APES - Chapter 16

tipping fee

- A fee charged for disposing of material in a landfill or incinerator. - Tipping fees at solid waste landfills average $50 per ton in the United States, although in certain regions, such as the Northeast, fees can be twice that much. - These fees create an economic incentive to reduce the amount of waste that goes to the landfill. - Many localities accept recyclables at no cost but charge for disposal of material destined for a landfill. - This practice encourages individuals to separate recyclables from MSW. - Some localities mandate that recyclable material be removed from the waste stream and disposed of separately. - However, if tipping fees become too high, and regulations too stringent, a locality may inadvertently encourage illegal dumping of waste materials in locations other than the landfill and recycling center.

The input of rainfall and other water sources are kept to a minimum because excess water in the landfill increases the rate of anaerobic decomposition and subsequent methane release.

- Also, with a large amount of water entering the landfill from both MSW and rainfall, there is a greater likelihood that some of that water will leave the landfill as leachate. - Leachate that is not captured by the collection system may leach into nearby soils and groundwater. - Leachate is tested regularly for its toxicity and if it exceeds certain toxicity standards, the landfill operators could be required to collect it and treat it as a toxic waste.

In addition, because incinerators are typically large and expensive to build and operate, they require large quantities of MSW on a daily basis in order to burn efficiently and to be profitable.

- As a means of supporting these costs, communities that use incinerators may be less likely to encourage recycling. - One solution is to use rate structures and other programs to encourage MSW reduction and diversion, with the goal of using incineration only as a last resort. - However, in order to be successful, this usually must be a community effort.

When solid waste is first placed in a landfill, some aerobic decomposition may take place, but shortly after the waste is compacted into cells and covered with soil, most of the oxygen is used up.

- At this stage, anaerobic decomposition begins, a process that generates methane and carbon dioxide—both greenhouse gases—as well as other gaseous compounds. - The methane also creates an explosion hazard. - For this reason, landfills are vented so that methane does not accumulate in highly explosive quantities. - In recent years, more and more landfill operators are collecting the methane the landfill produces and using it to generate heat or electricity. - An even more desirable environmental choice would be keeping organic material out of landfills entirely by using it to make compost.

A landfill siting is always highly controversial and sometimes politically charged.

- Because landfills are unsightly and smell bad they are not considered desirable neighbors. - Landfill siting has been the source of considerable environmental injustice. - People with financial resources or political influence often adopt what has been popularly called a "not-in-my-backyard," or NIMBY, attitude about landfill sites. - Because of this, a site may be chosen not because it meets the safety criteria better than other options but because its neighbors lack the resources to mount an effective opposition.

CERCLA (Superfund)

- CERCLA, usually referred to as the Superfund Act, is a 1980 U.S. federal act that imposes a tax on the chemical and petroleum industries, funds the cleanup of abandoned and nonoperating hazardous waste sites, and authorizes the federal government to respond directly to the release or threatened release of substances that may pose a threat to human health or the environment. - The Superfund Act is well known because of a number of sensational cases that have fallen under its jurisdiction. - Originally passed in 1980 and amended in 1986, this legislation has several parts. - First, it imposes a tax on the chemical and petroleum industries. - The revenue from this tax is used to fund the cleanup of abandoned and nonoperating hazardous waste sites where a responsible party cannot be established. - The name Superfund came from this provision. CERCLA also authorizes the federal government to respond directly to the release or threatened release of substances that may pose a threat to human health or the environment. - Under Superfund, the EPA maintains the National Priorities List (NPL) of contaminated sites that are eligible for cleanup funds. - Most on NJ

The design and topography of the landfill cap, which is a combination of soil, clay, and sometimes plastic, encourage water to flow off to the sides, rather than into the landfill.

- Closed landfills can be reclaimed, meaning that some sort of herbaceous, shallow-rooted vegetation can be planted on the topsoil layer, both for aesthetic reasons and as a way to reduce soil erosion. - Construction on the landfill is normally restricted for many years, although parks, playgrounds, and even golf courses have been built on reclaimed landfills

Perhaps the most important component of operating a safe modern-day landfill is controlling inputs. The materials that are suitable for a landfill are those least likely to cause environmental damage through leachate or by generating methane.

