APHG AP EXAM
Maladaptation
-Faulty or inadequate adaptation Ex. How people adapt or adjust to their surroundings can impact the environment negatively
Liberal Development Theories
-Theories that claim development is a process through which all countries can move Ex. Rostow's Modernization Model
William Morris Davis
American geographer and geologist with studies also in meteorology; helped to establish the Association of American Geographers; wrote articles and is listed as one of the founding members of the National Geographic Society -Ex. He is know as the "father of American geography
Four Map Classes
a) Conics: maps that place a cone over the Earth and keep distance intact but lose directional qualities -Ex. Has a lot of distortion in the polar regions b) Cylindrical: maps that show true direction but lose distance -Ex. A Mercator map c) Oval: maps that combine cylindrical and conic projections -Ex. Molleweide projection d) Planar: maps that show true direction and examine the Earth from one point, usually from a pole or polar direction -Ex. Azimuthal map
What type of map do geographers often use to represent some type of population distribution?
dot map
What is the most important unit of social organization?
family
Asylee
-A non-citizen of a country who has been granted asylum or seeks asylum (asylum means protection) Ex. Illegal immigrants asking the government for refugee/asylum; political prisoners; Dalai Lama is the spiritual leader of Tibet has asylum in India because Chinese control Tibet
Hierarchical/Cascade Diffusion
-An idea or innovation spreads by passing first among the most concentrated places of people; urban hierarchy (ranking settlements (village, town, city, metropolis) according to their size and economic functions) are usually involved; idea can proceed either upward or downward through a hierarchy; ideas from political leaders to other people in the community or ideas from an urban area then diffused to isolated rural areas -Ex. hip-hop music started in urban areas and spread to suburbs
Structuralist Theories
-Argue that less-developed countries are locked into a vicious cycle of entrenched underdevelopment by the global economic system that supports an unequal structure Ex. Opposite of Liberal Development Theory
Ernst Ravenstein
-British demographer who studied internal migration in England -From these studies he created the Laws of Migration with some relevant today
Disamenity Sector
-Compact, closely clustered settlement usually a hamlet or a large village Ex. Can also be the poorest part of a city controlled by a gang or war lord
McGhee Model
-Developed by geographer TG McGhee, it shows similar land use patterns among medium-sized Southeast Asian cities Ex. Found separate clusters surrounding port zones instead of a true central CBD
New International Division of Labor
-Division of the manufacturing process across several countries, wherein different pieces of the product are made in different countries and then the pieces are assembled yet again in another country -Ex. Manufacturing Zones ie. maquiladoras, special economic zones, free trade zones, etc.
Stimulus Diffusion
-Form of diffusion in which a cultural adaptation is created as a result of the introduction of a cultural trait from another place -Ex. Hamburgers in Hindu dominate India were adapted to garden burger varieties for McDonalds
Commodification
-Giving a price tag or value to something that was not previously perceived as having a money related value
The Sunbelt
-Growth of the economy and population in the "sunny regions" of the southwestern USA that developed as the dominance of the factory-based economy in the northeast decreased Ex. Migration began after WWII and coincided with the USA Baby Boom (large increase in birthrates)
Judaism
-Hearth: Middle East -Language: Hebrew; Yiddish (Central/Eastern Europe) -House of Worship: Synagogue or Temple -Major holidays are based on events in agricultural calendar of the religion's homeland of Israel -Some Holidays: Hanukkah (Festival of Lights) Pesach( Passover) Rosh Hashanah (Jewish New Year) Yom Kippur ("Day of Atonement) -Some Sacred Sites: Wailing Wall (Western Wall in Jerusalem), Temple Mount (Jerusalem), Cave of Patriarchs (Jerusalem) -Highest Populations in Israel followed by the USA
US Quota of 1921
-Immigration legislation that limited the number of people from one country and discriminated against Asians and favored European migrants Ex. Today in the USA the largest claimed European ancestry is German, the largest Asian ancestry is Chinese
Footloose Industry
-Industry not bound by local constraints and able to choose to locate wherever it wants; production doesn't change no matter where the goods are manufactured or processed Ex. High tech industry and diamond industry
Weight Losing (Bulk Reducing) Industry
-Manufacturing processes that create a product lighter than the raw materials that went into making it; factory is located near the main resource location Ex. Paper production (located near heavy lumber), steel and copper industries
What are some important areas of one's culture?
