APUSH - By the People - Chpt 24

J Hoover

*McCarthy* was hardly the only leader of the *Red Scare* of the late 1940s and early 1950s. ___, who had been head of the *Federal Bureau of Investigation* since 1924 and a participant in the government's attack on radicals after *World War I*, cultivated a reputation as the nation's top crime fighter, especially after *FBI* agents killed *John Dillinger*, "Public Enemy Number One", during Prohibition. But ___ also cultivated a role as a leading anti-Communist, seeking to expose what he claimed was communist influence in the government, universities, religious groups, and later civil rights organizations. He collected files on hundreds of Americans, from members of Congress to union officials, Although President *Truman* complained about ___, insisting, "We want no Gestapo or Secret Police,'" he did not stop ___'s search for subversives. (749) 3

Arthur Vandenberg

*Roosevelt*, mindful of *Woodrow Wilson's* failure to take Republicans to Versailles, appointed a bipartisan delegation to go to San Francisco, including Republican ___ of Michigan, one of the most respected members of the Senate. ___'s support would be crucial, and Roosevelt knew it. (740) 2

Harry Truman

*Taft* was not alone. The Republican Party was strong following *World War II*. As ___ understood, many people in the United States were tired of experiments, just as after *World War I*, many Americans simply wanted to be left alone. In the 1946 midterm elections, Republicans took control of both houses of Congress. But ___ was a fighter, more of a fighter than some expected. His goal was to win a full term in his own right and elect a Democratic Congress in 1948, goals many thought unrealistic in 1946. (754) 5

Red Scare

As Americans tried to make sense of the *Cold War*, the Soviet manufacture of an atomic bomb, and the Communist takeover in China, some in Congress and beyond looked for internal enemies. Many politicians were worried about maintaining the security of the United States, but some in Congress sought political gain by fomenting a new ___ similar to the one that had followed *World War I*. (747) 2

Syngman Rhee Yalu River

For *MacArthur*, the initial victory was only the beginning. He insisted, and *Truman* agreed, that the moment had come to unify the whole Korean peninsula under _(1)__. The *UN*, with the Soviets still boycotting, agreed and *MacArthur's* forces began moving north, closer to the Chinese border at the _(2)_. *MacArthur* was confident that he could win the war and be home by December. When *Truman* asked about the chance of a Chinese intervention, *MacArthur* responded, "Very little." He was wrong. (752) 4

Douglas MacArthur Matthew Ridgway

For *Truman*. the defeats in Korea at the end of 1950 were a diplomatic and a political disaster. Republicans now saw him as weak. Some urged the use of atomic weapons on China. General _(1)_, whom *Truman* despised, had strong Republican support (_(1)_'s fellow senior officers had their own opinions. When General *Eisenhower* was asked if he had met _(1)_ he responded, "Not only have I met him...,I studied dramatics under him.") In early 1951, _(1)_ bypassed *Truman* and tried to get congressional support for a wider war. *Truman* had had enough. With support from the Joint Chiefs of Staff, he fired _(1)_, who had been a hero to many. Army Chief of Staff General *Omar Bradley* was more concerned with Europe and fearful of a land war in Asia. *Bradley* said Korea was the "wrong war, at the wrong place, at the wrong time, and with the wrong enemy." the new commander in Korea, General _(2)_, stabilized the defense lines and arranged better support and supplies for the troops. (753) 1

World War II

For consumers, science and technology offered tangible improvements that changed daily life. In 1945, consumers were being introduced to freezers, dishwashers, automatic transmissions, and ballpoint pens. In offices, workers were beginning to use electric typewriters. Other technologies that had been developed prior to ___ —from washing machines to electric ranges to electric trains—were suddenly available after wartime production restrictions were lifted. Pent-up consumer demand and industrial availability combined quickly. What had been impossible to find during the war was now in every store. (731) 5

suburbs

For veterans and their families and those who followed after them in the 1950s, however, the new ___ were a dream come true. Immediately after the war, a desperate housing shortage led many to double up with parents or other relatives. Half a million veterans lived in army Quonset huts or other temporary buildings. Chicago sold 250 old trolley cars as temporary homes. A home of one's own, previously often a reality only for the upper-middle class and the rich, now became a new norm. The first issue of the community newspaper in *Levittown* noted that "our lives are held closely together because most of us are within the same age bracket, in similar income groups, live in almost identical houses, and have common problems." The residents also made their own contribution to the baby boom to such a degree that the community became known as "Fertility Valley" and "the Rabbit Hutch." (734) 4