- Composite materials made of plastic and paper, such as juice boxes for children, are good candidates for a landfill because they are difficult to recycle, while aluminum and other metals such as copper may contribute to leaching. - In addition, metals are valuable as recyclables. - Therefore, aluminum and copper should never go into a landfill. - Glass and plastics are both chemically inert, making them suitable for a landfill when reuse or recycling is not possible. - Toxic materials (such as household cleaners, oil-based paints, and automotive additives like motor oil and antifreeze), consumer electronics, appliances, batteries, and anything that contains substantial quantities of metals should not be deposited in landfills. - All organic materials, such as food and garden scraps and yard waste, are potential sources of methane and should not be placed in landfills.

Metals and other toxins in the MSW may be released to the atmosphere or may remain in the ash, depending on the pollutant, the specific incineration process, and the type of technology used.

- Exhaust gases from the combustion process, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, move through collectors and other devices that reduce their emission to the atmosphere. - Acidic gases such as hydrogen chloride (HCl), which results from the incineration of certain materials including plastic, are recovered in a scrubber, neutralized, and sometimes treated further before disposal in a regular landfill or ash landfill.

Energy may also be required to prepare or transport an object for reuse by someone other than the original user.

- For example, certain companies reuse beverage containers by shipping them to the bottling factory where they are washed, sterilized, and refilled. - Although energy is involved in the transport and preparation of the containers, it is still less than the energy that would be required for recycling or disposal.

Source reduction can be implemented both on individual and on corporate or institutional levels.

- For example, if an instructor has two pages of handout material for a class, she could reduce her paper use by 50 percent if she provides her students with double-sided photocopies. - A copy machine that is designed so that it can automatically make copies on both sides of the page might have required more materials and energy during manufacturing than a copy machine that prints on only one side. - However by making potentially half as many copies as a single-side-only machine during its lifetime, the overall energy used to provide photocopies to a school will probably be less. - Further source reduction could be achieved if the instructor did not hand out any sheets of paper at all but sent copies to the class electronically, and the students refrained from printing the documents.

To an even greater degree than with other waste, there are no good options for disposing of hazardous waste.

- Hazardous waste landfills are more expensive to construct and require much more monitoring than a conventional MSW landfill. - They must be monitored for at least 30 years after they are closed to additional inputs. - The best recommendation for disposing of hazardous waste is to avoid creating the waste in the first place.

waste as a system

- In an ecological system, plant materials, nutrients, water, and energy are the inputs. - In a human system, inputs are very similar but contain materials manufactured by humans as well as natural materials. - Within this system, humans use these inputs and materials to produce goods. - And, as in any system, outputs are generated. - We call these outputs waste and energy waste

Cradle to Cradle

- McDonough and coauthor Michael Braungart propose a novel approach to the manufacturing process. - They argue that it is first necessary to assess existing practices in order to minimize waste generation before, during, and after manufacturing. - Beyond that, manufacturers of durable goods such as automobiles, computers, appliances, and furniture should add one more component to the design of the product: Be certain that it is designed so that when they are no longer useful, components can be recycled with as little of the material as possible becoming part of the waste stream. - Finally, McDonough and Braungart point out that many organisms in the natural world, such as the turtle, produce very hard, impact-resistant materials, such as a shell, without producing any toxic waste. - They suggest that humans should examine how a turtle creates such a hard shell without the production of toxic wastes. - Humans can use this example as a goal for other kinds of production where no toxic wastes would be produced. - More recently, McDonough and Braungart have introduced the term upcycle to describe the conversion of a waste material to something of higher quality and greater value than the original product.

Large-scale composting facilities currently operate in many municipalities in the United States.

- Organic material is piled up in long, narrow rows of compost. - The material is turned frequently, exposing it to a combination of air and water that will speed natural aerobic decomposition. - As with household composting, the organic material must include the correct combination of green (fresh) and brown (dried) organic material so that the ratios of carbon and nitrogen are optimal for bacteria. = Various techniques are used to turn the organic material over periodically, including the use of rotating blades that move through the piles of organic material or a front loader that turns over the piles. - The respiration activity of the microbes generates enough heat to kill any pathogenic bacteria that may be contained in food scraps, which is typically a concern only in large municipal composting systems. - If the pile becomes too hot, it should be turned more frequently. - If the pile doesn't become hot enough, operators should check to make sure the C:N ratio is optimal, or they should slow the turnover rate. - Within a matter of weeks, the organic waste becomes compost. - Large-scale municipal composting systems with relatively little mechanization and labor may take up to a year to create a finished compost.

