APEH Semester #1

Mulatto

"person of color," a person of mixed European and African ancestry, a

Battle of Peterloo

A protest that took place at Saint Peter's Fields in Manchester in reaction to the revision of the Corn Laws; it was broken up by armed cavalry.

Thermidorian Reaction

A reaction to the violence of the Reign of Terror in 1794, resulting in the execution of Robespierre and the loosening of economic controls.

Rationalism

A secular, critical way of thinking in which nothing was to be accepted on faith, and everything was to be submitted to reason.

Fronde

A series of violent uprisings during he early reign of Louis XIV triggered by growing royal control and oppressive taxation.

The Encyclopedia

A seventeen volume work edited by Denis Diderot and Jean d'Alembert between 1751 and 1765. It contains 72,000 articles by leading scientists, writers, skilled workers and progressive priests representing the whole of human knowledge.

Spinning Jenny

A simple, inexpensive, hand-powered cotton spinning machine created by James Hargreaves.

Caravel

A small, maneuverable, three-mast sailing ship developed by the Portuguese in the fifteenth century that gave the Portuguese a distinct advantage in exploration and trade.

Corn Laws

British laws, revised in 1815, that prohibited the importation of foreign grain unless the price at home rose to improbable levels, thus benefiting the aristocracy but making food prices higher for working people.

George Stephenson

Built, the Rocket in 1830. He first tested his locomotive in 1830 on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.

Istanbul

Capital of the Ottoman Empire, aka. Constantinople by the Europeans. Located on the Black Sea, it had two palaces, the old palace was for the sultan's female family members who lived in isolation. The new palace, Topkapi, was where officials worked and young slaves trained.

Politiques

Catholic and Protestant moderates who held that only a strong monarchy could save France from total collapse.

Cartesian Dualism

Descartes's view that all of reality could ultimately be reduced to mind and matter.

Thomas Newcomen

Developed the first steam engine which was originally used to pump water from mines.

Long Parliament

English Parliament, which sat from 1640 to 1660. It enacted legislation that limited the power of the monarch and made government without Parliament impossible. This was in response to Charles I who ruled without Parliament from 1629 to 1640.

Mines Act of 1842

English law prohibiting underground work for all women and girls as well as for boys under ten.

Factory Act of 1833

English law that led to a sharp decline in the employment of children by limiting the hours that children over age nine could work, and requiring younger children to attend factory-run elementary schools.

Peace of Westphalia

The name of a series of treaties that concluded the Thirty Years' War in 1648 and marked the end of large-scale religious violence in Europe.

Seven Years' War

Triggered by Maria Theresa's desire to regain Silesia. She formed an alliance with the leaders of France and Russia to conquer Prussia and divide up its territories.

Ottoman Empire

Turkish, Sunni Muslim empire which ruled the sea trade in the Eastern Mediterranean, Syria, Palestine, Egypt and the rest of North Africa, and extended into Europe as far west as Vienna.

Cameralism

View that monarchy was he best form of government, that all elements of society should serve the monarch, and that, in turn, the state should use its resources and authority to resources and authority to increase the public good.

Ottoman Empire

Was known for its lust for warfare and conquest. A safe haven for people persecuted for religious reasons, like the Jews, Muslims, and some Christians, but maintained the Muslim faith. The was no hereditary nobility and no private land holding. Everything belonged to the sultan. They used the millet system of government, and top ranks of the bureaucracy were staffed by the sultan's slave corps, made up of non Muslim slaves purchased along the Empire's borders.

David Ricardo

Wealthy English stockbroker and leading economist. He too was pessimistic about the population in Great Britain, and he made the iron law of wages, which basically stated that there is an inverse relationship between the population and workers' wages.

Spanish Armada

a Spanish naval invasion force sent against England by Philip II of Spain. It was defeated by the English fleet and almost completely destroyed by storms off the Hebrides.

Economic liberalism

a belief in free trade competition based on Adam Smith's argument that the invisible hand of free competition would benefit all individuals, rich and poor.

Ptolemy's Geography

a book about cartography written in the 2nd century CE by a Helenized Egyptian, showing the earth as being round, but unaware of the Americas. Around 1410, Arab scholars reintroduced the Europeans to this work. The Europeans used it to render new and updated maps of the world, using Classical knowledge combined with the latest information from mariners.

Portolans

a book of sailing directions with charts and descriptions of harbors and coasts, developed by the Portuguese.

Geneva

a city in Switzerland, where in 1541, John Calvin was invited to assist in the Protestant reformation. It became the model of a Christian community for Protestant reformers, a society ruled by God through civil magistrates and reformed ministers.

Anne Boleyn

a court lady-in-waiting whom Henry VIII took as his second wife after Catherine of Aragon. She also failed to produce a male heir, and was beheaded.

Indulgences

a document issued by the Catholic Church lessening penance or time in purgatory, widely believed to bring forgiveness of all sins.

Olympe de Gouges

a female political activist and writer, protested slavery and injustices to women. In 1791, she published "The Declaration of the Rights of Woman." She believed in equal rights for women. In 1793, she was sent to the guillotine and executed for sedition, for her attack of Robespierre's radical position and policies.

Debt peonage

a form of serfdom that allowed a planter or rancher to keep his workers or slaves in perpetual debt bondage by periodically advancing food, shelter, and a little money.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

a freed slave in Saint Domingue who joined the revolt and became a Spanish officer, but then switched sides and led the combined slave and free colored forces for France. He gained control as an independent ruler of the western province of Saint Domingue, and then won control of the whole province. He helped draft the province's own constitution which abolished slavery and granted himself governorship for life. He was ousted by Napoleon and deported to France where he died in 1803.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

a fundamental document of the French Revolution, issued by the National Assembly on August 27, 1789. It declared that all humans have a right to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. It also maintained that a person is presumed innocent until they are proven guilty. It protected every man's right to speak and publish freely.

James Hargreaves

a gifted English carpenter and jack-of-all-trades, invented the cotton-spinning jenny in 1765. This simple, inexpensive hand-powered machine increased the production of cotton yarn by about 10 times, between 1770 and 1790.

Philippines

a group of islands in southeast Asia, conquered by Spain and named for King Philip II.

Louis Blanc

a journalist and French socialist who advocated for universal voting rights, and peaceful reform. He wrote Organization of Work in 1839, and believed that government should sponsor cooperative workshops for workers to guarantee employment, as an alternative to competitive capitalist employment.

Thirty Years' War

(1618-1648) A war between Catholics and Protestants, both trying to maintain their territories and religious beliefs. It was a costly war which ravaged the economies and populations of kingdoms involved. Ended by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.

Adam Smith

(1723-1790) professor of philosophy and leading figure of the Scottish Enlightenment. He developed the general idea of freedom of enterprise and established the basis for modern economics in his ground-breaking work, Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Smith feared political oppression and argued that government should limit itself to three duties: provide a defense against foreign invasion, maintain civil order with courts and police protection, and sponsor certain indispensable public works and institutions.

The War of Austrian Succession

(1740-1748) started when Frederick the Great of Prussia seized Silesia from Austria's Maria Theresa. It gradually grew into a world war involving conflicts between France and England in India and North America. It ended with no territorial changes in North America, and set the stage for the Seven Years' War.