-Many of one's important cultural values comes from language, religion and ethnicity -Language is the cornerstone of culture and can be signs, sounds, gestures & marks that have meaning within a cultural group -Religion is the principle system of attitudes, beliefs and practices through which people worship in an organized way -Ethnicity encompasses a group's language, religion and other culture values as well as physical traits -A group possesses these cultural/physical traits as a product of its common traditions and heredity
Sequent Occupance
-Notion that successive societies leave their cultural imprints on a place, each contributing to the cumulative cultural landscape -Ex. Santa Fe, New Mexico imprinted by Native Americans->Colonial Spain->Modern America
Backwash Effect
-Occurs when other regions suffer a drain of resources and talent due to agglomeration in another region Ex. California's Silicon Valley took most high-tech industry workers so other regions were left without their resources and talents and thus suffered the backwash effect
NGO (Nongovernment Organization)
-Organization not run by the government but by a charity or private organization that supplies resources and money to local businesses and causes advancing economic and human development Ex. Save the Children, Doctors Without Borders, etc.
Diaspora
-People who come from a common ethnic background but who live in different regions outside the home of their ethnicity Ex. Jewish people living outside of Israel
Periferico
-Peripheral area beyond the ring highway tha contains squatter settlements Ex. Included in the Griffin-Ford Model of Latin American cities that was updated by Larry Ford
Natural Landscape
-Physical environment unaffected by human activity; it can be undisturbed wilderness or if it is disturbed it can return to its natural state; first conceptualized by Alexander Humboldt -Ex. Amazon Rainforest, Grand Canyon, etc.
Islands of Development
-Place built up by a government or corporation to attract foreign investment and which has relatively high concentrations of paying jobs and infrastructure Ex. Development of coastal cities in Western Africa during the slave trade
High-Tech Corridor or Technopole
-Place where technology and computer industries agglomerate Ex. Silicon Valley in California
Ester Boserup
-Principal critic of Malthusian theory who argued that overpopulation could be solved by increasing the number of subsistence farmers Ex. Remeber Malthus thought the population (growing exponentially) would outgrow food supply (growing arthmetically)
Repatriation
-Refugee(s) returning to their home country usually with the assistance of government or non-government organizations Ex. Civil War in Rwanda calmed down in 1996 (Tutsi-Hutu Strife) with 500,000 Rwandans returning from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (then called Zaire) and Tanzania
Four Asian Tigers
-South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and former British colony Hong Kong were among the first Asian areas to embrace international trade; trade is considered complementary (meaning both sides benefit) 1. South Korea: exports automobiles and electronics; high quality-university and primary education system; access to worldwide markets thanks to port cities like Pusan and Kwangju 2. Taiwan: Who controls Taiwan? The United States recognizes Taiwan as independent due to their more capitalist economic system, while China claims Taiwan is a part of their country. Has grown in economic status due to exports with Kaohsiung handling the majority of the exports 3. Singapore: example of an entrepôt; busiest port in the world; one of the cleanest and safest places in the world due to tough laws against crime (ex. littering is outlawed and comes with tough punishments); keeps many tourist away in fear of "lashings" and other harsh punishments, however international businesses like the safety; ports take in goods and re-export to places like Japan, Europe, the USA and other regions 4. Hong Kong: Britain gave up its control of this port in the 1990s (Britain had gained Hong Kong after the Opium War in the late 1800s). Example of an entrepôt with its main industry being the re-export of industrial products especially those made in mainland China; one of the busiest ports in the world
Absolute Distance
-Spatial separation between two points on the Earth's surface measured by some accepted standard unit such as miles or kilometers (for widely separated locations), feet or meters (for more closely spaced points) -Ex. There is 445 miles between Sydney and Melbourne (Australia)
Structural Adjustment
