APES Unit 8 Test Study Guide

Consequences of Climate Change-Permafrost

-20% of Earth contains permafrost. -Frozen soil found in tundra. Methane gas is trapped underneath.

Indoor Air pollution-Developing countries

-3 billion people around the world use wood, manure, or coal indoors as a source of heat or to cook food. -Little to no ventilation in homes. -Most biomass is not burned completely and lingers in the home. -Carbon monoxide and particulate matter are main problems and cause nearly 1.5 million deaths each year (cancer, emphysema, pneumonia, and other respiratory infections). -90% of all indoor air pollution deaths are found in developing countries.

Stratospheric Ozone-Montreal Protocol

-80 countries committed to eliminating dangerous CFC compounds. -96 ozone depleting chemicals have been severely reduced around the globe. -Result: Chlorine concentration in the air has stabilized. Reduction will still take a long time due to chlorine ability to linger in the atmosphere for years.

Natural Sources of Greenhouse Gases-Volcanic Eruptions

-Add carbon dioxide to the air. -Volcanic ash (particulates) can reflect incoming solar radiation which has a cooling effect on Earth.

Natural Sources of Greenhouse Gases-Animal Digestion

-Animals that eat a large amount of plant matter have bacteria in their guts that produce methane gas (CH4). Cows, antelope, termites (produce the second largest natural source of methane in the world.)

Consequences of Climate Change-Arctic Polar Ice

-Average 14% decline in polar ice per decade since 1970. -Throughout the rest of the century, the Arctic is expected to warm from 4-7oC.

Anthropogenic Sources of Greenhouse Gases-Landfills

-Bacteria in landfills produce methane gas (CH4)

Anthropogenic Sources of Greenhouse Gases-Agricultural Practices

-CAFOs and manure lagoons- Animals producing CH4 -Fertilizers add excess nitrogen which can be converted to N2O by bacteria in the soil.

Anthropogenic Sources of Greenhouse Gases-Industrial Production of Greenhouse Chemicals

-CFC's-Deplete ozone. Allows more UV light to make it to Earth. -HCFC's-Hydrochlorofluorocarbons -Products that replaced CFCs due to Montreal Protocol. -HCFC's don't deplete ozone, however, they do contribute to global warming. -Developed countries are phasing out HCFCs by 2030

Acid Deposition-Effects

-Lowers the pH of surface waters (affects fish, amphibians, etc). -pH of 5.0 = fish and amphibians die. -Low pH allows metals held in soils and sediments to come to surface. Causes organisms to be exposed to mercury, lead, etc. -Erosion of man made structures. Statues and monuments. Most are made of limestone or marble which is highly susceptible to acid decay. -Also erodes paint off of automobiles.

Indoor Air pollution-Carbon Monoxide

-Mainly introduced into homes due to malfunctioning furnaces (natural gas heaters). -If natural gas is not combusted completely, carbon monoxide can build up in homes. -Colorless, odorless gas. Very dangerous if it builds up at night while families are sleeping. -Carbon monoxide detectors.

Consequences of Climate Change-Glaciers

-Many people around the world depend on glaciers as a source of freshwater. If they melt too quickly and evaporate, people lose this source of freshwater.

Consequences of Climate Change-Ocean Currents

-Melting of Greenland's ice is disrupting "thermohaline circulation" in the Atlantic Ocean. -May result in much of Europe experiencing colder than normal temperatures.

Major Categories of Air Pollution-Lead

-Most metals are found naturally in Earth's crust. -Lead can be a major air pollutants (and water pollutant). -Primary Sources -Put in air mainly through burning of coal (of course). -Lead based paint. When paint dries and chips, particles can become airborne. -Lead used to be found in gasoline until 1996. -Result = Lead in air has dropped considerably in the U.S. Other parts of the world it is still a problem. -Effects -Impairs central nervous system especially in children.

Major Categories of Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides

-NO and NO2 -Atmosphere is 78% nitrogen. Any combustion of nitrogen can lead to formation of nitrogen oxides. -Primary Sources-Fossil fuel combustion, wood, and other types of biomass. -Effects -Respiratory irritant. -Can convert to nitric acid - HNO3 (secondary pollutant) which is a component of acid deposition. -Can lead to the formation of ozone - O3 (secondary pollutant) which is a component of photochemical smog. -Controlling Nitrogen Oxides -Catalytic Converters -Beginning in 1975, all new automobiles sold in the U.S. were required to have a catalytic converter. -Reduces nitrogen oxide and carbon monoxide emissions from cars.