Seven Years' War

(1756-1763) Triggered by Maria Theresa's desire to regain Silesia. She formed an alliance with the leaders of France and Russia to conquer Prussia and divide up its territories. The war in Europe was inconclusive as Prussia survived with its boundaries unchanged, thanks to Tsar Peter III of Russia, who came to King Frederick's aid. This war spilled over to include French and English conflicts in the North American territories. The fighting began in North America and in the end, the British naval power defeated the French, who were forced to give up all claims in mainland North America, as well as in India. The French kept only Saint-Dominque in the Carribean. This allowed the British to realize its goal of monopolizing a vast trading and colonial empire.

Louis XVI

(r. 1774-1792) French king, was ineffective in improving the poor economic conditions, due to the debt incurred in supporting the American Revolution. He attempted twice to levy a general tax, but was strongly opposed by the notables who demanded he call a session of the Estates General which had not met since 1614. He reluctantly called for the Estates General to meet in 1789, and in 1790 he agreed to a constitutional monarchy. This basically made the king a figurehead, with all lawmaking power held by the National Assembly. During the French Revolution, the monarchy continued to deteriorate. Louis XVI was later accused and found guilty of treason. He was executed on January 21, 1793.

Charles X

(r. 1824-1830) successor to King Louis XVIII of France. He wanted to re-establish the old order of the absolute monarchy. He embarked on a war with Muslim Algeria to rally French nationalism and gain support. The war was ultimately successful, Algeria was conquered, and French colonial expansion was reborn. When he tried to repudiate the Constitutional Charter in 1830, there was a revolt and the government collapsed. Charles fled.

Louis Philippe

(r. 1830-1848) Duke of Orleans, Charles X's cousin, replaced his cousin on the throne by arrangement of the upper middle class who had started the revolt. He accepted the Constitutional Charter of 1814 and adopted the Republican tri-color flag of the French Revolution. Despite these concessions, his reign saw little reform, extending the right to vote to only 70,000 more citizens. This was not enough for the Republicans, democrats, social reformers and poor citizens of Paris. They staged another revolt in Paris on Feb. 22, 1848, and Louis Philippe abdicated the throne to his grandson.

Frederick William IV

(r. 1840-61) autocratic, compassionate monarch of Prussia, promised to grant Prussia a liberal constitution and to merge Prussia into a new national German state.

Ferdinand II

(r.1619-1637) Habsburg emperor during the Thirty Years War. Defeated the Bohemians, and reduced the power of their largely Protestant estates. He repossessed the Protestant nobles land and gave it to the Catholic nobles and foreign mercenaries, creating a new Bohemian nobility. This allowed for the creation of absolutist rule in Bohemia.

Ferdinand III

(r.1637-1657) Habsburg emperor who continued to build state power. He centralized the government in the German state provinces and built up the army.

Peter the Great

(r.1682-1725) Romanov tsar, 6'7", he built the army and expanded the empire. He travelled under cover with 250 nobles to Western European capitals to study their governments and societies. Tried to wage war on Sweden to gain access to the Baltic, but lost. In response, he focused on building his army, requiring every noble to serve in the army for life. He developed schools and universities to train them and required 5 years training for every noble. He strived to westernize Russian civilization.

Steam Engine

A breakthrough invention by Thomas Newcomen in 1705 that burned coal to produce steam, which was then used to operate a pump; the early models were superseded by James Watt's more efficient steam engine, patented in 1769.

Rococo

A popular style in Europe in the eighteenth century, known for its soft pastels, ornate interiors, sentimental, portraits, and starry-eyed lovers protected by hovering cupids.

Claude Monet

A French painter who expressed the power and awe of locomotives in his paintings.

Socialism

A backlash against the emergence of individualism and the fragmentation of society, and a move toward cooperation and a sense of community; the key ideas were economic planning, greater economic equality, and state regulation.

St. Petersburg

A city built by Russian peasants by order of Peter the Great. It was a Western style capitol on the Baltic. Peasants were drafted and forced to work without pay. The building of it was in truth a direct tax levied on the wealthy because the wealthy were forced to settle there and pay for the infrastructure.

Water Frame

A cotton spinning machine created by Richard Arkwright that had a capacity of several hundred spindles and used waterpower; it therefore required a larger and more specialized mill -- a factory.

Laissez Faire

A doctrine of economic liberalism that believes in unrestricted private enterprise and no government interference in the economy.

The Directory

A five-man executive group chosen by the new assembly of France following the Thermidorian Reaction and Robespierre's execution. This Directory continued support of French military expansion abroad as a means to address economic problems. The military reduced unemployment. But the Directory was weak, dictatorial and unprincipled. In 1799, it was ended by Napoleon in a coup d'etat.

Constitutionalism

A form of government in which power is limited by law and valanced between the authority and power of the government on the one hand and the rights and liberties of the subject or citizen on the other hand; could include constitutional monarchies or republics.

Constitutional Monarchy

A form of government in which the king retains his position as head of state, while the authority to tax and make new laws resides in an electoral body.

Republicanism

A form of government which there is no monarch and power rests in the hands of the people as exercised through elected representatives.

Separate Spheres

A gender division of labor with the wife at home as mother and homemaker and the husband as wage earner.

James Watt

A gifted Scotsman who was inspired by the steam engine. He later perfected Newcomen's steam engine, which he patented in 1769. With a partnership made in 1775, Matthew Boulton helped him market it.

Tariff Protection

A government's way of supporting and aiding its own economy by laying high taxes on imported goods from other countries, as when the French responded to cheaper British goods flooding their country by imposing high tariffs on some imported products.

Philosophes

A group of French intellectuals who proclaimed that they were bringing the light of knowledge to their fellow creatures in the Age of Enlightenment.

Laws of Inertia

A law formulated by Galileo that states that motion, not rest, is the natural stat of an object, that an object continues in motion forever unless stopped by some external force.

Estates General

A legislative body in pre-Revolutionary France made up of representatives of each of the three classes, or each of the three classes, or estates; it was called into session in 1789 for the first time since 1614.

Estates General

A legislative body in pre-Revolutionary France made up of representatives of each of the three classes, or estates; it was called into session in 1789 for the first time since 1614.

Reform Bill of 1832

A major British political reform that increased the number of male voters by about 50 percent and gave political representation to new industrial areas.

People's Charter

A manifesto written in 1838 containing the principles of the Parliamentary reform movement in Great Britain.

Congress of Vienna

A meeting of the quadruple Alliance--- Russia, Prussia, Austria, Great Britain---and restoration France to fashion a general peace settlement that began after the defeat of Napoleon's France in 1814.

Girondists

A moderate group that fought for control of the French National Convention.

Jacobin Club

A political club in revolutionary France whose members were well-educated radical republicans.

John Locke

A political philosopher who wrote Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690), in which he defines "natural" rights. Locke maintained that a government that does not protect the natural rights of its citizens becomes a tyranny.

Baroque

A style in art and music in the late 17th and early 18th century. The word may have come from the Portuguese word for an "odd-shaped, imperfect pearl." The style is characterized by drama, motion, and ceaseless striving. The art is lavish decorative the music was inventive, and full of emotion.

Mercantilism

A system of economic regulations aimed at increasing the power of the state based on the belief that a nation's international power was based on the belief that a nations international power was based on its wealth, specifically its supply of gold and silver.

Encomienda System

A system whereby the Spanish crown granted the conquerors the right to forcibly employ groups of Indians; it was a disguised form of slavery.