-Stipulations that require the country receiving an international loan to make economic changes in order to use the loan Ex. A LDC must make public goods privatized
Remittance
-Sum of money sent by a migrant to his or her family back home Ex. Migrants come from Turkey to work in Germany and send their earnings back home to Turkey
Weight-Gaining (Bulk-Gaining) Industries
-Take raw materials and create a heavier final product; factory is located closer to consumer to minimize delivery costs Ex. Beverage bottling
B.R.I.C.S
-The countries of Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa -Economies as a group quickly moving towards complete industrialization & dominating in manufacturing and supplying natural resources -Meet together at summits -Formed New Development Bank (NDB), to fund infrastructure and sustainable development projects both in their own countries as well as elsewhere -By 2050 predicted to be some of the front runners in the total GDP (Gross Domestic Product) with China surpassing the USA
Connectivity
-The degree of direct linkage between one particular location and other locations in a transport network. -Ex. Cell phone communication networks, email/internet, etc
Accessibility
-The degree of ease with which it is possible to reach a certain location from other locations; varies from place to place and can be measured -Ex. NY City Subway system allows accessibility between different city neighborhoods
Distance Decay
-The effects of distance on interaction, generally the greater the distance the less interaction; usually represented in S curve -Ex. Less Temecula shoppers go to North County Fair Mall in Escondido since the Promenade Mall opened in Temecula
Urban primacy
-When a country has a primary city that is three to four times larger than the other cities
Ravenstein's Laws Of Migration (Main Ones)
1. Every migration flow generates a return or counter migration ●Counter streams occur for many factors like economics,legal, or personal reasons ex. Jewish people returning to Israel after Diaspora 2. The majority of migrants move a short distance ● Most migration happens in a step by step pattern and tend to remain in the same country ● Intervening opportunities and intervening obstacles can cause a person's plans to chang 3. Migrants who move longer distance tend to choose big-city destinations ● Ravenstein lived in the 1800s during Industrial Rev. and saw this first hand; cities tend to hold pull factor of jobs and better economic opportunities 4. Urban migrants are less migratory than inhabitants of rural areas ●True in Ravenstein's time and in some developing nations, however the United States has experienced some counter-urbanization 5. Families are less likely to make international moves than young adults ●Easier to move oneself 6. Most long-distance migrants are male
Five Themes of Geography
1. Location (Absolute an Relative) 2. Place (Physical and Human Characteristics) 3. Human Environment Interaction 4. Movement 5. Region (Formal (Uniform), Functional (Nodal), Perceptual (Vernacular)
Grid System
A computer system that stores, organizes, analyzes and displays geographic data; many advances in GIS have come from military applications; critiques of GIS: represents no real advances in geographers' understanding of places and regions, increases level of surveillance by those who already possess power, fear it may help create a world in which people are not judged by who they are and what they do but more by where they live -Ex. TOXMAP (National Library of Medicine), used by 911 operators, Google Earth, etc.
Chechnya
A dominate Muslim republic that in 1994 claimed the right of self-determination and attempted to break away from Russian control; lead to some bloody battles
Graying Population
A population pyramid will show a higher number of older or elderly people in its projection than younger working-age people; the population pyramid is top heavy Ex. What is starting to happen in Japan
Culture Complex
A related set of cultural traits; combination of cultural traits Ex. Raising cattle (used in different ways by many cultures); cooking utensils
Culture Trait
A single element of normal practice in a culture For example yamikah in the Jewish culture
Plural Society
A society that contains various cultural groups. Such groups often occupy "niches" in the broader social system, such that the groups do not interact with each other except in limited and often mutually exploitive ways
Dispersion
Amount of spread of a phenomenon over an area; how far things are spread out (dispersed/scattered: spread out) -Ex. Due to problems of flooding and mountainous terrain Dolomites, Italy has many dispersed communities.
