government policies in a democratic country like the United States, it was first necessary to change public opinion.

"The Russian strategy can be seen at work on many fronts. In Austria the Russians claim 50% of all Austrian industry. In Paris they fight for an arrangement that will allow Yugoslavia to dominate Trieste. In Berlin they carry on a continued press campaign against the Western world but ban our newspapers from the sector if they contain the slightest criticism of Soviet policy. They control the University of Berlin because it is in their sector and impose rigid political tests upon the student body, but they also control the schools of all sectors through the domination of the Berlin Magistrate, established before our entrance. Thus far, it has been impossible to eliminate their Communist textbooks from the western sectors. They always appeal to the Potsdam accord* when it serves their ends and violate it when it suits their purposes. Their officers travel in our zone, marking factory equipment for dismantlement and shipment to Russia. But what they do in their zone is shrouded in mystery and there is some evidence that they are setting this equipment up, not in Russia but in Russian Germany. With millions of troops spread through the whole of Eastern Europe, they are now engaged in a press campaign against Western armies of occupation." Which of the following most likely explains why Niebuhr chose to publish his article in a popular publication like Life magazine?

The shift from mercantilism to free-market trade policies

"The fourth annual meeting of the shareholders of the British South Africa Company was held yesterday at the Cannon-street Hotel. The company's chairman, in his opening address, said, 'Twice during the past year we met when fighting with Africans was taking place in the company's territory, when financial arrangements of a complicated character were pending, and when the outlook of the enterprise seemed full of doubt and difficulty. Today, however, we are in a position far superior to any we had previously occupied and ever had hoped to attain. In founding the British South Africa Company, the shareholders undertook the occupation and development of a considerable extent of valuable territory in South Africa. Thus, because of the far-seeing action of a few men connected with the company, this enormous territory was secured for Great Britain. The perfectly legitimate objections of some people to chartered companies like ours were answered by the certainty that this vast territory—equal in extent to Central Europe—could not have been brought under British sway in any other way. Turning now to the development of railway communication in our territory, it is being pursued by building lines from the Cape Colony and joining them to other lines that will provide a route over Portuguese Mozambique and to the sea. Postal and telegraphic communications will closely follow, and in some cases already precede, the completion of the railroad. In addition, even before our mines have reached a stage of development great enough to cause a large inflow of population, the shareholders may congratulate themselves on the satisfactory outlook of our finances in Mashonaland*.'" As described in the passage, the economic model of the British South Africa Company most directly differed from which of the following economic trends in the late nineteenth century?

The adoption of innovative practices in banking and finance

"The fourth annual meeting of the shareholders of the British South Africa Company was held yesterday at the Cannon-street Hotel. The company's chairman, in his opening address, said, 'Twice during the past year we met when fighting with Africans was taking place in the company's territory, when financial arrangements of a complicated character were pending, and when the outlook of the enterprise seemed full of doubt and difficulty. Today, however, we are in a position far superior to any we had previously occupied and ever had hoped to attain. In founding the British South Africa Company, the shareholders undertook the occupation and development of a considerable extent of valuable territory in South Africa. Thus, because of the far-seeing action of a few men connected with the company, this enormous territory was secured for Great Britain. The perfectly legitimate objections of some people to chartered companies like ours were answered by the certainty that this vast territory—equal in extent to Central Europe—could not have been brought under British sway in any other way. Turning now to the development of railway communication in our territory, it is being pursued by building lines from the Cape Colony and joining them to other lines that will provide a route over Portuguese Mozambique and to the sea. Postal and telegraphic communications will closely follow, and in some cases already precede, the completion of the railroad. In addition, even before our mines have reached a stage of development great enough to cause a large inflow of population, the shareholders may congratulate themselves on the satisfactory outlook of our finances in Mashonaland*.'" The economic success of businesses such as the British South Africa Company was in part dependent on which of the following developments in the late nineteenth century?

social divisions within colonial societies often hindered the efforts of anticolonial movements to overthrow imperial rule