Middle Class

For white ___ Americans, a new home located in a suburban neighborhood offered the chance to build a safe and modern life. It was to these new homes, cut off from daily interchange with their extended families but connected to others very much like themselves, that a generation of Americans moved after 1945. (734) 1

International Harvester's Cotton Picking Machine

*Hopson* was thinking of the machine's impact on his profits. But like *Whitney's* invention a century and a half earlier, the machine's largest impact was on men and women of African descent. *Whitney's* cotton gin made slavery profitable. ___ made the sharecropping that had replaced slavery obsolete. A wave of 1.5 million African-Americans had moved North between 1910 and 1940, but 5 million followed between 1940 and 1960. (737) 3

Margaret Smith Declaration of Conscience

*McCarthy* never did name the names on his list, and the numbers kept shifting in different speeches, but he ruined careers and frightened many into silence. His popularity seemed to protect him. In May 1950, a Gallup poll showed that 84 percent of Americans knew who *McCarthy* was and 39 percent believed that his attacks were good for the country. Few political leaders were willing to challenge him. However, In June 1950, Maine's Republican Senator _(1)_and six colleagues issued a "_(2)_," saying that *McCarthy* was using the Senate as a publicity platform for irresponsible sensationalism. Still he continued for 4 more years. (749) 1

V Molotov

From the beginning of their wartime alliance, the United States and the Soviet Union had very different goals in *World War II*. The Soviets wanted a permanent buffer zone between themselves and Germany, and they wanted to ensure that they obtained absolute control over the countries of Eastern Europe. Having suffered so much from the war, the Soviets were also determined to take all of the machinery, munitions, and art they could from Germany. The United States wanted a rapid post-Nazi German recovery. In 1942, *Roosevelt* told Soviet Foreign Minister___ that, "there might be a proper time" to address the differences in war goals between the two nations, but in the midst of the war, *FDR* said, "the present was not the moment." (742) 1

Atomic Bomb

Hanging over all of the advances, however, was the ___. As Americans learned more about the ___, they realized that it could end all of their improved health and new-found prosperity. Few Americans had questioned the morality of using the ____ in 1945; indeed, only a tiny handful even knew that the weapon existed before its use. The few physicists who had developed the ___ understood what it meant, however. Very soon, many more came to understand the sobering reality of "the mushroom cloud" that a nuclear explosion unleashed. "The ___" might be a new form of protection, since only the United States had it, but it was also a new threat. (732) 3

Federal Housing Authority

Housing in the North was even more segregated than in the South. While the _(1)_ dropped explicit racial rules by the 1940s, its handbook still said "If a neighborhood is to retain stability, it is necessary that all properties shall continue to be occupied by the same social class." In reality, that wording meant, "Don't give mortgages to black families in white neighborhoods." The white rush to segregated suburbs opened up new urban housing for blacks. Unscrupulous real estate agents made large profits while engaging in blockbusting in older neighborhoods, convincing frightened white homeowners to sell quickly and cheaply. From Boston to Los Angeles, whole city blocks went on the market at the same time, transferring the majority of homes from white to black hands in short order. Changes in the racial makeup of urban neighborhoods happened at the same time as cash-strapped cities cut back on municipal services and many banks dramatically reduced the availability of mortgages and loans for home improvements. The creation of the white suburbs and the vastly expanded urban black ghettos went hand in hand in the 1950s. (737) 5

National Institutes of Health

If the nuclear physicists who designed and built the atomic bomb were in the van-guard of wartime scientific breakthroughs, biologists and medical researchers were not far behind. During *World War II*, the wonder drugs—penicillin and streptomycin—combatted infections and resulted in a dramatic reduction in battlefield deaths. Soon after the war, medical scientists and pharmaceutical companies marketed other new antibiotics. The ___, which had begun as a tiny government agency in the 1930s, now led the nation's war on disease. (731) 3

Joseph Stalin

In 1945, most people in the United States admired the Soviet Union, even if American leaders had already become wary of ___ and his government. After meeting ___ for the first time at Tehran in late 1943, *Roosevelt* said, "I 'got along fine' with Marshall ___." Privately, however, he confided his doubts. (741) 1

West Germany North Atlantic Treaty Organization Warsaw Pact United Nations

In 1955, when the Federal Republic of Germany, or _(1)_, was created out of the merged British, French, and U.S. occupation zones and admitted to _(2)_, the Soviet Union formed the _(3)_—a military alliance in eastern Europe specifically designed to counter _(2)_ with the same guarantees of mutual assistance for its members, all of whom were under tight control by the Soviet Union. _(2)_ and the _(3)_ would be more powerful entities in the coming decades than the _(4)_. (746) 1