Cultural Hearths
An area where cultural traits develop and from which cultural traits diffuse; can often be traced to a single place and time Ex. Agricultural systems, creation of religions •Independent invention: trait with many hearths that developed independent of each other
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
Baseline for time zones around the world, centered on the Prime Meridian (0* Longitude); sometimes called universal time -There are 24 time zones at 15* of longitude (360* divided by 24 is equal to 15)
What is the ETM? (Epidemiologic Transition Model)
Causes of death in each stage of the Demographic Transition Model (DTM) Comes from epidemiology (science concerned with the incidence, distribution and control of disease that affect a large number of people)
Concentration
Clustering of a phenomenon around a central location (clustered/agglomerated: close together spatially) -Ex. There is a high concentration of favelas (slum communities) around the outer rim of San Paulo, Brazil
Shatterbelt Theory
Created by American geographer Saul Cohen in 1950 •Modified Heartland to "Pivot Area", Rimland to "Inner Crescent" with the rest of the world being the "Outer Crescent" (like the USA) Shatterbelt: area caught between the conflicts of two others •True during Cold War Era ex. North Korea (USSR) and South Korea (USA) or Eastern Europe (USSR) and Western Europe (USA), etc
The Heartland Theory
Created by British geographer Halford Mackinder in 1904 •Identified that agricultural land was a main commodity that states would be interested in •An effort to predict future conflict regions •The heartland stated the interior of Eurasia provided a likely base for world conquest (Eastern European Steppe) whoever controlled Eastern Europe commands the heartland, whoever controls the heartland commands the World Island and whoever controls the World Island controls the world
Networks
Defined by Manuel Castells as a set of interconnected nodes without a center -Ex. Information networks, transportation networks, etc.
Population Distribution
Description of locations on the Earth's surface where populations live -Ex. Most people in the world live along seacoasts or near bodies of water The Northern Hemisphere has a higher population than the Southern Hemisphere
Dowry Death
Disputes over the price to be paid by the family of the bride to the father of the groom (the dowry) has lead to the death of the bride in some cases Ex.In India bride burning
What groups settled in the Hudson Valley Hearth?
Dutch, Flemish, English, German, French Huguenot
What region has the highest major population concentration?
East Asia
Who settled in the Delaware Valley Hearth?
English, Scot-Irish, Swedish, German and Karelians (eastern Finns who introduced "backwoods" lifestyle, log-building design, self-sufficient economies and influenced frontier advancement)
External Identity vs. Internal Identity
External identity: used by individuals to express their cultural heritage, ethnicity or place of origin to people who do not share a common background •Internal identity: used by individuals to express their cultural heritage, ethnicity or place of origin to people who share their cultural/geographic background
Regionalism
Feeling of collective identity based on a population's politico-territorial identification within a state or across state boundaries ~Ex. Basque of Spain/France
Ethnicity (Ethnic Geography)
Focuses on spatial distributions & interactions of ethnic groups (people sharing a distinctive culture) & of the cultural characteristics on which they are based; often associated with a region/territory Word ethnicity is from the Greek "ethnos" meaning "people/nation" and refers to a group of people who share a common identity •1) Often contribute to cultural landscapes •2) Ethnicity is often connected to religion and language •3) Can be modified by migration...acculturation can help change identity i.e. now Irish-American •Ethnicity represents a national heritage while race refers to physical characteristics of a common genetic heritage •Ex. My race is Caucasian and one of my ethnic groups is Czech
What is a universalizing religion?
Follows idea that there is one true religion that is universal in scope •Seek to unite people all over the world •Followers often believe their religion represents universal truths & in some cases great efforts are taken in evangelism (spread belief system) and missionary work (travels to recruit new members)
Before 1800, 80% of those coming to the New World from the Old World were African slaves. This is an example of what type of migration?