Love Canal

- Originally a hazardous waste landfill, Love Canal was covered with fill and topsoil and used as a site for a school and a housing development. - In 1978 and 1980, known cancer-causing wastes were found in the basements of homes in the area. - These substances included the solvents benzene, dioxin, (which is a by-product of chemical manufacturing), and a degreasing agent known as trichloroethylene. - When it became clear that a disproportionately large number of illnesses, possibly connected to the chemical waste, had been diagnosed in the local population, the situation attracted national attention. - Much of the attention that Love Canal received was due to the mother of a then 5-year-old boy in the school near Love Canal. - Lois Gibbs, who at the time had no previous experience in community activism, is credited with drawing attention to the problems created by Love Canal and other locations. - The contamination was so bad that in 1983 Love Canal was listed as a Superfund site and the inhabitants of the area were evacuated. - In 1994, the EPA removed Love Canal from the National Priorities List because the physical cleanup had been completed and the site was no longer deemed a threat to human health. - However, the site remains a symbol of the dangers presented by improper disposal of hazardous waste in a residential neighborhood. - It also shows that a private citizen with no previous experience in community activism can greatly improve the safety of a neighborhood.

Incinerators may not completely burn all the waste deposited in them.

- Plant operators can monitor and modify the oxygen content and temperature of the burn, but because the contents of MSW are extremely variable and lumped all together, it is difficult to have a uniform burn. - Consider a truckload of MSW from your neighborhood. - The same load may contain food waste with high moisture content and, right next to that, packaging and other dry, easily burnable material. - It is difficult for any incinerator—even a state-of-the-art modern facility—to burn all of these materials uniformly.

The risk to humans and ecosystems from leachate is uncertain.

- Public perception is that landfill contaminants pose a great threat to human health, though the EPA has ranked this risk as fairly low compared with other risks such as global climate change and air pollution. - But methane and other organic gases generated from decomposing organic material in landfills do release greenhouse gases, which contributes to climate change.

RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act)

- RCRA expanded previous solid waste laws. Its main goal was to protect human health and the natural environment by reducing or eliminating the generation of hazardous waste. - Under RCRA's provision for "cradle-to-grave" tracking, the EPA maintains lists of hazardous wastes and works with businesses and state and local authorities both to minimize hazardous waste generation and to make sure that the waste is tracked until proper disposal. - In 1984, RCRA was modified with the federal Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA), which encouraged waste minimization and phased out the disposal of hazardous wastes on land. - The amendments also increased law enforcement authority in order to punish violators.

Most municipalities do not have regular collection sites for hazardous waste or household hazardous waste.

- Rather, homeowners and small businesses are asked to keep their hazardous waste in a safe location until periodic collections are held - Every aspect of the treatment and disposal of hazardous waste is more expensive and more difficult than the disposal of ordinary MSW. - Households use numerous substances, such as oil-based paints, motor oil, or chemical cleaners, that are easy to purchase but become regulated hazardous waste as soon as the municipality collects them. - Hazardous waste must be treated before disposal. - Treatment, according to the EPA definition, means making it less environmentally harmful. To accomplish this, the waste must usually be altered through a series of chemical procedures.

Three R's

- Reduce, Reuse, Recycle - The phrase incorporates a practical approach to the subject of solid waste management, with the techniques presented from the most environmentally beneficial to the least

municipal solid waste (MSW)

- Refuse collected by municipalities from households, small businesses, and institutions. - Other kinds of waste generated in the United States in addition to MSW include agricultural waste, mining waste, and industrial waste - Waste other than MSW is typically deposited and processed on-site rather than transferred to a different location for disposal.

Disposal of this ash is determined by its concentration of toxic metals.

- The ash is tested for toxicity by leaching it with a weak acid. - If the leachate is relatively low in concentration of contaminants such as lead and cadmium, the ash can be disposed of in a conventional solid waste landfill. - Ash deemed safe can also be used for other purposes such as fill in road construction or as an ingredient in cement blocks and cement flooring. - If deemed toxic, the ash goes to a special ash landfill designed specifically for toxic substances.