Dual Revolution

A term that historian Eric Hobsbawm used for the economic and political changes that tended to fuse and reinforce each other after 1815.

Industrial Revolution

A term that was first coined in the 1830's to describe the burst of major inventions and economic expansion that took place in certain industries, such as cotton textiles and iron.

Empiricism

A theory of inductive reasoning that calls for acquiring evidence through observation and experimentation rather than reason and speculation.

Tsar

A title first taken by Ivan IV in 1547. It is infact a contraction of Caesar. The Tsars considered themselves rightful and holy rulers.

Frederick II

Also known as Frederick the Great of Prussia. He was an enlightened absolutist and he believed in religious tolerance. He conquered Silesia from Maria Theresa, triggering the Seven Years War.

Holy Alliance

An alliance formed by the conservative rulers of Austria, Russia, and Prussia in September1815 that became a symbol of the repression of liberal and revolutionary movements all over Europe.

Richard Arkwright

An ex barber, who turned into a manufacturer. He invented the water frame, which could spin several hundred spindles of cotton at one time.

Public Sphere

An idealized intellectual space that emerged in Europe during the Enlightenment, where the public came together to discuss important issues relating to society, economics, and politics.

Class-Consciousness

An individual's sense of class differentiation.

Maria Theresa

Archduchess of Austria. She Levied higher taxes on nobles. Weakened the influence of the Catholic Church by subjecting them to higher taxes and nationalizing monastic property. She banned the works of Voltaire and Rousseau, and the Papal index.

Francisco Pizarro

Conquistador of modest Spanish origins, landed on the northern coast of Peru. His men ambushed, captured, ransomed and killed Atahualpa.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

Controller General to Louis XIV of France from 1665 until he died in 1683, a financial genius. He promoted mercantilism, a system of economic regulations designed to increase the power of the state. His central principal was that the wealth and economy of France should serve the state. He improved and expanded French industry, especially textiles, in the effort to increase exports and decrease dependence on imports. He sponsored expansion and development of France's territories in Canada, as a means to increase resources, and the French Empire.

Tycho Brahe

Danish astronomer built a sophisticated observatory with a grant from the Danish king. He later built one in Prague with the support Emperor Rudolph II. He differed from Copernicus, he believed that all planets except the Earth revolved around the sun.

Schleswig and Holstein

Danish provinces inhabited primarily by Germans, became a sticking point in the effort to unite Germany into a single nation. While working to write a new German federal constitution, the National Assembly declared war on Denmark in order to claim these provinces for Germany. The attempt failed.

Combination Acts

English laws passed in 1799 that outlawed unions and strikes, favoring capitalist business people over skilled artisans. Bitterly resented and widely disregarded by many craft guilds, the acts were repealed by Parliament in 1824.

Francis Bacon

English lawyer and statesman, wrote Novum Organum (1620), He stressed scientific experimentation and observation.

Isaac Newton

English mathematician, physicist, and astronomer. Co-invented calculus with Gottfried Leibnitz. Invented the Scientific Method and the reflective telescope. Studied optics, sounds, and the formation of stars.

John Locke

English medical doctor and philosopher. Believed in empiricism and natural law. He wrote A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689) and Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690).

Pope Leo X

Established the treaty called the Concordat of Bologna with French king Francis I, which gave France control over

Patronage

Financial support of writers and artists by cities groups, and individuals, often to produce specific works or works in specific styles.

Cardinal Richelieu

First Minister of the French Crown from 1628 until his death in 1642; he was instrumental in maintaining the power of the French monarchy of Louis XIII, during and after the Thirty Years War; he developed the intendant system of government, commissioners for each of France's 32 districts, directly appointed by the monarch to collect taxes, recruit military personnel, preside over local law, and regulate economic activity in their district; Richelieu also repressed Protestantism in France, but collaborated with the Lutheran King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden to destroy the Catholic Habsburgs' control of the lands surrounding France.

Andreas Vesalius

Flemish physician, studied anatomy by dissecting human bodies. Published On the Structure of the Human Body (1543).

Galileo Galilei

Florentine scholar who studied mathematics and motion. He pioneered the experimental method. He formulated the law of inertia.

Committee of Public Safety

Formed in April, 1793, it was a committee, led by Robespierre, to deal with the threats of treason etc. from within and outside of France. It was given dictatorial power over the people. They claimed they alone could speak for the general will of the French people. They tried to impose republican unity "on pain of death," if necessary.

Cossacks

Free groups and outlaw armies originally comprising runaway peasants living on the borders of Russian territory from the fourteenth century onward. Vy the end of the sixteenth century they had formed an alliance with the Russian state.

Huguenots

French Protestants of the 16th-17th centuries. Largely Calvinist, the Huguenots suffered severe persecution at the hands of the Catholic majority, and many thousands emigrated from France.

Napoleonic Code

French civil code promulgated in 1804 that reasserted the 1789 principles of the equality of all male citizens before the law and the absolute security of wealth and private property as well as restricting rights accorded to women by previous revolutionary laws.

Baron de Montesquieu

French philosophe who wrote the Persian Letters (1721), a social satire in which he criticized existing social customs and beliefs. He argued for separation of powers in government in his work The Spirit of Laws (1748).

Denis Diderot

French philosophe. Along with d'Alembert, he edited the seventeen volume Encyclopedia: The Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, the Arts, and the Crafts (1765). He wanted the Encyclopedia to change the general way of thinking.

Rene Descartes

French scholar, mathematician, and philosopher. He discovered analytic geometry, and wrote Discourse on Method (1637).

Jean Jacques Rousseau

French speaking Swiss philosophe. He wrote The Social Contract (1762), which introduced two fundamental concepts, the "general will" and "popular sovereignty."

"Time of Troubles"

From 1598 to 1613 in Russia, after the death of Ivan the Terrible and his successor. It was a chaotic period marked by a struggle for power as well as drought, crop failure, plague, and Cossack rebellions.

Crystal Palace

In 1851, Britain hosted the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All the Nations. The Exhibition Hall was constructed completely of glass and iron, now widely available, and it was in a centrally located park.

English Civil War

From 1642 to 1649. It pitted the power of the king against that of the Parliament. Charles I recruited his own army from the nobility, cavalry, rural gentry, and mercenaries. Parliament's army was called the "New Model Army" it was made up of the militia of London and country squires. The NMA defeated the king's army at Naseby and Langport in 1645, but the king refused to concede. Cromwell captured Charles I, who was tried and beheaded in 1649.

Catherine the Great

German Princess who married Peter III of Russia, and then deposed him and had him killed. An enlightened absolutist who westernized the imagination of the Russian nobility.

Johannes Kepler

German astronomer, was an assistant to Brahe. Unlike Brahe, he was an excellent mathematician. Through his study of Brahe's observations, he determined that planets orbits are elliptical, changed speed, and the duration of a planet's orbit is directly related to its distance from the sun. Whereas Copernicus had speculated, Kepler mathematically proved the heliocentric model.

Martin Luther

German doctor of theology, professor, and priest. He wrote "Ninety-five Theses on the Power of Indulgences," which criticized the Roman Catholic Church. He was later excommunicated by the Catholic Church and led the Protestant movement.

Friedrich List

German journalist and thinker who suggested that industrializing his country was very important. Industrializing the infrastructure of the country would also protect the nation. He wrote the National System of Political Economy in 1841. List was against tariffs on the railroad, but he supported protective tariffs that helped small industries grow. He did not want Britain to dominate the world.