Forced Migration
Geographers study culture at what two angles?
Geographers study this at two angles: 1) Some study what people care about (adore or worship) like the modern word cult Ex. beliefs, values, customs 2) Others study what people take care of (to nurse or look after) like the modern word cultivate Ex. Ways of earning a living, obtaining food, clothing, shelter
Possibilism
Geographic viewpoint- a response to determinism-that holds that human decision making, not the environment, is the crucial factor in cultural development; nevertheless, possibilists view the environment as providing a set of broad constraints that limits the possibilities of human choices -Ex. Humans can make choices not ruled by climate, physical features, etc
What is a Service Based Economy?
Highly developed economies that focus on research & development, marketing, tourism, sales and telecommunication Ex. The United States has a service- based economy
GPS (Global Positioning System)
Includes two dozen satellites placed in predetermined orbits, a series of tracking stations to monitor and control the satellites and receivers that compute positions, velocity, and time from the satellite signals -Ex. Receivers in car can give you directions
Hierarchal Religion
Includes well-defined geographic structure and organizes things into local administrative units Ex. Roman Catholicism: •Pope (head of church)à Bishops à Priestsà Parishioners
Interfaith vs. Intrafaith Boundaries
Interfaith boundaries: boundaries between the world's major faiths Ex. Christian-Muslim boundaries between countries in Africa ●Intrafaith boundaries: boundaries within a single major faith Ex. Protestant vs. Catholics or Sunni vs. Shia
site
Internal physical and cultural characteristics of a place, such as terrain, and dominant religions, etc.
Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM)
It examines the extent to which women and men are able to actively participate in economic and political life and take part in decision-making Ex. In 2007 Sweden had the highest GEM ranking •Introduced from the UN 1995 Human Development Report
Fundamentalism
Literal interpretation and strict adherence to basic principles of religion (or a religious branch, denomination or sect) •Contributes to many conflicts Ex. Taliban in Afghanistan and its Ministry for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice: men beaten for shaving beards, women wearing nail polish had fingers cut off (interpreted Qu'ran their own way and were criticized by other Muslims)
Gender-Related Development Index
Measures achievement in social and economic issues for men and women and takes note of inequality between the sexes Ex. In 2007 Australia had the highest GDI ranking Introduced from the UN 1995 Human Development Report
Brain Drain
People wanting to escape communist influence began leaving Eastern Europe Berlin Wall was built by the Communists to stop the "Brain Drain"
Cold War Era
Period of East-West competition, tension and conflict short of full scale war that began after WWII and ended with the fall of the Berlin Wall in the 1990s, included also scientific competition like space race Ex. United States (democracy) vs. Soviet Union (Communism)
Cultural Shatterbelt
Politically unstable region where different cultural elements come into contact and conflict
What is mariculture?
Production and harvesting of fish and shellfish in fenced confinement areas along coasts and estuaries
Boomburb
Rapidly growing suburban city that has a population greater than 100,000, is not the largest city in their metropolitan area having double digit growth for several decades, often develop along interstate beltways Ex. Temecula, Riverside, Escondido, etc.