Photochemical Smog-Formation

-Natural Ozone Accumulation/Destruction -Day time -Nitrogen Dioxide is put into the air and reacts with sunlight to create Nitrogen oxide and one oxygen atom -the one oxygen atom reacts with oxygen(O2) to create ozone O3 -Night Time -ozone reacts with Nitrogen oxide to create oxygen and Nitrogen Dioxide -Naturally both of these are in a steady state -Build-Up of Photochemical Smog -The normal day time process to create ozone occurs -But during the night, instead of Nitrogen oxide reacting to ozone it reacts with VOCs -This creates photochemical oxidants -Photochemical oxidants and ozone create photochemical smog

Thermal Inversion

-Normally, temperature decreases with altitude. Sometimes, a warm layer of air rises above a layer of cold air beneath. This is known as a "thermal inversion." -Thermal layer can trap emissions produced underneath it. -warm layer trapped between to cold layers

Stratospheric Ozone-Ozone Hole

-Occurs in Antarctica during the months of August-November each year. Hole was absent until the late 1970's. -Chlorine tends to build up in the atmosphere over -Antarctica during these months (many factors that cause this). -Creates dangerous levels of UV-B radiation on Earth.

Consequences of Climate Change-Storm Intensity

-Ocean warming increases the intensity of storms in the Atlantic Ocean. -As temperatures increase, hurricanes are likely to become more common.

Measuring climate change over thousands of years-Studying ice cores

-Older ice is deeper, younger ice is at the top. -As ice becomes compressed over time it traps air bubbles inside. When ice melts, gas particles can be released and measured. -Ex.) CO2 bubbles -Ex.) Oxygen bubbles -O-16 (light oxygen) - usually forms in colder temperatures -O-18 (heavy oxygen) - usually forms in warmer temperatures.

Major Categories of Air Pollution-Tropospheric Ozone (photochemical oxidants)

-Ozone (O3) is a secondary pollutant. -It is not directly put into the air. -Primary Sources -Photochemical oxidants - A class of air pollutants formed as a result of sunlight acting on chemical compounds such as nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide. -Ozone is the most abundant photochemical oxidant in the atmosphere. -Effects -Can be a respiratory irritant and cause emphysema and asthma. In the atmosphere, ozone can combine with nitrogen oxides and VOC's to form more harmful substances. Ex.) Photochemical smog

Major Categories of Air Pollution-Particulate Matter

-PM, particles, or particulates. -Solid or liquid particles that get suspended in the air. -Combustion of coal, oil, biofuels, and biomass . Diesel powered vehicles tend to give off more -particulates than regular gas powered vehicles. -Other sources: Road dust, dust from mining operations, volcanoes, dust storms, and forest fires. -Effects -If concentrated enough in atmosphere, particulate matter can block sunlight. -Causes haze (reduced visibility caused by particulate matter scattering light). -Size of particles is important. -Particles range in size from 0.01 um to 100 um (diameter of a human hair). -Larger than 10 um (PM10) = particles can be filtered out by nose (boogers) and throat. -Smaller than 10 um = Can get deep into respiratory tract and cause illness. -Smaller than 2.5 um (PM2.5) = same as above, however they tend to be composed of toxic substances.

Photochemical Smog-Smog Reduction

-Photochemical Smog is a large environmental problem in the U.S. and elsewhere in the world. -According to the EPA, over half of the U.S. is breathing excessive levels of smog. -Because ozone is a secondary pollutant, measures are taken by most cities to reduce the primary pollutants (NOx and VOC's). -Less primary pollutants = less smog.

Natural Sources of Greenhouse Gases-Evaporation and Evapotranspiration

-Water vapor is a greenhouse gas. -Evapotranspiration-water evaporating from the leaves of plants.

Indoor Air pollution-Sick Building Syndrome

-is when people who spend long periods of time in the same building all get similar illnesses. -Caused by -inadequate ventilation and poor indoor air quality -Chemical contaminants from indoor or outdoor sources -Biological contaminants

Sun heating the earth

-sun's radiation(UV, visible, infrared) -radiation is absorbed by the earth's surface -radiation is reflected by the atmostsphere -some infrared radiation is sent back to earth by greenhouse gases -the difference between the natural greenhouse effect and the human-induced greenhouse effect is that more heat is re-emitted into the atmosphere because of increased greenhouse gases.