Immanuel Kant

German philosopher, tutor, and professor. Believed it was not unreasonable to believe in God. He wrote What is Enlightenment (1784), in which he answered "Dare to know."

Johann Gottfried von Herder

German thinker who criticized Kant and challenged the ideas of racial inequality.

Luddites

Group of handicraft workers who attacked whole factories in northern England in 1812 and after, smashing the new machines that they believed were putting them out of work.

Thomas Malthus

He wrote Essay on the Principle of Population. He was not optimistic about the population increase in Great Britain.

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor, grandson of Maximilian and Mary, inherited the vast empire of the Hapsburgs. He was a vigorous defender of Catholicism, called Luther into question at the Diet of Worms. He believed he was destined to lead a world monarchy, and felt it his responsibility to maintain the political and religious unity of Western Christendom.

Frederick III

Holy Roman Emperor, ruled most of Austria, was a member of the Hapsburg Dynasty. The Hapsburgs increased their power and territory through a series of advantageous marriages. Frederick III gained some territory and much wealth through his marriage to Princess Eleonore of Portugal in 1452. His son Maximilian married Mary of Burgundy, which gained the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and the County of Burgundy (eastern France) for the Hapsburgs.

Robert Boyle

Irishman who founded the modern science of chemistry. He used the experimental method. He believed everything was composed of atoms, he was the first to create a vacuum, and he discovered Boyle's law.

Carlsbad Decrees

Issued in 1819, these decrees were designed to uphold Metternich's conservatism, requiring the German states to rot out subversive ideas and squelch any liberal organizations.

Michael Romanov

Ivan the Terrible's grand nephew. Elected new hereditary tsar following the Time of Troubles in Russia (r.1613-1645). Reconsolidated central authority, but did not improve life for the common people.

Henry VIII

King of England, who severed ties with the Roman Catholic Church, and made himself head of the church in England. He did this initially to end his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. He also dissolved the English monasteries, which gained him land, wealth, and the loyalty of the English upper class.

Philip II

King of Spain who during the inflationary period of the late 1500s, wrote off the state debt, undermining confidence in the government and leaving the economy in shambles.

Mundus Novus

Latin term for "New World," as used by Amerigo Vespucci, when he determined that the coast of now South America was not a part of the eastern hemisphere.

The Mountain

Led by Robespierre, the French National Convention's radical faction, which seized legislative power in 1793.

Test Act

Legislation passed by the English parliament in 1673 to secure the position of the Anglican Church by stripping Puritans, Catholics and other dissenters of the right t vote preach assemble hold public office, and attend or teach at the universities.

William & Mary

Mary was James II's Protestant daughter. Prince William of Orange was her Dutch husband. They were crowned king and queen of England in 1689. They accepted the throne from Parliament, recognizing the supremacy of Parliament. This ended the divine-right monarchy in England.

Puritans

Members of a sixteenth and seventeenth-century reform movement within the Church of England that advocated purifying it of Roman Catholic elements, such as bishops, elaborate ceremonials, and wedding rings.

Laws of Universal Gravitation

Newton's law that all objects are attracted to one another and that the force of attraction is proportional to the object's quantity of matter and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Bastille

Once a medieval fortress in Paris, in 1789 it was a royal prison guarded by eighty retired soldiers and thirty Swiss mercenaries. On July 14, 1789, several hundred Parisian citizens stormed the Bastille to search for weapons and gunpowder, in their effort to arm themselves. The guards killed 98 people attempting to enter, but eventually the governor of the prison surrendered, and was killed by the crowd. This popular uprising caused King Louis XVI to back down. He reinstated his liberal finance minister and withdrew troops from Paris. The National Assembly was allowed to resume its work to reform the government.

Economic nationalism

Policies aimed at protecting and developing a country's economy.

Nicolaus Copernicus

Polish cleric who studied astronomy, medicine, and church law. He believed in the Greek idea that the sun rather than the Earth was at the center of the universe.

Prince Henry the Navigator

Portuguese Prince who sponsored annual expeditions from Portugal down the western coast of Africa, earning his nickname.

Ferdinand Magellan

Portuguese mariner who made the first successful voyage around the world in 1519, commissioned by Charles V of Spain. Magellan discovered the Strait of Magellan, a passage at the southern part of South America. He passed through and named the new ocean, The Pacific. The journey took three years and was completed by his crew in 1522, since Magellan was killed in the Philipines.

Salons

Regular social gatherings held by talented and rich Parisian women in their homes, where philosophes and their followers met to discuss literature, science, and philosophy.

Voodoo

Religious practices created by slaves on Saint-Domingue which combined Catholicism and African cults.

Andrew Ure

Scottish doctor, and scholar who disagreed with Engels and others. In his 1835 study of the British cotton industry, he found the conditions in most factories were not harsh and were even quite good.

The Tempest

Shakespeare's last play. The subject reflects the racial and religious complexities of this period of Imperial conquest and settlement.

Hernando Cortes

Spanish conquistador who led an exploratory voyage in 1519 from Spanish Cuba, landing on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. There he broke ties with Spain and founded the settlement of Vera Cruz. He made alliances with other native kingdoms. He defeated Montezuma and the Mexican Empire.

Conquistadors

Spanish for conqueror; Spanish soldier explorers such as Hernando Cortes and Francisco Pizarro, who sought to conquer the New World for the Spanish crown.

Sultan Suleiman

Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, aka. Suleiman the Magnificent. Known for marrying his concubine Hurrem, a former slave from Poland. In 1526, he defeated the Hungarians on the plain of Mohacs .

Ulrich Zwingli

Swiss humanist, priest, and church reformer. He believed that scripture alone would bring salvation. He admired Erasmus of Rotterdam. With Martin Luther, he started the Protestant reformation.

Paracelsus

Swiss physician and alchemist, an early component of the experimental method in medicine. He experimented with the use of chemicals and drugs.

Enlightened Absolutism

Term coined by historians to describe the rule of eighteenth-century monarchs who, without renouncing their own absolute authority, adopted Enlightenment ideals of rationalism, progress, and tolerance.

Treaty of Tordesillas

The 1494 agreement giving Spain every thing west of an imaginary line drown down the Atlantic and giving Portugal everything east.

Protectorate

The English military dictatorship established by Oliver Cromwell following the execution of Charles I.

Haskalah

The Jewish Enlightenment of the second half of the eighteenth century, led by the Prussian philosopher Moses Mendelssohn.

Experimental Method

The approach, pioneered by Galileo, that the proper way to explore the workings of the universe was through repeatable experiments rather than speculation.

French Classicism

The art and literature of the age of Louis XIV in France. The artists and writers of the late seventeenth century imitated the subject matter and style of classical antiquity, their work resembled that of Renaissance Italy, and French art possessed the classical qualities of disciplined balance and restraint.

Janissary Corps

The core of the sultan's army, composed of slave conscripts from non-Muslim parts of the empire; after 1683 it became a volunteer force.

Grand Empire

The empire over which Napoleon and his allies ruled, encompassing virtually all of Europe except Great Britain and Prussia.

Glorious Revolution

The events of 1688 and 1689 in England. James II fled the country and was replaced by William and Mary with minimum bloodshed. It ended divine right monarchy in England. Sovereign power was divided between the king and Parliament. The king ruled with the consent of the governed.