"The misfortunes and decline of this country [Bengal, a region in eastern India] began on the day of the Muslim conquest. Just as a storm wreaks destruction and disorder upon a garden, so did the unscrupulous and tyrannical Muslims destroy the happiness and good fortune of Bengal. Ravaged by endless waves of oppression, the people of Bengal became withdrawn and timid. Hinduism, our native religion, also took distorted forms. But there are limits to everything. When the oppressions of the Muslims became intolerable, Brahma, the Lord of the Universe, provided a means of escape. The resumption of Bengal's good fortune began on the day the British flag was first planted on this land. Tell me, if Muslim rule had continued, what would the condition of this country have been today? It must be loudly declared that it is to bless us that the Lord Brahma has brought the English to this country. British rule has ended the atrocities of Muslim rule. There can be no comparison between the two: the difference seems to be greater than that between darkness and light or between misery and bliss." The arguments expressed in the passage are significant because they help explain why

continuous migration of new workers to industrial towns and the high job turnover

"There is no town in the world where the distance between the rich and the poor is so great, or the barrier between them so difficult to be crossed. The separation between the different classes, and the consequent ignorance of each other's habits and condition, are far more complete in this place than in any other country in Europe, or even in the rural areas of Britain. There is far less personal communication between the master cotton spinner and his workmen and between the master tailor and his apprentices than there is between the Duke of Wellington and the humblest laborer of his estate, or than there was between King George III and the lowliest errand boy in his palace. I mean this not as a matter of blame, but I state it simply as a fact." The class relationships in Manchester described by Parkinson are best explained in the context of the

high profits and low wages associated with manufacturing industries in the nineteenth century

"There is no town in the world where the distance between the rich and the poor is so great, or the barrier between them so difficult to be crossed. The separation between the different classes, and the consequent ignorance of each other's habits and condition, are far more complete in this place than in any other country in Europe, or even in the rural areas of Britain. There is far less personal communication between the master cotton spinner and his workmen and between the master tailor and his apprentices than there is between the Duke of Wellington and the humblest laborer of his estate, or than there was between King George III and the lowliest errand boy in his palace. I mean this not as a matter of blame, but I state it simply as a fact." The disparities of wealth mentioned by Parkinson in the passage are best explained in the context of the

overstates the extent to which Northern Nigerians were responsible for undermining the united Nigerian state

"Throughout the period of Nigeria's short and precarious existence as a single political entity, we Eastern Nigerians have always believed in fundamental human rights as they are accepted and enjoyed in civilized countries. Impelled by our belief in these rights and our sense of common citizenship with other Nigerians, we contributed our ideas and skills, our resourcefulness and dynamism, in the development of areas of Nigeria outside the East. We set up businesses and industries throughout the country, overlooked the neglect of our homeland in the division of national institutions, development projects, and financial resources, made our region's abundant natural resources available to the rest of the country, and confidently invested in the general economic and social development of Nigeria. . . . We used to oppose those who told us that what our former colonial masters made into 'Nigeria' was merely an agglomeration of different peoples, distinct in every way except in the color of their skin, and organized in as a unit solely for the commercial interests and administrative convenience of the colonists. . . . But we have come to realize that national unity is no longer possible. The Nigerian constitution that was adopted after independence in 1960 installed the North in perpetual dominance over Nigeria. Thus were sown, by design or by default, the seeds of factionalism and hate, of struggle for power, and the worst type of political deception. National independence was followed by successive crises, each leading to the near disintegration of the country. Last year alone, tens of thousands of Eastern and Southern Nigerians were killed in pogroms by Northerners in all parts of the country, including the capital, Lagos. We are now facing a situation in which there are only two possible outcomes: either perpetual domination of the rest of the country by the North, not by consent but by force and fraud, or a dissolution of the [Nigerian] federation bond." Based on the author's point of view, it is most likely that the information presented in the passage

He wanted to outline a list of East Nigerian grievances in order to justify the political action he was about to take.

that "White hands will never suffice to work the land under a burning sun"