The MSW added to a landfill is periodically compacted into compartments or "cells," which reduce the volume of solid waste, thereby increasing the capacity of the landfill.

- The cells are covered with soil, which minimizes the amount of water that enters them and so reduces odor and anaerobic decomposition. - When a landfill is full, it must be closed off from the surrounding environment so that the input and output of water are reduced or eliminated. - Once a landfill is closed and capped, the MSW within it is more or less sealed off. - Some water may enter from the outside environment, but this is minimal if the landfill is well-designed and properly sealed.

Inevitably, MSW contains some toxic material.

- The concentration of toxics in MSW is generally quite low relative to all the paper, plastic, glass, and organics in the waste. - However, rather than being dissipated to the atmosphere, most metals remain in the bottom ash or are captured in the fly ash. - As we have already mentioned, incinerator ash that is deemed toxic must be disposed of in a special landfill for toxic materials.

siting

- The designation of a landfill location, typically through a regulatory process involving studies, written reports, and public hearings. - It should be located away from rivers, streams, and other bodies of water and drinking-water supplies. - A landfill should also be sufficiently far from population centers so that trucks transporting the waste and animal scavengers such as seagulls and rats present minimal risks to people. - However, the energy needed to transport MSW must also be considered in siting; as distance from a population center increases, so does the amount of energy required to move MSW to the landfill. - Regional landfills, though, are becoming more common because sending all waste to a single location often offers the greatest economic advantage.

In the past decade many communities have adopted zero-sort recycling programs.

- These programs allow residents to mix all types of recyclables in one container that they deposit on the curb outside the home or bring to a transfer station. - This saves time for residents who were once required to sort materials. - At the sorting facility, workers sort the materials destined for recycling into whatever categories are in greatest demand at a given time and offer the greatest economic return

Initially, there were few concerns about what material went into a landfill.

- Those responsible for collecting and disposing of solid waste in landfills did not recognize the many problems associated with landfills, such as components of the MSW generating harmful runoff and leachate. - Nor did they recognize the harm a landfill could cause when it was located near sensitive features of the landscape such as aquifers, rivers, streams, drinking-water supplies, and human habitation.

Environmental Consequences of Incineration

- To cover the costs of construction and operation, incineration facilities also charge tipping fees. - Tipping fees are generally higher at incinerators than at landfills; national averages are around $70 per U.S. ton. - We have seen that an incinerator may release air pollutants such as organic compounds from the incomplete combustion of plastics and metals contained in the solid waste that was burned. - Some environmental scientists believe that incinerators are a poor solution to solid waste disposal because they produce air pollution as well as ash that is more concentrated and thus more toxic than the original MSW. - Therefore, the siting of an incinerator raises NIMBY and environmental justice issues similar to those of landfill siting.

Incineration basics

- Typically at such an incinerator, MSW is sorted and certain recyclables are diverted to recycling centers. - The remaining material is dumped from a refuse truck onto a platform where certain materials such as metals are identified and removed. - A moving grate or other delivery system transfers the waste to a furnace. - Combustion rapidly converts much of the waste into carbon dioxide and water, which are released into the atmosphere along with heat.

The Throw-Away Society

- Until a society becomes relatively wealthy, it generates little waste. - Every object that no longer has value for its original purpose becomes useful for another purpose. - In 1900 in the United States, virtually all metal, wood, and glass materials were recycled, although no one called it recycling back then. - Those who collected recyclables were called junk dealers, or scrap metal dealers. - After World War II and with the rapid population growth that occurred in the United States, consumption patterns changed. - The increasing industrialization and wealth of the United States, as well as cultural changes, made it possible for people to purchase household conveniences that could be used and then thrown away.

sanitary landfills

- are engineered ground facilities designed to hold MSW with as little contamination of the surrounding environment as possible. - are constructed with a clay or plastic lining at the bottom. - Clay is often used because it impedes water flow and retains positively charged ions, such as metals. - A system of pipes is constructed below the landfill to collect leachate, which is sometimes recycled back into the landfill. Finally, a cover of soil and clay, called a cap, is installed when the landfill reaches capacity.