Colombian Exchange

The exchange of animals, plants, and diseases between the Old and the New Worlds.

Stadholder

The executive officer in each of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, a position of ten held by the princes of Orange.

National Assembly

The first French revolutionary legislature, made up primarily of representatives of the third estate and a few from the nobility and clergy, in session from 1789 to 1791.

Henry IV

The founder of the Bourbon Dynasty (r. 1589-1610), aka Henry the Great. He acquired a devastated France. He ended civil wars and peasants starvations, issued the Edict of Nantes, lowered taxes, and improved the infrastructure of France. Despite his efforts at peace, he was murdered in 1610 by a Catholic zealot, sparking a national crisis.

Boyars

The highest-ranking members of the Russian nobility.

Nationalism

The idea that each people had its own genius and its own specific unity, which manifested itself especially in a common language and history, and often led to the desire for an independent political state.

Copernican Hypothesis

The idea that the sun, not the Earth, was the center of the universe.

Proletariat

The industrial working class who, according to Marx, were unfairly exploited by the profit-seeking bourgeoisie.

Enlightenment

The influential intellectual and cultural movement of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries that introduced a new worldview based on the use of reason, the scientific method, and progress.

Sans-culottes

The laboring poor of Paris, so called because the men wore trousers instead of the knee breeches of the aristocracy and middle class; the word came to refer to the militant radicals of the city.

Bourgeoisie

The middle-class minority who owned the means of production and, according to Marx, exploited the working class proletariat.

Bourgeoisie

The middle-class minority who owned the means of production and, according to Marx, exploited the working-class proletariat.

Viceroyalties

The name for the four administrative units of Spanish possessions in the Americas: New Spain, Peru, New Granada, and La Plata.

Rocket

The name given to George Stephenson's effective locomotive that was first tested in 1830 on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway at 16 miles per hour.

Junkers

The nobility of Brandenburg and Prussia, they were reluctant allies of Frederick William in his consolidation of the Prussian state.

Reign of Terror

The period from 1793 to 1794 during which Robespierre's Committee of Public Safety tried and executed thousands suspected of treason and a new revolutionary culture was imposed.

Liberalism

The principal ideas of this movement were equality and liberty; liberals demanded representative government and equality before the law as well as individual freedoms such as freedom of the press, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and freedom from arbitrary arrest.

Great Famine

The result of four years of potato crop failure in Ireland, a country that had grown dependent on potatoes as a dietary staple.

Sultan

The ruler of the Ottoman Empire; he owned all the agricultural land of the empire and was served by an army and bureaucracy composed of highly trained slaves.

Estates

The three legal categories, or orders, of France's inhabitants: the clergy, the nobility, and everyone else.

Reading Revolution

The transition in Europe from a society where literacy consisted of patriarchal and communal reading of religious texts to a society where literacy was common-place and reading material was broad and diverse.

Quadruple Alliance

The union of the conservative, aristocratic monarchies: Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain.

Iron Law of Wages

Theory proposed by English economist David Ricardo suggesting that the pressure of population growth prevents wages from rising above the subsistence level.

Hundred Days

When Napoleon abdicated his throne in 1814, he was exiled to the island of Elba. The Hundred Days refers to a period of 111 days, beginning March 20, 1815, when he escaped and returned to Paris to reclaim control, up to the reinstatement of King Louis XVIII on July 8, 1815. The allies united against Napoleon, and defeated him at Waterloo on June 18, 1815. He was then exiled to St. Helena where he died in 1821.

On the Structure of the Human Body

Written by Andreas Vesalius in 1543, its 200 precise drawings revolutionized the understanding of human anatomy.

The Condition of the Working Class in England

Written by Friedrich Engels in 1844. Engels harshly criticizes the English middle class for what he considered the evils of industrial capitalism and the poverty and harsh working conditions it caused in England.

The New Astronomy

Written by Johannes Kepler in 1609. It introduces Kepler's first two laws of planetary motion regarding elliptical orbits and varying speed of planets in orbit.

Second Treatise of Civil Government

Written by John Locke in 1690. It defines natural rights of life, liberty, and property. It maintains that a government that does not protect the natural rights of its citizens becomes a tyranny. In the case of a tyranny the citizens have the right to rebellion. It supports the idea of limiting the vote to property owners. These ideas were especially popular in the American colonies.

Essay Concerning Human Understanding

Written by John Locke in 1690. It was the first major text of the Enlightenment. It explains his theory of how humans learn and form ideas. Locke believed all ideas are derived from experience.

The Spirit of Laws

Written by Montesquieu in 1748, a comparative study of republics, monarchies, and despotisms. He believed in separation of powers in government.

The Social Contract

Written by Rousseau in 1762. It developed the idea of "noble savage," men are born good, but eventually corrupted by society. The Judeo-Christian idea of original sin is challenged. He said that government ought to implement "general will" the wants of the majority.

Essay on the Principle of Population

Written by Thomas Malthus in 1798. He said that society will always try to make itself better, population will increase from better health and living conditions, but population has checks and balances. To minimize the ugly population dockers like war, famine, and disease, you must have "prudential restrain." In other words young men and women must marry later in life. Malthus did not think it was possible for them to marry later in life. He thought that the attraction of the sexes would make people marry earlier.

Concordat of Bologna

a 1516 treaty between King Francis I of France and Pope Leo X which approved the Pope's right to receive the first year's income of new bishops and abbots. In return, Leo X recognized the French ruler's right to select French bishops and abbots.

William Wordsworth

a British poet, and an important leader of English romanticism. His idea of poetry was the "spontaneous overflow of powerful feeling recollected in tranquility." He used ordinary speech to describe simple subjects and to endow them with lofty majesty. One example is found in his poem, "Daffodils." He had been influenced by Rousseau and Enlightenment ideas, but his youthful radicalism gave way to middle-aged caution.

Zheng He

a Chinese admiral and explorer, travelled as far west as Egypt, made seven voyages involving hundreds of ships and tens of thousands of men, covering most of the Eastern Hemisphere.

Magnetic Compass

a Chinese invention, containing a magnetized pointer that shows the direction of magnetic north, which enabled sailors to determine their direction and position at sea.

Dutch East India Company

a Dutch trading company founded in 1602 with the stated intention of capturing the spice trade on the Indian Ocean from the Portuguese, who had dominated this enterprise. Unlike the Portuguese who treated the East Indian states and peoples as independent and autonomous business partners, the Dutch established outright control and reduced the East Indians to dependents.

Amerigo Vespucci

a Florentine navigator, who realized what Columbus did not, as he explored the coast of Venezuela. He declared that this was a New World, Mundus Novus.

Christopher Columbus

a Genoese explorer who, in 1492, convinced Ferdinand and Isabella to sponsor his westward voyage from Spain in search of a direct ocean trade route to Asia. On this voyage, he discovered the islands now called the Bahamas, in the western hemisphere. He named them San Salvador, claiming them for Spain.

Karl Marx

a German innovator of socialist philosophy, co-authored The Communist Manifesto with Friedrich Engels. He believed that the working class were unfairly exploited by the profit-seeking, capitalist, industrialist bourgeoisie.

Baruch Spinoza

a Jewish philosopher excommunicated by his Jewish community in Amsterdam for his controversial religious ideas that mind and body are united in one substance and that God and nature are one in the same.