"To bring the Blacks of Saint-Domingue back to their original condition of slavery is impossible: the writings of the philosophes have spread over the surface of the globe and neither superstition nor despotism can extinguish their ideas. Everything is headed toward general freedom, everything tells you that man will no longer be the slave of man. Tear off the fatal blindfold: the colony of Saint-Domingue will no longer be cultivated by the hands of slaves. But, some will object and say, 'The Blacks won't work anymore once they are free. White hands will never suffice to work the land under a burning sun; in short, the colony cannot survive without slavery.' I understand you, cold egoists, men without feeling! You need slaves, that is, men you can treat like beasts of burden; you need slaves, that is, victims. What law forces a man to give another man the entire fruit of his labor? This Black individual is free, because neither the nation nor the Supreme Being created slaves. He is your equal, because he is a man. He is a French citizen, because he serves the country, because he contributes to its splendor as much as you do, and because the French nation loves all its children equally. In exchange for his labor, the Black man will receive a salary proportional to his effort." All of the following claims made by Saint-Maurice directly advocate for the abolition of slavery in Saint-Domingue EXCEPT

Groups and individuals using universal principles to challenge established social norms

"To the Honorable Members of the Government of the Province of Manitoba (Canada), and the Honorable Members of the Legislative Assembly of the said Province. WHEREAS the following resolution forms part of the platform of the Liberal Party: 'The Liberal Party believing that there are no just grounds for denying women the right to vote, will enact a measure providing for equal suffrage upon it being established by petition that it is desired by women numbering 15% of the votes cast in the Province in the preceding general election.' AND WHEREAS the Liberal Party is now the party in office in the said Province. NOW THEREFORE the petition of the undersigned humbly shows that: - We, the Petitioners, are women over the age of twenty-one years old and are resident in the Province of Manitoba. - We, the Petitioners, are desirous that a measure be enacted forthwith extending the franchise to women on equal terms with men, in accordance with the ideas of equality. - We, the Petitioners, number 39,584 women, which is in excess of the required number of 17,000 [to meet the 15% requirement in the Liberal Party's program]. THEREFORE, We, the Petitioners, pray that there shall be enacted by the Legislative Assembly during this Session a measure extending the franchise to women on equal terms with men." The political activism embodied in the petition is best seen in the context of which of the following broader twentieth-century developments?

Women's critical contributions to the home front effort during The First World War

"To the Honorable Members of the Government of the Province of Manitoba (Canada), and the Honorable Members of the Legislative Assembly of the said Province. WHEREAS the following resolution forms part of the platform of the Liberal Party: 'The Liberal Party believing that there are no just grounds for denying women the right to vote, will enact a measure providing for equal suffrage upon it being established by petition that it is desired by women numbering 15% of the votes cast in the Province in the preceding general election.' AND WHEREAS the Liberal Party is now the party in office in the said Province. NOW THEREFORE the petition of the undersigned humbly shows that: - We, the Petitioners, are women over the age of twenty-one years old and are resident in the Province of Manitoba. - We, the Petitioners, are desirous that a measure be enacted forthwith extending the franchise to women on equal terms with men, in accordance with the ideas of equality. - We, the Petitioners, number 39,584 women, which is in excess of the required number of 17,000 [to meet the 15% requirement in the Liberal Party's program]. THEREFORE, We, the Petitioners, pray that there shall be enacted by the Legislative Assembly during this Session a measure extending the franchise to women on equal terms with men." Which of the following aspects of the international context in which the petition was produced most likely strengthened the petitioners' demands?

Many developing countries could never become self-sufficient food producers because of limitations of size, climate, and available cropland.

