APK2100c Final Exam Study Guide

Layers of the skin and their associated tissue

- Epidermis (most superficial - epithelial tissue (avascular, keratinized stratified squamous where we mostly find on skin) - Dermis (deep - connective tissue) - Hypodermis (not part of the skin - loose connective tissue)

Extracellular matrix

- Provides structural and biochemical support to cells - gives tissue its consistency - consists of fibers, ground substance, and tissue fluid

simple columnar epithelium

- Tall cell with oval nuclei - absorption and secretion - some ciliated, some not - non-ciliated simple columnar epithelium lines the GI tract - ciliated simple columnar epithelium lines the small bronchi and uterine tubes

Special features of epithelium

- cells arranged in sheets, one cell thick (simple) or multiple layers (stratified) - cells are packed, held tightly together by proteins - little to no extracellular matrix - Found at boundary between two different environments - free surface containing no cells that is exposed to an opening (covers, lines, or secretes so outside of body, duct, or lumen) - avascular receiving nutrients from other cells and tissues through junctions - Polarity (apical and basal surfaces) - Nervous Innervation - Regeneration - Specialized contacts

4th ventricle

- continuous with central canal of spinal cord - supples pons and medulla oblongata, and subarachnoid space - CSF exits through apertures

simple cuboidal epithelium

- cube like with large spherical nuclei - secretion and absorption - kidney tubules, secretary portions of small glands, surface of ovary

3rd ventricle

- found in the diencephalon - contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus - inter ventricular foramina supply it with CSF from the lateral ventricles - cerebral aqueduct extends from third ventricle to midbrain

Three main functions of the nervous system

- gather sensory input from sensory receptors - integrate sensory input to the integration center (brain and spinal cord) - produce motor output (at effector organs)

Collagen fibers

- largest, thickest, strongest fibers - most abundant type of connective tissue - tensile strength *

Elastin fibers

- long fibers that branch and form networks - allow connective tissue to recoil - found in skin and lungs

Cerebral peduncles

- motor axons from cortex to cerebellum and spinal cord

Role of cholesterol in the plasma membrane

- prevent the fatty acid tails from sticking together. - fluidity of the plasma membrane - structural integrity (provides rigidity to the fluid structure)

Functions of the cell/plasma membrane

- protective barrier - cellular communication via receptor proteins -controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell (selectively permeable)

Cerebellum

- second largest structure of the brain behind pons - three major peduncles or motor tracts: superior, middle, inferior

Reticular fibers

- small - special collagen fibrils - cluster into networks - function: support

Ventricles of the brain

- spaces in the brain that are continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord - contain CSF and ciliated ependymal cells that circulate fluid to nourish the nervous tissue

Directional terminology

-superior: top half of the body -inferior: bottom half -anterior/ventral: front part of the body -posterior/dorsal: back part of the body -proximal: toward the origin - attachment to body -distal: away from the origin or attachment to body - superficial: on surface - deep: within - ipsilateral: on same side of body - contralateral: opposite side of body

Motor (Efferent) Division divided into two systems

1) Somatic Nervous System: VOLUNTARY somatic motor neurons conducting impulses from CNS to skeletal muscles or skin 2) Autonomic Nervous System: INVOLUNTARY visceral motor neurons send impulses from CNS to cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and glands

General functions of major organelles

1. Ribosomes: protein synthesis 2. Mitochondria: "powerhouse of the cell" - cellular respiration - where energy stored is converted to ATP 3. Endoplasmi reticulum: - Rough ER (protein synthesis) - Smooth ER (making or breaking down fats / calcium storage) 4. Golgi Apparatus: - receives products of smooth ER and modifies them to be shipped to the rest of the cell or outside of the cell via transport vesicles 5. Lysosomes: - Enzymes that break down macromolecules - site of intracellular digestion 6. Peroxisomes - remove toxic wastes using enzymes 7. Cytoskeleton: - throughout the cytoplasm, support cells shape - produces movement 8. Centrosome: - forms microtubules - aids in cell division and mitosis

Pons

A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain - striated (abundance of axons)

What is a tissue?

A group of cells that live and work together for a common function

Midbrain

A small part of the brain above the pons that integrates sensory information and relays it upward.