Oliver Cromwell

a member of the English House of Commons, controlled the new model army which defeated the forces of Charles I. Cromwell essentially ruled England from 1653-1658, as a military dictator, and was called the Lord Protector. He was a devote Puritan, interested in purifying the Church of England of all Roman Catholic influences. He adopted a mercantilist system of economic rules for England.

Abbe de Sieyes

a member of the first estate (clergy) in France. He believed that the third estate (a vast majority of the population) were the true strength of the nation, and should have more legislative power. His pamphlet, "What is the Third Estate?" explains his revolutionary ideas, and prompted his key role in the outbreak of the French Revolution.

Friedrich Engels

a middle-class German who accepted the pessimistic views of Malthus and Ricardo. He condemned the middle class for the poverty of the industrial workers. He had a socialist viewpoint, as he was a colleague of Karl Marx.

Alexis de Tocqueville

a moderate republican and author of Democracy in America. He opposed socialism, and noted that the socialist movement in France evoked fierce hostility in France's peasants.

Romanticism

a movement at its height from about 1790 to the 1840's that was in part a revolt against classicism and the Enlightenment, characterized by a belief in emotional exuberance, unrestrained imagination, and spontaneity in both art and personal life.

The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1831)

a novel written by Victor Hugo, exemplifying the romantic fascination with fantastic characters, exotic historical settings, and human emotions. The hero of the novel is the deformed bell-ringer, Quasimodo, described as a "human gargoyle." The story is set in 15th century Paris.

Three-year rotations

a pattern of farming in which, on each fertile strip of land, a year of wheat or rye was followed by a year of oats or beans, and then followed by a year of fallow, or idling of the field. This replaced the less productive alternation of a year of cropping followed by a year of fallow. This important achievement allowed for cash crops to be grown two years out of three, rather than only every other year. By staggering the crop rotation from farm to farm, peasants could assure the availability of wheat, legumes, and pastureland every year.

Habsburg Dynasty

a powerful ruling family of the Holy Roman Empire. The Hapsburgs increased their power and territory through a series of advantageous marriages. Frederick III married Princess Eleonore of Portugal. Their son Maximilian married Mary of Burgundy, which gained the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and the County of Burgundy (eastern France) for the Hapsburgs. Maximilian married his children to those of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. His grandson became Emperor Charles V.

Habsburgs

a powerful ruling family of the Holy Roman Empire. They supported the unity of the empire and the preservation of Catholicism within it.

Bengal

a region in the northeast of the Indian subcontinent that contains the Ganges and Brahmaputra river deltas. In 1764, the English East India Company defeated the Mughal emperor, leaving him as ruler in title only. Robert Clive, a company agent who had led its forces in battle, became the first British governor general of Bengal, with direct authority over this British province.

Navigation Acts

a series of English laws that controlled the import of goods to Britain and Britain's colonies.

Peace of Utrech

a series of treaties, from 1713 to 1715, that ended the War of the Spanish Succession, ended French expansion in Europe, and marked the rise of the British Empire.

Habsburg-Valois Wars

a series of wars between France and the Holy Roman Empire, named for the French and Austrian dynastic families. They were fought in Italy along the eastern and southern borders of France and eventually in Germany.

Cottage Industry

a stage of industrial development in which rural workers used hand tools in their homes to manufacture goods on a large scale for sale in a market.

Millet System

a system used by the Ottomans whereby subjects were divided into religious communities with each millet (nation) enjoying autonomous self-government under its religious leader's.

Othello

a tragic play written by William Shakespeare, about a character known as the Moor of Venice, Othello. Moor in Shakespeare's time referred to Muslims, from Morocco or northern Africa. The play contains themes of race, love, jealousy and betrayal.

Holy Office

the ecclesiastical court of the Roman Catholic Church established as the final court of appeal in trials of heresy, formed in 1542 as part of the Inquisition.

Leviathan

a treatise written in 1651 by English philosopher Thomas Hobbes, promoting a social contract in which all members of society placed themselves under the absolute rule of a monarch, who would maintain peace and order. In the treatise, Hobbes describes society as a body with the monarch as the head, and the individual subjects as the body. As the body cannot sever its own head, nor can the subjects rise up against the king. This was in response to the execution of King Charles I.

Peace of Augsburg

a treaty between Emperor Charles V and an alliance of Lutheran princes, on September 25, 1555, at the imperial city of Augsburg, now in present-day Bavaria, Germany. It ended the religious struggle between the two groups and officially recognized Lutheranism within the Holy Roman Empire.

Union of Utrecht

a treaty signed on 23 January 1579 in Utrecht, the Netherlands, unifying the northern provinces of the Netherlands, until then under the control of Habsburg Spain.

Ivan IV

aka. Ivan the Terrible, (r.1533-1584), He ascended to the throne at 3, his mother died when he was 8, and he crowned himself tsar at 16. He defeated the Mongols. He increased the size of the Russian empire. He created a new nobility by killing off most of the Boyars and their families. He made all commoners servants of the tsar.

Mexica Empire

also known as the Aztec Empire, a large and complex Native American civilization, in modern day Mexico and Central America. It possessed advanced mathematical, astronomical, and engineering technology.

Johann Gottfried von Herder

an 18th c. philosopher and historian who argued that each people had its own genius and its own cultural unity. He established the foundations of cultural nationalism in his work, Ideas for the Philosophy of History of Humanity (1784-91). He advocated the preservation of national traditions but not the creation of nation-states.

Thomas Hobbes

an English philosopher who believed that man is intrinsically greedy and power hungry. If left to his own devices, he will compete violently for wealth and power. Hobbes promoted the idea of an absolute but benevolent monarchy as the solution to this problem. The monarch was to maintain peace and order, and the subjects were not to rise up against their king.

Concordat of 1801

an agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII intended to heal the Catholic Church in France. It granted the right for French Catholics to practice their religion freely, but established political power over the Church to Napoleon and his government. The government nominated bishops, paid the clergy, and maintained significant influence over the church in France.

Protestant Union

an alliance formed by Lutheran princes in 1608 to thwart the religious and territorial advances of Catholics. In the Thirty Years War, it battled the Catholic League in Bohemia, but lost.

Catholic League

an alliance formed in 1609 in opposition to the Protestant Union. Each alliance was determined that the other should make no religious or territorial advance.

Diet of Worms

an assembly of the nobility, clergy, and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V's imperial diet at Worms (Germany) in 1521, at which Martin Luther was summoned to appear. Luther committed himself there to the cause of Protestant reform, and his teaching was formally condemned in the Edict of Worms.

John Calvin

an early Protestant reformer who believed that God alone was the supreme head of the Church. He wrote The Institutes of Christian Religion, which details his views on Christianity. He believed in the absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God, and the total weakness of humanity.

Natural Philosophy

an early modern term for the study of the nature of the universe, its purpose, and how it functioned; it encompassed what we would call "science" today.

Council of Trent

an ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church, held in three sessions between 1545 and 1563 in Trento, Italy. Prompted by the opposition of the Reformation, the council clarified and redefined the church's doctrine, abolished many ecclesiastical abuses, and strengthened the authority of the papacy. These measures provided the church with a solid foundation for the Counter-Reformation.

Edict of Nantes

an edict of 1598 signed by Henry IV of France granting toleration to Protestants and ending the French Wars of Religion.