"Twenty years of Green Revolution agriculture have succeeded in destroying the fertility of the soils of Punjab [a state in northern India] which had been maintained over generations for centuries and could have been maintained indefinitely if international agribusiness experts and their Indian followers had not mistakenly believed that their technologies could substitute land, and their chemicals could replace the organic fertility of soils. It has been the assumption of the Green Revolution that nutrient loss and nutrient deficit can be made up by the use of non-renewable inputs of chemical fertilizers. The natural nutrient cycle, in which nutrients are produced by plants and returned to the soil as organic matter has thus been replaced by the belief in linear non-renewable flows of chemicals: phosphorus and potash mined from geological deposits and nitrogen derived from petroleum. The Green Revolution created the perception that soil fertility is produced in chemical factories, and agricultural yields are measured only through marketed commodities. Yet, as the Punjab experience has shown, the fertility of soils cannot be reduced to Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Potassium inputs from the factories of multinational corporations. Agribusiness technologies cannot substitute nature or work outside of nature's ecological processes without destroying the very basis of agricultural production. Nor can markets provide the only meaningful measure of 'output' and 'yields.'" Which of the following arguments could be most effectively used to undermine Vandana Shiva's implicit criticism of free trade and globalization in the passage?

As an environmentalist and anti-globalization activist, Shiva may have been selective in presenting the scientific data regarding the effects of the Green Revolution.

"Twenty years of Green Revolution agriculture have succeeded in destroying the fertility of the soils of Punjab [a state in northern India] which had been maintained over generations for centuries and could have been maintained indefinitely if international agribusiness experts and their Indian followers had not mistakenly believed that their technologies could substitute land, and their chemicals could replace the organic fertility of soils. It has been the assumption of the Green Revolution that nutrient loss and nutrient deficit can be made up by the use of non-renewable inputs of chemical fertilizers. The natural nutrient cycle, in which nutrients are produced by plants and returned to the soil as organic matter has thus been replaced by the belief in linear non-renewable flows of chemicals: phosphorus and potash mined from geological deposits and nitrogen derived from petroleum. The Green Revolution created the perception that soil fertility is produced in chemical factories, and agricultural yields are measured only through marketed commodities. Yet, as the Punjab experience has shown, the fertility of soils cannot be reduced to Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Potassium inputs from the factories of multinational corporations. Agribusiness technologies cannot substitute nature or work outside of nature's ecological processes without destroying the very basis of agricultural production. Nor can markets provide the only meaningful measure of 'output' and 'yields.'" Which of the following could be most effectively used to challenge the objectivity of Vandana Shiva's arguments in her book The Violence of the Green Revolution?

Developing countries are free to join or not join in globalized trade practices and international trade organizations.

"Twenty years of Green Revolution agriculture have succeeded in destroying the fertility of the soils of Punjab [a state in northern India] which had been maintained over generations for centuries and could have been maintained indefinitely if international agribusiness experts and their Indian followers had not mistakenly believed that their technologies could substitute land, and their chemicals could replace the organic fertility of soils. It has been the assumption of the Green Revolution that nutrient loss and nutrient deficit can be made up by the use of non-renewable inputs of chemical fertilizers. The natural nutrient cycle, in which nutrients are produced by plants and returned to the soil as organic matter has thus been replaced by the belief in linear non-renewable flows of chemicals: phosphorus and potash mined from geological deposits and nitrogen derived from petroleum. The Green Revolution created the perception that soil fertility is produced in chemical factories, and agricultural yields are measured only through marketed commodities. Yet, as the Punjab experience has shown, the fertility of soils cannot be reduced to Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Potassium inputs from the factories of multinational corporations. Agribusiness technologies cannot substitute nature or work outside of nature's ecological processes without destroying the very basis of agricultural production. Nor can markets provide the only meaningful measure of 'output' and 'yields.'" Which of the following could best be used to counter Vandana Shiva's criticism of the effects of globalization on the world's agricultural practices, as outlined in the passage?

Despite abolition, racial hierarchies and labor patterns remained influential.

"Victória, a woman of mixed ancestry and mother of three children—a 12-year-old daughter, a 6-year-old daughter, and a 6-year-old son—in wishing to give an education to her children, claims that her former master Marcos Leão Velloso, owner of the sugar mill nearby, refuses to let these children attend school, as he prefers to have them work in the sugarcane as if they were slaves and subject to punishments. Felicidade, an African woman, also requests that her grandchildren be freed from the same owner. Since Velloso's actions are an attack upon the natural right of liberty ensured by the act of the 13th of May [1888] that ended slavery in the Brazilian Empire, I request the help of Your Excellency in this matter. I am certain that you will help, if only because these women wish to educate their children for the benefit of the nation." Which of the following conclusions is best supported by the passage?