Desmosomes

Anchoring junctions that are filamentous and provide a strong physical linkage allowing tissues to withstand stretching without breaking apart

Regional terminology (Anterior/Ventral View)

Anterior/Ventral View: Cephalic (head): - Frontal (forehead) - Orbital (eyes) - Nasal (nose) - Oral (mouth) - Mental (chin) Cervical (neck) Thoracic: - Sternal (chest) - Mammary (breast) - Axillary (armpit) Abdominal: - Umbilical (Belly button) Pelvic: - Inguinal (groin) Pubic (genital) Upper Limb: - Acromial (shoulder) - Brachial (Arm) - Antecubital (anterior of elbow) - Antebrachial (forearm) - Carpal (wrist) Manus (hand) - pollex (innermost digit - thumb) - palmar (palm of your hand) - digital (fingers) Lower Limb - Coxal (hip) - Femoral (thigh) - Patellar (knee) - Crural (leg) - fibular or peroneal (outer side of calf) Pedal (foot) - Tarsal (ankle) - Metatarsal (long bones in the foot) - Digital (toes) - Hallux (big toe)

What is the hierarchy of structural organization in the body?

Atoms --> molecules --> organelles --> cells --> tissues --> organs --> organ systems --> organisms (AMOCTOOO)

Central nervous system components

Brain and spinal cord

Role of glycolipids in the plasma membrane

Cell recognition and adhesion, found in layers facing extracellular fluid

What is the most abundant and diverse type of tissue?

Connective Tissue

Structural and functional classifications of neurons

Dendrites: - processes branching off soma - receive sensory information from neighboring neurons Axons: - extend from soma - receive info from soma and transmit it to other cells through axon terminals Axon hillock: - part of soma where membrane potentials are summated before transmitted to axon - determine whether an action potential will travel down an axon Initial Segment (Trigger zone): - receives action potential from axon hillock - not covered by myelin Myelin Sheath: - wraps around entire length of axon - contains gaps called nodes of Ranvier where impulses jump between nodes - Myelinated axons --> faster movement of action potentials down axon Synapses: - Synaptic gap between neuron - where neurotransmitters travel for communication between neurons Terminal Boutons or Axon terminals: - end of an axon that enlarges - secretes neurotransmitters Glial Cells: supporting cells - wrap around axon - speeds up electrical impulses - activates secretion of neurotransmitters

Autonomic Nervous System

Divided into sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic divisions (rest and digest)

What are the 4 basic types of tissue and their one-word functions

Epithelial: Covering Connective: Support Muscle: Movement Nervous: Control

Gross Anatomy of the spinal cord

Extends from the Foramen Magnum to L1 or L2 Cervical and lumbar enlargements (plexuses) contain the cell bodies of the many spinal nerves to the limbs Cauda Equina The Nerve roots of lumbar and sacral Spinal nerves. Ascending and descending white matter tracts carry information to/away from brain

5 major lobes of the cerebrum

Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, insular

General hair anatomy

Hair are elongated columns of dead, hard, keratinized epidermal cells that emerge from the skin Hair Shaft - portion visible on the skins surface Hair Root - portion that penetrates the skin and lies below the skins surface Hair Follicle - sheath surrounding the hair root in the skin Bulb - at the base of the hair follicle Papilla - the indentation in the bulb Arrector Pili Muscle - smooth muscle attached to hair follicle Matrix - portion of the hair follicle located near the papilla of the bulb where the cells actively divide and produce new hair cells

How does connective tissue differ from epithelium or muscle tissue?

It has a small number of cells and LOTS of extracellular metric which determines properties of the tissue

Why is skin considered an organ?