Predestination

an idea promoted by John Calvin, like fate; the divine foreordaining of all that will happen, esp. with regard to the salvation of some and not others. It has been particularly associated with the teachings of St. Augustine of Hippo and of Calvin.

Jethro Tull

an important English innovator who developed better methods of agriculture by using empirical research. He advocated for the use of horses rather than slower oxen for plowing, and for drilling methods for sowing seeds rather than scattering seed by hand.

Malacca

an important port in the South China Sea, during the 15th century. Goods from China, the Moluccas, the Philippines, and India came through this port.

Astrolabe

an instrument invented by the ancient Greeks and perfected by the Muslim navigators, used to determine the altitude of the sun and other celestial bodies, allowed navigators to plot their position in relation to the equator.

Saint-Dominque

an island in the West Indies, to the west of the island of Hispaniola. In the later 18th century, the white population passed laws there prohibiting whites from marrying non whites, and requiring distinctive type of dress according to race.

Georges Jacques Danton

another lawyer, and a member of the radical "Mountain" faction of the Jacobin Club, who pushed for a more extreme revolution. He was a famous orator and influential in the revolution. He was sent to the guillotine by Robespierre in March 1794 during the Reign of Terror.

Voltaire

born Francois Marie Arouet, French playwright and philosophe. He was the most well known philosophe. He criticized the Roman Catholic Church. He supported the freedom of speech and press. He wrote more than seventy works.

Mary, Queen of Scots

cousin of Elizabeth I, and heir to the throne of England. She was a Catholic, and Elizabeth had her imprisoned during her reign to prevent Mary from plotting her assassination. She never ruled, and was eventually beheaded.

Napoleon Bonaparte

crowned himself emperor of France in 1804. He was the son of a minor noble, studied in French military schools, and became a successful military leader. He was a popular war hero and was seen as someone who could provide order. He established the Consulate, based on the Triumvirate model, a 3 consul system with Napoleon as the 1st and most important consul. He unified the legal system in France under his Code Napoleon, which included equality of all people before the law. His empire lasted until 1814.

Mary Tudor

daughter and only offspring of Catherine of Aragon and King Henry VIII. Mary became queen of England after Edward VI. She was married to her cousin Philip II, son of Emperor Charles V, and ruled England for five years. She was a devout Catholic and restored Roman Catholicism in England.

Elizabeth I

daughter of Ann Boleyn and Henry VIII. She was raised Protestant, and ruled as queen of England following Mary Tudor, for 45 years. She reestablished the Protestant Church of England and named herself "governor" of this church, in order to create compromise between the steadfast Roman Catholics and the extreme puritanical Protestants among her subjects. She did not "want to make windows into men's souls."

Charles Fourier

described as a lonely, saintly man, he hoped for a socialist utopia of mathematically precise, self-sufficient communities, each consisting of 1,620 people. He promoted the total emancipation of women and the abolition of marriage. Many found his ideas shocking and immoral.

Charles II

eldest son of Charles I, raised in France. He tried to work with both Houses of Parliament, but they did not pay him enough. He made an agreement with cousin Louis XIV of France, in exchange for money, Charles II would convert to Catholicism himself and gradually re-Catholicize England. This caused renewed anti-Catholic sentiment in England.

British East India Company (aka English East India Company)

established in 1600, the main rival to the Dutch company. It focused on the lucrative trade in silks, textiles, and pepper from India, relying on trade concessions from the powerful Mughal emperor, who granted limited access to the subcontinent, until 1716 when the Mughals conceded empire-wide trading privileges.

Bourbon Monarchy

founded in 1589 by Henry IV of France. His successors were Louis XIII and Louis XIV. Together they built a stronger more centralized French state.

Ignatius Loyola

founder of the Society of Jesus, the Jesuit order of priests. He was formerly a soldier who after becoming wounded in battle, gave up his career in the military to become a "soldier of Christ." He wrote Spiritual Exercises as a training program to enable individuals to follow the will of God.

Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations

groundbreaking work by Adam Smith written in 1776, in which he develops the general idea of freedom of enterprise and establishes the basis for modern economics. Smith believed in a free market system, without government regulation in trade and industry.

Mestizo

in Latin America, the name given to a man of mixed race, especially the

Ghana

in West Africa, the source of most of the gold imported by Europe in the 15th century. It was inhabited by the Akan people.

Potosi

in present day Bolivia, the site of a silver mine discovered by the Spanish, which yielded 60 percent of all the silver in the world. Spain gained tremendous wealth all at once from this discovery.

Michel de Montaigne

influential writer of the French Renaissance, developed the new literary genre, the essay. He criticized the use of the term "barbarous" used to describe the native people and cultures of the New World. He wrote in French rather than the usual Latin.

The Communist Manifesto (1848)

know as the "bible" of Marxist socialism, coauthored by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, it calls for a revolution of the exploited working class proletariat against their oppressors, the capitalist bourgeoisie. It explains that class conflict has predominated all of history, and it predicts and supports violent revolt by the working class in order to produce a more equal social order.

Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm

known as "the brothers Grimm," and authors of the famous Grimms' Fairy Tales, they collaborated to successfully rescue German fairy tales and folk tales from oblivion. They collected, retold and published them, giving voice to the language, customs, and dialects of the peasantry.

Pedro Alvares Cabral

led a voyage in 1500, which landed on the coast of Brazil, which he claimed for Portugal.

Natural Rights

life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, as protected by the Declaration of Independence. They were also protected by Constitutionalism, a form of government developed in England and Holland.

Incas

lived in modern day Peru, an empire which rivaled the size and complexity of those of Europe. It was attacked by the Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro.

Jesuits

members of the Society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic order of priests founded by St. Ignatius Loyola, St. Francis Xavier, and others in 1534, to do missionary work. The order was zealous in opposing the Reformation.

William Shakespeare

most famous English author and playwright, of the Elizabethan era, skillfully portrayed the human experience in tragic and comedic dramas, such as Othello, Hamlet and Macbeth.

Maximilien Robespierre

most prominent figure of the Convention phase of the French Revolution. He was an attorney and member of the Mountain faction of the Jacobins. He sought to build a "Republic of Virtue" for France, a government based on virtue, unselfish public spirit and civic zeal.

Aztecs

natives of modern Mexico, ruled the Mexica Empire during the Spanish Conquests.

Society of Jesus

official name of the Jesuits.

Anticlericalism

opposition to the power and influence of the clergy, especially in politics.

Versailles

originally a hunting lodge built by Louis XIII of France, it was expanded into a vast and lavish palace by his son, Louis XIV. Became the center of political, social, and cultural life for the French Monarchy, just outside Paris, and the showcase for France to the world. The palace became a model for those of other European absolute monarchies, such as Vienna and Sweden. At Versailles, Louis XIV was attended and served by his many great nobles, in his everyday rituals.

Bartolome de Las Casas

outspoken Franciscan missionary who criticized the Spanish brutality against the native people of the New World. He argued for the human rights of the natives, and persuaded Charles V to abolish the worst abuses of the Encomienda System in 1531.

Creole

people of Spanish ancestry born in the Americas.

Book of Common Prayer

prepared by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer of England in 1549, as a means of simplifying the liturgy of the Protestant Church of England. It was later approved by the English Parliament.

Persia

present day Middle East, a Shiite Muslim empire, which was a major producer and exporter of silk.

Bartholomew Diaz

rounded the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa, but storms and threats of mutiny forced him to return to Portugal.