Major Categories of Air Pollution

Six "criteria" pollutants-Clean Air Act -Sulfur Dioxide.-SO2 -Nitrogen Oxides-NOX -Carbon Monoxide-CO -Lead -Particulate Matter -Tropospheric Ozone (photochemical oxidants)-O3

Global Warming Definition

-The warming of the oceans, land masses, and atmosphere of the Earth. Results in increased heat waves and induced cold spells. Can lead to global climate change.

Indoor Air pollution-Developed Countries

-There are many factors that have caused an increase in indoor air pollution in developed countries. -People are spending more time indoors. -Homes are better insulated (keeps air in the house longer). -More materials are found in homes that contain chemicals such as plastics and petroleum-based compounds.

Indoor Air pollution-Abestos

-Long, thin fibers of silicates that are mainly used to insulate older homes and buildings. -Fibers can become airborne and cause respiratory disease.

IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change)

-Carbon Dioxide Concentrations Have Been Increasing for the Past 6 Decades -Formed in 1988 -Group of over 3000 scientists around the world who study global warming. -Main focus of study is the link between greenhouse gases and global temperature. -Global Temperatures have Steadily Increased Since Records Began in 1880 -Temperature data goes all the way back to the 1880's. Data is measured monthly. Since 1880's global average temperature has risen 1.4oF. Northern latitudes have experience a more drastic change in temperature (up to 7oF). Result = over 45% of arctic polar ice cap has melted. -For over 400,000 years, the atmosphere never contained more than 300 ppm of CO2. -From 1958-2013, the concentration of atmospheric CO2 went from 310-400. This is unprecedented. -CO2 is not the only greenhouse gas whose concentration has increased (methane and N2O). -After industrial revolution (1800's), these gases increased dramatically along with CO2.

Stratospheric Ozone-Anthropogenic Destruction of Ozone

-Certain chemicals can increase the rate at which ozone is depleted. -Ex.) chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) -Major source of chlorine in the atmosphere. -Found in refrigerants, insect repellants, deodorant sprays, and air conditioners. -One free chlorine atom can break apart over 100,000 ozone molecules. -Process of Chlorine Depleting ozone -UV causes a chlorine atom to break way from the CFC molecule -the free chlorine atom hits an ozone molecule -the chlorine atom pulls one oxygen atom away -a free oxygen atom hits the chlorine monoxide molecule -the result is another free chlorine atom -the free chlorine continues to deplete ozone

Global Climate Change Definition

-Changes in the average weather that occurs in an area over a period of years or decades. Results in increased storm intensity, altered patterns of precipitation and temperature, and altered patterns of ocean circulation.

Natural Sources of Greenhouse Gases-Decomposition

-Decomposers use oxygen and release carbon dioxide. -Decomposers can also produce methane gas (CH4). -Decomposition increases during an algal bloom

Natural Sources of Greenhouse Gases-Dentrification

-Denitrification is a part of the nitrogen cycle. -Denitrifying bacteria that live in the soil produce nitrous oxide (N2O).

Controlling Particulates-Electrostatic precipitators

-Dirty air -high voltage negative electrode -positive collection electrode -cleaner air -collection hopper

Controlling Particulates-Baghouse filters

-Dirty air enters housing -combustion exhaust steam moves through and dust particles are trapped in a series of filter bags -Cleaner, filtered air moves out of the unit -A shaker mechanism is activated periodically to dislodge trapped particles, which can then be collected from beneath the unit.

Controlling Particulates-Particle scrubbers

-Dirty air enters scrubber -combustion exhaust steam moves upward in shower of water mist -mist collects particles("scrubs" the air) and brings them down to the bottom of the unit -dirty water moves to a sludge removal system -sludge is separated from water and disposed of -water moves back to scrubber for reuse -excess mist collects on screen -cleaner air exits through stack

Anthropogenic Sources of Greenhouse Gases-Burning Fossil Fuels

-Each type of fossil fuels produces different amounts of CO2. -Coal produces the most CO2 -Oil produces about 85% compared to coal -Natural gas produces about 56% compared to coal.

Consequences of Climate Change-Cold Spells

-Fewer cold spells and less days below the freezing point. -Less use of energy needed to heat homes and buildings. -Crops would not freeze. -Pests that kill crops and carry disease would not die from cold.