Electronic waste, or e-waste

- composed of discarded electronic devices including televisions, cell phones, and computers - The older-style cathode-ray-tube (CRT) television or computer monitor contains 1 to 2 kg (2.2-4.4 pounds) of the heavy metal lead as well as other toxic metals such as mercury and cadmium. - These metals may eventually leach out of the bottom of the landfill into groundwater or surface water. - The toxic metals and other components can be extracted, but at present there is little formalized infrastructure or incentive to recycle them. - However, many communities have begun voluntary programs to divert e-waste from landfills.

composting

- creates organic matter (humus) that has decomposed under controlled conditions to produce an organic-rich material that enhances soil structure, cation exchange capacity, and fertility. - Vegetables and vegetable by-products, such as cornstalks, grass, animal manure, yard wastes (like leaves and branches), and paper fiber not destined for recycling are suitable for composting. - Normally, meat and dairy products are not composted because they do not decompose as easily, and they produce foul odors and are more likely to attract unwanted visitors such as rats, skunks, and raccoons. - In order to encourage rapid decomposition, it is important to have the ratio of carbon to nitrogen (C:N) that will best support microbial activity—about 30:1. - While it is possible to calculate the carbon and nitrogen content of each material that is put into a compost pile, most compost experts recommend layering dry material such as leaves or dried cut grass—normally brown material—with wet material such as kitchen vegetables—normally green material. - This will provide the correct carbon to nitrogen ratio for optimal composting. - Frequent turning or agitation is usually necessary to ensure that decomposition processes are aerobic and to maintain appropriate moisture levels—otherwise the compost pile will produce methane and associated gases and emit a foul odor. - If the pile becomes particularly dry, water needs to be added. - Although many people assume that a compost pile must smell bad, with proper aeration and the appropriate amount of moisture, the only odor will be that of fresh compost in 2 to 3 months' time

Integrated waste management

- employs several waste reduction, management, and disposal strategies in order to reduce the environmental impact of MSW. - Such options include a major emphasis on source reduction and include any combination of recycling, composting, use of landfills, incineration, and whatever additional methods are appropriate to the particular situation. - According to this approach, no community should be forced into any one method of waste disposal.

Source reduction

- in manufacturing can happen in several ways. - If the company creates new packaging that provides the same amount of protection to the product with less material, successful source reduction has occurred. - Consider the incremental source reduction that occurred with purchasing music. - Music compact discs were packaged in large plastic sleeves that were three times the size of the CD. - Today, when you can find a CD for sale, they are wrapped with a small amount of plastic material that just covers the CD case. - However, most people no longer purchase CDs but prefer to download or listen to music from the Web. - Less wrapping in CD packaging is an example of source reduction on the corporate level. - Not purchasing CDs at all is an example of source reduction on the individual level.

life-cycle analysis, and also known as cradle-to-grave analysis

- is an important systems tool that examines the materials used and released throughout the lifetime of a product—from the procurement of raw materials through their manufacture, use, and disposal. - In theory, conducting a life-cycle analysis should help a community determine whether incineration is more or less desirable than using a landfill. - However, such an analysis has limitations. - For example, it can be difficult to determine the overall environmental impact of a specific material. - It is not possible to know whether the particulates and nitrogen oxides released from incinerating food waste are better or worse for the environment than the amount of methane that might be released if the same food waste were placed in a landfill.

hazardous waste

- is liquid, solid, gaseous, or sludge waste material that is harmful to humans, ecosystems, or materials. - The U.S. EPA identifies four characteristics of hazardous waste: ignitability—it can catch on fire; corrosivity—it can cause materials to corrode or degrade; reactivity—it is not stable under normal conditions; toxicity—its chemical components are harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed through the skin. - Although the terms toxic and hazardous are often used interchangeably, toxic waste is a category of hazardous waste. - While many substances are hazardous and can cause harm, substances that are toxic cause harm through chemical means when ingested or absorbed through the skin.

reduce

- is the first choice among the three Rs because reducing inputs is the optimal way to achieve a reduction in solid waste generation. - This strategy is also known as waste minimization and waste prevention. - If the input of materials to a system is reduced, the outputs will also be reduced; in terms of waste, this means that when less material is used, there will be less material to discard.

incineration

- is the process of burning waste materials to reduce their volume and mass and, sometimes, to generate electricity or heat. - More than three-quarters of the material that constitutes municipal solid waste is easily combustible. - Because paper, plastic, and food and yard waste are composed largely of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, they are excellent candidates for incineration. - An efficient incinerator operating under ideal conditions may reduce the volume of solid waste by up to 90 percent and the weight of the waste by approximately 75 percent, although the reductions vary greatly depending on the incinerator and the composition of the MSW.