It is made of multiple tissues working to gather for a common function

Phospholipids

Make up 75% of membrane lipids - polar heads are hydrophilic/amphipathic (water loving facing either extracellular or intracellular fluid) - phospholipid tails are hydrophobic (hate water)

Multipolar neuron

Most common type of neuron in the CNS that contains multiple dendrites extending from soma and has one single axon

Cilia

Motile, hairlike projection from the apical surface of certain epithelial cells - move along surface of cells by wiggling

Skeletal muscle

Muscle attaching bones to bones or bones to skin - striations - skeletal myocytes: multinucleate, run entire length of muscle - involuntary and voluntary movement - nuclei placed peripherally in cell

Cardiac Muscle

Muscle of the heart - striated - one nucleus - shorter and more branched - cellular junctions between myocytes containing intercalated discs as well as desmosomes (anchoring junctions)p[ - protein stains dark

Smooth muscle

Muscle that propel things along internal passageways - not striated - cells arranged into sheets - spindle shaped cells with nuclei in center

Gross anatomy of a nerve

Nerve- - cable-like organ in the PNS that consists of a cluster of axons -covered by Schwann cells - organs - bundles of parallel axons called fascicles - encased by 3 sheaths of connective tissue 1) Epineurium: outermost layer, surrounding entire nerve 2) Perineurium: surrounds fascicles 3) Endoneurium: Found within fascicles, surrounding individual Schwann cells that surround individual axons

Nerve vs. Tract

Nerve: bundle of axons in the PNS Tracts: bundle of axons in the CNS

Nucleus vs. ganglia

Nucleus: bundle of somas in CNS Ganglia: bundle of somas in the PNS

What are the three main structural components of any cell?

Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus

Regional Terminology (Posterior/Dorsal View)

Posterior/Dorsal View: Upper Limb: - Acromial (shoulder) - Brachial (Arm) - Olecranal (prominence of elbow) - Antebrachial (forearm) Manus (hand) - metacarpal (back of wrist) - digits (fingers) Lower Limb: - Femoral (thigh) - Popliteal (back of knee) - Sural (calf) - Fibular or peroneal (outer side of calf) Pedal (foot) - Calcaneal - Plantar (underneath) Cephalic: - Otic (ear) - Occipital (back of head) Cervical (neck) Back (dorsal): - Scapular (superior posterior surface of the trunk - shoulder blade) - Vertebral (vertebrae) - Lumbar (lower spine - between diaphragm and sacrum) - Sacral (triangular-shaped bone at bottom of spine lying between lumbar spine and coccyx tailbone) - Gluteal (butt) - Perineal (anus)

Five components of the reflex arc

Reflex Arc: simple chain of neurons that give rise to reflexes 1. Receptor - detects stimuli and sends action potential to sensory neuron 2. Sensory neuron - action potential travels past 3. Integration Center - connects sensory neuron to motor neuron 4. Motor Neuron - action potential is sent from here to an effector organ 5. Effector - where reflex occurs

Rostral vs. Caudal

Rostral: Toward snout (brain is rostral to spinal cord) Caudal: Toward tail (parietal lobes are caudal to frontal lobes)

What is anatomical position?

Standing erect, facing forward, feet together, arms to side, head, eyes, and palms facing forward

Which part of the integumentary system are vascularized?

The dermis

The meninges

Three sheaths of connective tissue surrounding the spinal cord and brain - contain CSF - dura mater (most superficial and strong) - Arachnoid mater (middle, held to Pia by web-like threads) - Pia Mater (deepest - highly vascularized, clings tight to brain and spinal cord)

Major plasma membrane junctions

Tight junctions, desmosomes (anchoring junctions), and gap junctions

Sebaceous and sweat glands

Two types of glands in the skin Sebaceous: - Produce sebum (oily substance) - collects dirt - protects against brittle skin and bacterial growth - makes hair and skin shiny - found on face and scalp Sweat: - secrete sweat - eccrine sweat glands: on palms, soles of feet, forehead - apocrine: in anal, genital, and axillary areas, producing milky sweat and body odor

White matter vs gray matter

White matter - fiber tracts of axons Gray matter - cell bodies of interneurons and motor neurons

Are nerves organs?