Major Categories of Air Pollution-Carbon Monoxide

-Formed by incomplete combustion of carbon. -Primary Sources-Car exhaust. Less efficient automobile engines don't burn carbon completely. Thus forming carbon monoxide. -Poorly ventilated cooking fires. -Effects -Bonds to hemoglobin. Affects ability of blood to carry oxygen. Can lead to death. Significant air pollutant in urban areas where there are lot's of vehicles. In developing countries, can be an indoor pollutant due to burning biomass indoors.

Greenhouse gases

-Gases in the atmosphere that absorb and emit infrared radiation toward the Earth. -Oxygen gas (O2) and Nitrogen gas (N2) make up 99% of the atmosphere, however, they are not greenhouse gases. -Greenhouse gases make up a very small percentage of the atmosphere (less than 1%). -Without Greenhouse gases, the average temperature on Earth would be 0oF. Normally, it is about 57 oF. -Water vapor: Most common greenhouse gas. Absorbs more infrared light than any other substances, however, water vapor cannot stay in the atmosphere for very long. Other gases are more persistent. -Carbon dioxide -Methane (CH4) -Nitrous oxide (N2O) -Ozone (tropospheric) -Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) - Anthropogenic only.

Consequences of Climate Change-Precipitation Patterns

-Global warming causes more evaporation which will lead to altered precipitation. Difficult to predict which regions will receive more or less precipitation. -More precipitation which could lead to more fertile cropland but also more flooding. -Less precipitation which could lead to drought and the need for irrigation.

Indoor Air pollution-VOCs

-Glues, paints, and other household chemicals. -Formaldehyde - "new carpet smell." -Can cause breathing difficulties, asthma, and cancer.

Photochemical Smog-Terms to know

-Haze-reduced visibility -Photochemical Oxidant- A class of air pollutants formed as a result of sunlight acting on chemical compounds such as nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide. -Smog-a type of air pollution that is a mixture of oxidants and particular matter -Photochemical Smog-smog that is dominated by oxidants such as ozone, aka Los Angeles type smog, brown smog -Sulfurous smog-smog dominated by Sulfur Dioxide and Sulfate compounds, aka London type smog, gray smog

Indoor Air pollution

-Indoor air pollution causes more deaths each year than outdoor air pollution. -There are many different types of indoor pollutants that pose health problems for people in both developed and developing countries. -The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that over half of the deaths worldwide due to indoor air pollution are children under the age of 5 years old.

Consequences of Climate Change-Heat Waves

-Long periods of hot weather. -Can cause drought which can damage crops and soil. -Increased need for irrigation can deplete aquifers and cause cost of food to increase.

Plight of the Polar Bear

-Polar bears play an important role in an arctic ecosystem. -Predators that eat several different species of seals. -Seals live under ice and breach the ice to come up for air. Polar bears use the ice holes to identify specific breaching spots for seals. -Bears eat blubber only. Rest of carcass is food for other animals like the arctic fox (scavenger). -Global temperatures have caused the Arctic to get warmer at a faster rate than other areas of the world. -Results in ice caps melting. 45% less ice since early 1980's. -Ice thickens in winter and thins in summer. Ice has become extremely thin in last few decades. Many of the ice holes have disappeared that once helped polar bears find seals. -Polar bears are about 150 pounds lighter than they were 30 years ago. Also, population numbers have declined 10% in the last decade. Predicted 40% decline in the next 25 years. -As polar bear populations decline, it has caused a ripple effect throughout the arctic food web. -Seal populations will increase. -Arctic fox populations will decrease. -Polar bears will be forced to find other food sources. -Other Threats to Polar Bears: -Bioaccumulation - polar bears are at the top of the food chain. Pollutants such as mercury, DDT, and PCB's can build up in polar bears. Hunting and poaching. Oil spills.

List of Primary and Secondary Pollutants

-Primary -Carbon Dioxide-CO2 -Carbon Monoxide-CO -Nitrogen Oxide-NO -Nitrogen Dioxide-NO2 -Vocs -Sulfur Dioxide-SO2 -most hyrocarbons -most suspended particles -Secondary -Ozone-O3 -SO3 -HNO3 -H2SO4 -H2O2 -most NO3 -most SO4

Major Categories of Air Pollution-Sulfur Dioxide

-Produced by chemical reactions (combustion) between sulfur and oxygen. -Primary Sources-Burning of fossil fuels that contain sulfur (mainly coal and oil). -Volcanic eruptions and forest fires. Effects-Respiratory irritant. Severely affects people with asthma. Can harm plant tissues. Can be converted to sulfuric acid - H2SO4 (secondary pollutant) which is a major component of acid deposition. -Controlling Sulfur Dioxide Emissions -Sulfur dioxide scrubbers -Has greatly reduced sulfur dioxide emissions in the U.S. -Involves burning coal along with limestone (calcium carbonate). -Heated calcium carbonate absorbs sulfur dioxide and leads to the production of "gypsum." -Gypsum is a recyclable material used to make wallboard, dental impressions, and cement.