Planned obsolescence

- is the process of designing a product so that it will need to be replaced within a few years. - Planned obsolesce became a typical characteristic of many products manufactured in the United States, from toasters to automobiles. - Disposable plate "TV dinners," throw-away napkins, and disposable plates and forks also became common.

closed-loop recycling process

- is the recycling of a product into the same product. Aluminum cans are a familiar example; they are collected, brought to an aluminum plant, melted down, and made into new aluminum cans. - This process is called a closed loop because in theory it is possible to keep making aluminum cans from only old aluminum cans almost indefinitely; the process is thus similar to a closed system

ash

- is the residual nonorganic material that does not combust during incineration. - end product of combustion

Brownfields

- like Superfund sites, are contaminated industrial or commercial sites that may require environmental cleanup before they can be redeveloped or expanded. - The Brownfields Program assists state and local governments in cleaning up contaminated industrial and commercial land that did not achieve conditions necessary to be in the Superfund category. - Old factories, industrial areas and waterfronts, dry cleaners, gas stations, landfills, and rail yards are common examples of brownfield sites. - Brownfields legislation has prompted the revitalization of several sites throughout the country. - The Brownfields Program has been criticized as an inadequate solution to the estimated 450,000 contaminated locations throughout the country. - Since the cleanup is managed entirely by state and local governments, brownfields management can vary widely from region to region. - Furthermore, the brownfields legislation lacks legal liability controls to compel polluters to rehabilitate their properties. - Without legal recourse, many brownfield sites remain unused and contaminated, posing a continued risk to public health.

reuse

- of a product or material that would otherwise be discarded, rather than disposal, allows a material to cycle within a system longer before it becomes an output. - In other words, its mean residence time in the system is greater. - Optimally, no additional energy or resources are needed for the object to be reused. - For example, a mailing envelope can be reused by covering the first address with a label and writing the new address over it. - Here we are increasing the residence time of the envelope in the system and reducing the waste disposal rate. - Or we could reuse a disposable polystyrene cup more than once, though reuse might involve cleaning the cup, which would add some energy cost and generate some wastewater. - Sometimes reuse may involve repairing an existing object, which costs time, labor, energy, and materials.

open-loop recycling

- one product, such as plastic soda bottles, is recycled into another product, such as polar fleece jackets. - Although recycling plastic bottles into other materials avoids sending the plastic bottles to a landfill, it does not reduce demand for the raw material—in this case petroleum—to make plastic for new bottles.

source reduction

- seeks to cut waste by reducing the use of potential waste materials in the early stages of design and manufacture. - In many cases, source reduction also increases energy efficiency because it means that manufacturing produces less waste to begin with and can minimize disposal processes. - Since fewer resources are being expended, source reduction also provides economic benefits.

recycling

- the process by which materials destined to become MSW are collected and converted into raw materials that are then used to produce new objects. - We divide recycling into two categories: closed-loop and open-loop

A 500 m2 A landfill experiences 150 mm of rain each year and 60 percent of the rain is runoff. If the landfill has a 90 percent effective leachate collection system, how much leachate escapes each year? 3 m3 5 m3 16 m3 27 m3

150mm/1000 = 0.15 m x 500 x (1-0.6) x (1-0.9) = 3 m3

On average, how much municipal solid waste is generated per person each day in the United States? 0.5 kg 1 kg 2 kg 4 kg

2 kg

In 2014 in the United States, about 35 percent of MSW was recycled and composted, which was equivalent to 89 million tons. In addition, 33 million tons were combusted in a waste-to-energy system. How much total MSW did the United States generate in 2014? 225 million tons 254 million tons 291 million tons 315 million tons