Relocation Diffusion
Sequential diffusion process in which the items being diffused are transmitted by their carrier agents as they evacuate the old areas and relocate to new ones -Ex. Most common is spreading of ideas by a migrating population; for example German immigrants bringing tradition of Christmas tree to America
Gender
Social differences between women and men rather than biological differences; what is female or male varies greatly over time/space Ex. Different societies have different ideas about what jobs are appropriate for men and women •Indonesia factory workers are mostly women because factory owners think women are less likely to strike, join unions, and easier to exploit
EPZ (Export Processing Zones)
Special manufacturing export zones that offer favorable tax, with regulatory and trade agreements to foreign companies 1. By early 2000, more than sixty countries had such zone 2. Some argue that these zones exploit workers and only benefit foreign firms while some believe it provides necessary jobs for local residents 3. Two examples include Mexico's maquiladoras and China's Special Economic Zones (SEZ)
China's Special Economic Zones
Specific areas in China that allow tax incentives and less stringent environmental regulations to attract foreign business and investment; situated along major port areas 1) 1980s establishment of first SEZs 2) 1984: China opened up fourteen coastal cities for overseas investment (ex. Shanghai, Tianjin, etc. 3) 1985: Opened up coastal areas including Yangtze and Pearl River Deltas 4) Established to encourage foreign investment 5) No tax during first year; after year of profit "tax clock" begins but no tax second year while third and fourth year see ½ the tax rate 6) Has brought investment and revenue along with technological ideas to China
Expansion Diffusion
Spread of an innovation or an idea through a population in an area in such a way that the number of those involved grows continuously larger resulting in an expanding area of dissemination; snowball effect -Ex. Spread of Islam through Africa
Culture
The body of customary beliefs, social forms and material traits that together constitute a group of people's distinct traditions Geographers distinguish people according to important cultural characteristics, look at the distribution of cultural groups and offer reasons for the distribution Comes from the Latin term cultus, which means to "care for"
Pattern
The design of a spatial distribution; geographical arrangements of objects in space -Ex. linear, random, centralized, nucleated, etc.
Space-Time Compression
The idea that distance between some places is actually shrinking as technology enables more rapid communication and increased interaction between those places -Ex. Increased technology in travel makes it easier to fly from Boston to Paris
Friction of Distance
The increase of time and cost that usually comes with increasing distance -Ex. It will cost you more in time and gas money to go to concert in Las Vegas vs. San Diego
What is Neolocalism?
The seeking out of the regional culture and reinvigoration of it in response to the uncertainty of the modern world Ex. Lindsborg, Kansas is called "Little Sweden, U.S.A."
Environmental Determinism
The view that the natural environment has a controlling influence over various aspects of human life, including cultural development; also referred as environmentalism -Ex. Many scholars dismiss this concept but an example could be that island nations have separate cultural development because of separation from mainland.
Physiological Density
Total number of people per unit of arable land
What is GNI? (Gross National Income)
Total value of goods/services produced by a state per year plus net income earned abroad by its nationalists; formerly called gross national product
In 1975, there was a major migration movement from Vietnam to these three countries
USA, Australia and Malaysia
What is the Gender Gap?
Unbalance in sex ratio •Can refer to gender differences in society Ex. Income disparity of males and females •More men in politics then women, etc. •Certain genders live longer than others (longevity gap) ~ can also be other factors like ethnicity
Cultural Landscape
Visible imprint of human activity -Ex. Cape Cod style architecture in New England, Wailing Wall in Jerusalem, etc
Concentric Zone Mode (Burgess Model)
~Created in 1923 by sociologist E.W. Burgess •First to explain the distribution of different social groups within urban areas •This model shows that a city grows outward from a central area in a series of concentric rings •Size and width of rings varies from city to city but same type of rings appear in all cities in the same order but today in America the Zone of Better Residence would be larger (more people living in suburbs) Zone 1: CBD à nonresidential activities are concentrated; aka downtown; highest density of commercial land use, expensive real estate Zone 2: Zone of Transition à industry, manufacturing, wholesaling, factory zone; in many American/Canadian cities these areas have been deindustrialized-converted from industrial areas to festive landscape (parks, sports stadiums, convention centers, outdoor concert venues, etc.) Zone 3: Zone of Independent Worker's homes à working class, blue collar, inner city, lower-quality housing like tenements/public housing projects Zone 4: Zone of Better Residence à professional/white collar, suburbs, newer homes, spacious, middle class Zone 5: Commuter Zone à exurbs (area beyond suburbs), country estates, very low-density residential and they drive into the city for work (commute)
Material vs. Nonmaterial Culture
~Material culture are things that people produce like food, clothing, shelter, art, etc. ~Nonmaterial culture are traditions, languages, religious beliefs, customs, etc.