Stratospheric Ozone-Formation and Breakdown of Ozone

-Production -First, oxygen(O2) reacts with UVB to create to separate oxygen atoms -Then each of these oxygen atoms react with oxygen(O2) to create ozone -Breakdown -Ozone reacts with UV B to create an oxygen atom and oxygen(O2) -The formation and breakdown of stratospheric ozone both involve the absorption of UV light. -The formation and breakdown of ozone is in a "steady state." -Anthropogenic activities can disrupt the steady state.

Indoor Air pollution-Radon

-Radon-222, a radioactive isotope exists naturally from the decay of Uranium in rocks far below the Earth's surface. -Can get into homes through cracks in foundations. -If breathed in, can cause lung cancer. -21,000 people die each year from radon induced lung cancer (2nd leading cause of lung cancer after smoking). -Radon detectors.

Anthropogenic Sources of Greenhouse Gases-Deforestation

-Removing trees takes away their ability to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. -Burning trees put carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. -Removing trees requires machinery that can produce many greenhouse gases and disrupts soil particulates.

Clean Air Act

-Requires that the EPA establish standards to control pollutants that are harmful to "human health and welfare." -Human health: health of the human population. Includes elderly, children, and sensitive populations such as those with asthma. -Welfare: refers to the status of crops, natural vegetation, animals, ecosystems, and buildings.

NAAQS-National Ambient Air Quality Standards

-Set up by the EPA as part of the clean air act. Specifies concentration limits for each air pollutant. For each pollutant, the NAAQS notes a concentration that should not be exceeded over a specific time period. -Ex) Ozone -In the U.S., the average ozone concentration for a specific location for an 8 hour period, should never exceed 0.075 parts of ozone per 1 million parts of air by volume more than 4 days per year. If a location violates this ozone air quality standard and does not make an attempt to improve the air quality, it is subject to fines.

Consequences of Climate Change-Sea levels

-Since 1870, sea levels have risen 9 inches. -Coastal regions and islands at high risk. -Saltwater intrusion. -Currently 100 million people live within 3 ft. of sea level.

Measuring climate change over thousands of years-Foraminifera

-Small protists that live in the ocean. When they die, they leave behind a hard shell that sinks to the bottom of the ocean and forms sediment. -Different species prefer different ocean temperatures. -When scientists study ocean sediments, we can use the foraminifera deposits to indicate the temperature of the ocean at the time of their death. It's actually very accurate!

Acid Deposition-Formation

-Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Oxides are emitted into the air -These then go through oxidation to turn into H2SO4(Sulfuric acid) and HNO3(Nitric acid) -These acids can then change to ions -These ions (sulfate, nitrate, and hydrogen ions) can travel thousands of miles in the air before they are deposited on land.

What is air pollution?

-The atmosphere is a global, public resource ("commons"). -Air Pollution - The introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or microorganisms into the atmosphere at concentrations high enough to harm plants, animals, and materials such as buildings, or to alter ecosystems. -Primary Pollutants - A pollutant that is put directly into the atmosphere by human or natural activity. -Secondary Pollutants - A pollutant that forms in the atmosphere by chemical reactions with primary pollutants, natural components in the air or both.

Stratospheric Ozone-Benefits of Ozone Layer

-Tropospheric ozone is a secondary pollutant and a main component of photochemical smog. -Stratospheric ozone protects the Earth from harmful radiation from the sun. -UV-A radiation can penetrate through ozone (causes skin cancer). UV-B and UV-C are much stronger than UV-A, however, they mainly get blocked by stratospheric ozone.

Other air pollutants

-Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC's) -Organic compounds that vaporize to form toxic fumes. -Primary Sources -Gasoline evaporation, paint, household products, and some plants (conifers). -Effects -If present in atmosphere, can lead to a build up of ozone. -Can also lead to photochemical smog. -If inhaled, has been linked to lung and other forms of cancer. -Carbon Dioxide -Mercury -Primary Sources -Coal, oil, gold mining -Effects -impairs central nervous system -bioaccumulates as it moves up the food chain