Atahualpa

ruler of the Incan empire, who tried to lure Pizarro and his men into a trap, to steal their horses, enslave their strongest men, and execute the rest. He was killed by Pizarro's men.

Montezuma II

ruler of the Mexica Empire, who refrained from attacking Cortes and the Spaniards, and welcomed them into his capital. He was later kidnapped and killed by Cortes.

Vasco da Gama

sailed for Spain, rounded the Cape of Good Hope to reach India but failed to establish trade with the local powers.

Charles I

son of James I, continued the Stuart tradition of absolutism and divine right. Like his father, he held that as sovereign, he enjoyed Royal Prerogative, virtually unrestricted power. Charles I reigned from 1625 to 1640. For most of that time, he ruled without Parliament. He supported his government through extraordinary stop gap levies, which most English people thought were illegal. He also attempted to impose the Anglican Church on Scotland, causing a revolt.

Victor Hugo

son of a Napoleonic general, he was a romantic poet and novelist. His novels included fantastic characters, exotic historical settings, and human emotions. One example is his famous novel, The Hunchback of Notre Dame. Hugo renounced his early conservatism and grew to view freedom in literature much the same as liberty in politics and society.

Putting-out system

the 18th century system of rural industry in which a merchant loaned raw materials to cottage workers, who processed them and returned the finished product to the merchant.

Klemens von Metternich

the Austrian foreign minister from 1809 to 1848. He was a cosmopolitan and possessed a firm conservative view. He was pessimistic about human nature, believing that people would always make mistakes, and would always be selfish and greedy. He defended the rights of his class, being a noble, though born into the middle-class. He deemed strong governments necessary as a safety net to protect society. He condemned liberal middle-class revolutionaries for stirring up the lower classes, which by his judgement wanted nothing but, "peace and quiet." He saw liberalism as a threat to the Austrian Empire.

The Anglican Church

the Church of England, headed by the Archbishop of Canterbury.

Calvinism

the Protestant theological system of John Calvin and his successors, which develops Luther's doctrine of justification by faith alone and emphasizes the grace of God and the doctrine of predestination.

excommunication

the act of officially excluding (someone) from participation in the sacraments and services of the Christian Church.

Simony

the buying or selling of ecclesiastical privileges, for example pardons or benefices.

Tenochtitlan

the capital of the Mexica Empire, now called Mexico City. Larger than any European city at that time, it was a highly advanced cultural center.

Pluralism

the clerical practice of holding more than one church benefice at the same time and enjoying the income from each.

Nicholas I

the conservative king of Russia (r. 1825-1855), who aided the newly crowned emperor, Francis Joseph of Austria, to defeat the revolutionaries in Hungary with 130,000 Russian troops. This allowed the Habsburgs to maintain control of Hungary as a conquered territory.

Catherine of Aragon

the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, who married Henry VIII of England. When she failed to produce a male heir, the king broke with the Roman Catholic Church in order to divorce her.

James I

the first English monarch of the Stuart Dynasty, reigned from 1603 to 1625. He had previously served as king of Scotland. He believed in absolutism, and that he had a divine right to his authority and answered only to God. King James I sponsored the establishment of Jamestown colony in 1607, and the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1620, in the New World.

Ludwig von Beethoven

the first and most enduringly famous musical composer of the romantic era. He used contrasting themes and tones to produce dramatic conflict and inspiring resolutions. He composed a great deal of music for a variety of voices and instrumentations, including 9 full symphonies for orchestra. He gradually became completely deaf, but continued to compose until the end of his life.

Atlantic Slave Trade

the forced migration of Africans across the Atlantic for slave labor on plantations and in other industries; the trade reached its peak in the 18th century and ultimately involved more than 12 million Africans.

Giuseppe Mazzini

the leading prophet of Italian nationalism and unification before 1848, founded the secret society called Young Italy to fight for the unification of the Italian states into a democratic republic. He believed that common language determined nationality, and that each nationality required a politically independent nation-state. He believed this framework would preserve freedom, democracy, social justice and peace in Europe. He wrote a collection of essays, The Duties of Man, in 1858, addressed to Italian workingmen.

Louis XIV

the longest reigning absolute monarch in European history. His reign defines the term "absolute monarchy." He ruled France from 1643 to 1715 without a First Minister, sharing power with no one. He believed he ruled by divine right, that is with power endowed by God. He built the lavish palace at Versailles. He furthered the repression of Protestantism in France initiated by Richelieu, by revoking the Edict of Nantes, prohibiting Protestant worship. He spent a lot of money, waged a lot of wars, and left France in economic ruin by the end of his reign.

Aleksander Pushkin

the most influential of all Russian poets, rejected 18th century classicism and molded the modern literary language with his lyrical style.

Enclosure

the movement to fence in fields in order to farm more effectively, at the expense of poor peasants who relied on common fields for farming and pasture.

Protestant

the name originally given to Lutherans, which came to mean all non Catholic western Christian groups. Protestants are so called after the declaration of Martin Luther and his supporters dissenting from the decision of the Diet of Spires (1529), which reaffirmed the edict of the Diet of Worms against the Reformation. All Protestants reject the authority of the papacy, both religious and political, and find authority in the text of the Bible.

Guild System

the organization of artisanal production into trade-based associations, or guilds, each of which received a monopoly over its trade and the right to train apprentices and hire workers.

Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis

the peace treaty which ended the Hapsburg-Valois wars between France and Italy. France renounces its claim in Italy but wins the Three Bishoprics (Metz, Toul and Verdun) in Lorraine and the Pale of Calais from England.

Agricultural Revolution

the period in Europe from the mid-17th through the mid-19th centuries during which great agricultural progress was made and the fallow, or idling of a field to replenish nutrients was gradually eliminated.

Industrious Revolution

the shift that occurred as families in northwestern Europe focused on earning wages instead of producing goods for household consumption; this reduced their economic self-sufficiency but increased their ability to purchase consumer goods.

The Enterprise of the Indies

the title of Columbus's first western voyage, in which he intended to find a direct ocean trading route to Asia.

Proletarianization

the transformation of large numbers of small peasant farmers into landless rural wage earners.

Treaty of Paris

the treaty that ended the Seven Years' War in Europe and the colonies in 1763, and ratified British victory on all colonial fronts.

Olaudah Equino

was captured as a slave in his native Benin (Africa), and taken to Barbados. He was then taken to England by his owner, a British Navy officer, and given some education. He was baptized Christian, and served as Captain's Boy during the Seven Years War. He was allowed to trade for his own profit by a later owner, and by age 21, he purchased his freedom. He campaigned against slavery and wrote his own autobiography.

Organization of Work (1839)

written by French socialist, Louis Blanc, it encouraged government to sponsor cooperative workshops for workers to guarantee employment, as an alternative to competitive capitalist employment.

The Institutes of the Christian Religion

written by John Calvin and published first in 1536, and in final form in 1559. It describes Calvin's ideas regarding the absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God, and the total weakness of humanity. Calvin explains his belief in predestination, that man cannot achieve salvation through merit or works, but instead, God has determined the destiny of each soul.

Ninety-five Theses on the Power of Indulgences

written in 1517 by Martin Luther in Latin, and enclosed it in a letter to Archbishop Albert. It explains Luther's criticism of the emerging Church practice of purchasing "indulgences" to save one's soul from purgatory.