Experiments in architecture and the gathering of souvenirs

"Wartime travel brought soldiers and carriers into contact with foreign ways of life, resulting in cultural exchange. . . . There is evidence also of Hausa [a West African people] 'experiments in architecture of grass and bamboo construction' while the troops were in East Africa, as well as enthusiasm for gathering souvenirs such as cowries and other East African shells 'with the intention of presenting necklaces and waist belts to their women folk.' . . . . Contact with European science and technology was another factor that contributed to change in Nigeria. Before the war, the men know only the casual, nature-oriented time-sense of the village; army life taught them a new concept of punctuality, compatible with reveille, parades, drills, and deadlines. Many Nigerians took their first ride on a train and saw their first car, aeroplane, and motion picture. Large numbers learned to shoot and care for modern weapons—not only rifles, but machine-guns and artillery. Also, soldiers learned basic hygiene, water sterilization, and other methods of disease control and health care. Thousands of Nigerians received their first vaccination and took their first pill during the war." Which of the following does the author of Source 1 cite as evidence of cultural exchange between East and West Africa during the First World War?

Western governments gaining access to Japan's markets by imposing laissez-faire economic regimes

"We can agree that, in principle, it might be a good idea to permit both foreigners and Japanese to engage in coastal and seaborne shipping around and from Japan, because that would increase competition and improve efficiency. But, in practice, we know that seaborne shipping is too important a matter to be given over to foreigners. To do so would mean a loss of business and employment opportunities for our people in peacetime. And, in times of war, to not have the domestic capacity to transport goods would be tantamount to abandoning our status as an independent nation. In recent decades, Japan was forced to sign various treaties with foreign powers allowing their ships to proceed freely from one Japanese harbor to another. Some people claim that these treaty rights also allow foreigners to transport Japanese made goods, either around our country or for export to Korea or China. I am not qualified to discuss the legal merits of these positions, but I would like to point out that, unless we have a plan for developing our own domestic shipping businesses, we will never be able to compete with the foreigners in this field. In founding the Mitsubishi company,* my goal has been to help recover for Japan the right of seaborne shipping, so we no longer have to delegate it to foreigners. I regard this not only as my business interest but also as my duty as a citizen. If we don't succeed as a company, it would be useless for the government to try to renegotiate the unequal treaties, or to attempt to further develop Japan's economy. The government knows this, and that is why it protects our company. And we need the government's protection to compete against foreign rivals, such as the [British] Peninsula and Oriental Steam Navigation Company. Recently, the P&O Company has been working to set up a new line between Yokohama [in Japan] and Shanghai and is attempting to claim rights over the [Japanese] ports of Nagasaki, Kobe, and Yokohama. The P&O Company is backed by its massive capital, large fleet of ships, and experience operating in Hong Kong and China. How can we compete against such a giant if we do not have the backing of our national government?" Iwasaki's position in the letter on the relationship between the Mitsubishi Company and the Japanese government is most clearly a response to

Ban the sale of opium by British merchants in China

"We have heard that in your own country opium is prohibited with the utmost strictness and severity — this is a strong proof that you know full well how hurtful opium is to humans. Since you do not permit it to injure your own country, you ought not to have the injurious drug transferred to another country, and above all other, not to China!" In the passage above, Lin Zexu is asking that the British do which of the following?

A liberal nationalist response to colonialism

"Whereas we, the undersigned kings and chiefs of Fanti, have unanimously resolved and agreed upon the articles hereinafter named. "Article 1—That we form ourselves into a Committee with the view of effecting unity of purpose and of action between the kings and chiefs of the Fanti territory. "Article 12—That the Representative Assembly of the Fanti Confederation shall have the power of preparing laws, ordinances, bills, etc." Which of the following best describes the excerpt above?

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