Yes, they consist of multiple tissues

pseudostratified columnar epithelium

a lot of cilia are visible - found in trachea and respiratory tract

What is myelin?

a mixture of proteins and phospholipids forming a whitish insulating sheath around many nerve fibers, that serve to allow signals to travel more quickly and prevent ions from traveling across plasma membrane

What are the smallest living units in our bodies?

cells

Oligodendricytes

cells producing myelin sheaths, wrapping their "end feet" process around axons - ONLY in CNS - cover multiple axons

The axial region includes

central, vertical axis of the body, including the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage

Fiber types found in connective tissue?

collagen, elastin, and reticular fibers

stratified columnar epithelium

compared to simple columnar, we can see more than one layer of tissue

Tight junctions

connect two adjacent cells, forming an impenetrable barrier preventing molecules from passing through

Fissures

deep grooves in the brain separating brain structures Transverse cerebral fissure: separating cerebrum from cerebellum Longitudinal fissure: dividing left and right hemispheres

Frontal (coronal) body plane

divides anterior and posterior parts

Oblique plaine

divides at a diagonal angle (not common)

Median (sagittal) body plane

divides into left and right HALVES) - also parasagittal: divides into left and right but NOT halves

Transverse (horizontal) body plane

divides superior and inferior parts

keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

epidermis of skin - keratin is a protein that protects and supports our external layer of skin making it waterproof. The cells on the keratinized layer are dead cells.

Gap Junctions

forms small channels between adjacent cells that are connected by connexons (membrane proteins) to allow small molecules to pass between cells

Body Planes

frontal (coronal), transverse (horizontal), sagittal (median)

Sulci

grooves separating the lobes Parieto-occipital sulcus: separates parieital lobe from occipital lobe Central Sulcus: separates frontal lobe from parietal lobe Lateral sulcus: separates frontal and parietal lobes from temporal lobe

Hypothalamus

homeostasis

Microville

immotile, cellular projections on the free surface of most epithelium - increase surface area for absorption - fingerlike projections

Importance of cervical and lumbar enlargements

innervate upper and lower limbs so they must contain a large amount of myelinated axons

Type of cells of hair and nails are made of

keratinocytes

Right and left lateral ventricles

large, located with in the cerebrum

White matter in spinal cord

located externally - myelinated motor and sensory axons bringing information to and away from the brain

Gray matter in the spinal cord

located internally - cell bodies of interneurons and motor neurons

Flagella

long, whiplike extensions of the plasma membrane of cells that propels the cell - motile

Diencephalon

middle core of the brain containing the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus

Efferent

motor nerve fibers and ganglia carrying signals away from CNS to efferent organs (muscles and glands) - motor

What are the general effectors of the nervous system?

muscles and glands

Peripheral Nervous system

nerves and ganglia that either relay sensory stimuli to the CNS or motor commands from the CNS to effector organs

Types of cells present in nervous tissue

neurons and neuroglia Neurons: basic kind, cell body called soma, where nuclei and organelles are found, axons carry electrical info away and dendrites carry electrical info to soma Neuroglia: Glial cells or support cells

simple squamous epithelium

one layer of flat cells - diffusion and filtration sites - produces lubricating fluid - kidneys, air sacs, heart lining, blood vessels

medulla oblongata function

regulating vital function (breathing, digestion, heart rate) - continuation of spinal cord - most caudal part of the brain - pyramids: motor tracts bringing motor output from cerebrum to spinal cord olives: nuclei relaying sensory info to cerebellum

Thalamus

relays sensory information

Dorsal root

sensory branch of each spinal nerve This is where afferent (sensory) neurons transmit signals from rest of body to spinal cord

Types of muscle tissue

skeletal, cardiac, smooth

Afferent

somatic and visceral sensory nerve fibers and ganglia carrying electrical information to the CNS from sensory stimuli - sensory - Visceral division (nerves and ganglia within ventral body cavity) - Somatic division (nerves and ganglia outside ventral body cavity- felt on skin)

Fluid Mosaic Model

theory of cell membrane structure with proteins embedded in a sea of phospholipids - cell membrane is not a rigid structure - cell membrane is a fluid containing phospholipids and embedded proteins

Dorsal and ventral horns

these make up the gray matter in the spinal cord and give off axons that accumulate to form a root dorsal horn: sensory, information coming into the spinal cord; has dorsal root ganglia ventral horn: motor, information leaving the spinal cord to skeletal muscles

The appendicular region includes

upper and lower limbs as well as other girdle bones that attach each limb to the axial skeleton

Change in white matter as you move up the spinal cord

white matter increases as we move up the spinal cord - cervical: most white matter - thoracic: least gray matter - sacral: most gray matter

Schwann cells

wrap their whole cell bodies around plasma membrane - ONLY in PNS - myelinated: wraps multiple times - unmyelinated: wraps only once