254 million tons 89 million/0.35

Approximately how much MSW is recovered before it enters a landfill or incinerator? 15 percent 20 percent 35 percent 45 percent

35 percent

The EPA estimates that approximately percent of municipal solid waste comes from residences and percent comes from commercial and institutional facilities. 30; 70 40; 60 50; 50 60; 40

60; 40

Which legislation imposes a tax on the chemical and petroleum industries to generate funds to pay for the cleanup of hazardous substances? RCRA Cradle-to-Grave Act HSWA CERCLA

CERCLA

Long-term viability is another way to consider MSW:

Durable goods will last for years, nondurable goods are disposable, and compostable goods are those largely made up of organic material that can decompose under proper conditions.

Which statement regarding composting is NOT true? Composting can be a method for diverting material from the landfill. In order for compost to be made in a reasonable amount of time, the material must be mixed frequently. Composting results in the release of carbon dioxide. Efficient composting requires an abundance of anaerobic bacteria.

Efficient composting requires an abundance of anaerobic bacteria

Waste products from petroleum operations are harmful when ingested and can catch on fire. The EPA would therefore designate them as ignitable. toxic. hazardous. II only III only I and II I, II and III

I, II and III

Source reduction can also be achieved by material substitution.

In an office where workers drink water and coffee from paper cups, providing every worker with a reusable mug will reduce MSW

In the United States, most electronic devices are not designed to be easily dismantled after they are discarded.

It generally costs more to recycle a computer than to put it in a landfill.

Why might hazardous waste disposal in the United States be an international issue? Lower disposal costs elsewhere encourages U.S. industries to export waste. Air pollution from waste treatment often crosses international boundaries. The United States continues to dump its hazardous waste into oceans. The United States produces the majority of the world's hazardous waste.

Lower disposal costs elsewhere encourages U.S. industries to export waste.

The correct order of the three Rs is Reduce, Recycle, Reuse. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle. Recycle, Reuse, Reduce. Recycle, Reduce, Reuse.

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.

bottom ash

Residue collected underneath the furnace

Which legislation calls for listing hazardous waste to use in cradle-to-grave tracking? Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments Superfund Act

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

Which statement best describes the difference between the Superfund and Brownfield programs? - Superfund sites are currently hazardous to human health whereas Brownfields are potentially hazardous to humans in the future. - The Superfund program only funds the cleanup of wastes deemed hazardous under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, whereas the Brownfield program funds the cleanup of all hazardous wastes. - Superfund sites are generally reclaimed for human uses (e.g., recreation) whereas Brownfields are cleaned but never reclaimed. - Superfund site designation is reserved for sites that are the highest risk to public health whereas Brownfields are characterized as less dangerous.

Superfund site designation is reserved for sites that are the highest risk to public health whereas Brownfields are characterized as less dangerous.

Which is NOT a reason to keep household batteries out of landfills? They can leach toxic metals. Their decomposition can contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. They can be recycled, which would reduce the need for new raw materials. They can be recycled, which would reduce the need for additional energy.

Their decomposition can contribute to greenhouse gas emissions.

waste to energy system

When heat generated by incineration is used rather than released to the surrounding environment

Which material usually uses closed-loop recycling? aluminum glass paper cardboard

aluminum

Which material, when placed in a landfill, is most likely to cause problems as a result of leaching? paper food matter glass aluminum

aluminum

NIMBY describes the costs associated with the use of incinerators. factors contributing to leaching from landfills. attempts to develop better landfills. an attitude about the placement of landfills.

an attitude about the placement of landfills.

In the United States, how much of generated waste ends up being recycled? approximately one quarter approximately one third roughly half more than three-quarters

approximately one third

It contaminated the land and water near the housing development Love Canal in New York.

benzene

Hazardous waste costs much less to recycle than regular waste. is primarily generated by individual households. should be disposed of in landfills intermixed with MSW. can include certain household items such as paints and oil.

can include certain household items such as paints and oil.

Which is NOT likely to provide an incentive for a municipality to initiate a recycling program? tipping fees that exceed the value of recycled goods a stable demand, but low supply of recycled cardboard construction of a landfill with a low tipping fee initiation of an integrated waste management program

construction of a landfill with a low tipping fee

Life-cycle analysis examines the total environmental impact an object will make when it is discarded. examines the materials and energy associated with an object from extraction of materials to disposal. is used to analyze the least environmentally harmful way to dispose of an object. considers only the environmental costs associated with an object from extraction of materials to disposal.

examines the materials and energy associated with an object from extraction of materials to disposal.

It may be present in the emissions from waste incinerators.

hydrochloric acid

Which is NOT a detriment of waste incineration compared with landfills? increased toxicity of waste increased cost to dispose of waste increased space taken up by solid waste increased air pollution

increased space taken up by solid waste

Increasing tipping fees can cause decreased rates of recycling. increases in illegal dumping. incentives for proper waste disposal. reduced use of hazardous material.

increases in illegal dumping.

All of the following are desired outcomes of MSW incineration EXCEPT extracting energy. reducing volume. prolonging the life of landfills. increasing air pollution.

increasing air pollution.

Which is NOT part of the cradle to cradle concept proposed by William McDonough? minimize waste generation during manufacturing evaluate existing practices before making modifications mimic the natural world in the production of hard materials integrate all forms of waste management

integrate all forms of waste management

leachate

is a liquid that contains elevated levels of pollutants as a result of having passed through municipal solid waste (MSW) or contaminated soil.

The Brownfields Program includes hazardous locations with the highest risk to public health. attempts to prevent pollution in sites near agricultural lands. is managed primarily by state and local governments. has made substantial progress in cleaning the 450,000 identified sites.

is managed primarily by state and local governments.

Electronic waste accounts for over 10 percent of the waste stream. is almost always recycled. contains few toxic components. is more expensive to recycle than to put in a landfill.

is more expensive to recycle than to put in a landfill.

Organic matter in landfills is a problem primarily because it contains bacteria that spreads disease. as it breaks down it can dissolve the containment. it creates excessive heat. it produces methane gas.

it produces methane gas.

It is potentially a source of energy.

methane

For composting to work effectively, the compost must be kept very wet. must be mixed. must be anaerobic. must be protected from high temperatures.

must be mixed.

Which played an important role in the development of the "throw-away" society? the increased use of glass and metals objects made of many materials attitude changes after World War I the shift in manufacturing to developing nations

objects made of many materials

Which material constitutes the largest component of municipal solid waste? metals yard waste food scraps paper

paper

The material that makes up the highest proportion of MSW is plastic. rubber, leather, and textiles. paper and paperboard. food.

paper and paperboard.

Roughly half of the material in the solid waste stream that is recovered before ending up in a landfill or incinerator is yard waste. paper products. plastic products. glass products.

paper products.

From an environmental waste perspective, which of the following is the most desirable? reduce reuse recycle compost

reduce

Which is NOT a form of source reduction? printing pages double-sided instead of single-sided purchasing digital versions of music instead of CDs replacing plastic mugs with disposable paper cups substituting a nontoxic material for something toxic

replacing plastic mugs with disposable paper cups

fly ash

residue collected beyond the furnace

In the last 15 years, MSW per capita in the United States has decreased drastically. decreased, then increased drastically. increased drastically. stayed the same.

stayed the same.

Integrated waste management suggests that communities should have multiple options for waste disposal. focuses on recycling waste. is a method of educating individuals about the best method of waste disposal. often ignores the benefits of composting.

suggests that communities should have multiple options for waste disposal.

Which of the following activities would CERCLA, or the Superfund Act, help fund? the creation of a new regional landfill the creation of an e-waste recycling site the cleanup of a Brownfields site the cleanup of an abandoned waste disposal plant

the cleanup of an abandoned waste disposal plant

waste stream

the flow of solid waste that is recycled, incinerated, placed in a solid waste landfill, or disposed of in another way.

Incineration of waste is primarily used to generate heat or electricity. to reduce waste volume and mass. to eliminate heavy metals. when there is no other option.

to reduce waste volume and mass.

waste

which is defined as material outputs that are not useful or are not consumed.

Incineration also releases a great deal of heat energy

which is often used in a boiler immediately adjacent to the furnace either to heat the incinerator building or to generate electricity, using a process similar to that of a coal, natural gas, or nuclear power plant.

Of the following, which contributes most to the production of methane? packaging e-waste plastics yard waste

yard waste