Demobilization

In August 1945, as *World War II* ended, 12 million American men were in the military, two-thirds of those between the ages of 18 and 34. They had been through a brutal war, and now they wanted get home and get on with their lives. Those waiting at home were equally anxious to get the troops back. It took time to organize the military governance of Germany and Japan and to arrange the transport of troops. By fall, members of Congress started to get warning letters, "No boats, no votes." ___ moved at a rapid pace. In less than a year, three-quarters of those in the military had been mustered out, leaving an active military of 3 million. Congress voted to cut that number to 1 million in another year. (733) 2

Board of Education

In California, growth led to new militancy in the Mexican-American community. In Santa Ana, Mexican-American parents hired an attorney and sued the ___ over school segregation. In 1946, the courts issued a permanent injunction against this segregation, and later, the federal appeals court directed a federal grand jury to consider an indictment against the Santa Ana board. (738) 5

George Marshall

In June, the administration announced plans for massive economic aid to western Europe. The winter of 1946-47 had been the worst in years. By spring, Europe was running dangerously low on coal and food. People were cold, hungry, and desperate. Secretary of State ___ used a Harvard commencement speech to tell the world: Our policy is directed not against any country or doctrine, but against hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos....We know that in this trying period, between a war that is over and a peace that is not yet secure, the destitute and oppressed of the earth look chiefly to us for sustenance and support until they can again face life with self-confidence and sell-reliance. (743) 4

Community Service Organization Edward Roybal

In Los Angeles, with the largest Mexican-American population, the _(1)_ began to fight for political rights in 1947 and was successful in electing _(2)_ to the Los Angeles City Council in 1949, the first time since 1881 that someone of Mexican descent had served on that body. In 1962, _(2)_ was elected to the U.S. Congress. Other Mexican-American organizations sprang up across the southwest, supporting a successful mine workers strike in New Mexico in 1950-1952 and building a solid base before the civil rights movements of the later 1950s while also supporting a small but growing middle-class Latino community in California and Texas. (738) 6

United Nations

In September 1950, under *MacArthur's* command, the U.S. and ___ forces made a surprise amphibious landing at *Inchon*, on the west coast of Korea close to the *38th parallel*. The Communist forces were cut off from their supplies and captured or forced to retreat. The tide of war suddenly turned, and in less than a month, the Americans advanced from the small perimeter to retake South Korea. (752) 3

Bracero

In addition, the U.S. population included about 1.2 million Americans of Mexican background, and this group also grew rapidly after *World War II*. In the Southwest, the ___ (helping hands in Spanish) began during *World War II* to allow farm workers temporary entry into the United States to work in the agricultural fields that other Americans had left for war industries or for the military. The entry program was expanded after the war, and between 1948 and 1964, almost 5 million ___s were brought to the United States. Although they were expected to return to Mexico when the work was done, not all did, and they, along with others who walked across the hot deserts and the border, expanded the country's Mexican-American population, creating a large group, some of whom remained under constant threat of deportation. (738) 4

Henry Morgenthau International Monetary Fund

In early 1944, Roosevelt's Secretary of the Treasury _(1)_ invited Great Britain and the Soviet Union to join the United States in establishing a postwar economic system. Both agreed. _(1)_ then invited representatives of more than 40 wartime allies to meet at the Mount Washington Hotel in *Bretton Woods*, New Hampshire, in July 1944. The resulting *Bretton Woods* agreement created an _(2)_ for "promoting international monetary cooperation." The purpose of the _(2)_ was to maintain exchange rates between different currencies so people could buy and sell in different countries without fear that values would fluctuate wildly (as happened in the 1930s), to provide loans to a nation that was having problems balancing payments, and to provide technical assistance to banks. The U.S. dollar was made the base on which all other currencies were calculated (and it remained so until 1971). (739) 3

United Nations

In early May, less than a month after *Roosevelt's* death on April 12, Nazi Germany surrendered. In June, the ___, a new international organization designed to preserve peace, held its first meeting. Then came the news of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima on August 6 and Nagasaki on August 9. Japan surrendered on August 14. *World War II* was over. (730) 2

President's Committee on Civil Rights

In planning his campaign for 1948, *Truman* sought to maintain the *New Deal* coalition that had elected *Roosevelt* four times, and even sought to expand it. He wanted to have a large plurality among white blue-collar workers, immigrant groups, farmers, and poor people. He made special efforts to court African-Americans and Jews. In 1946, he appointed a ___ and its report, released in October 1947, led him to propose an *antilynching law*, a permanent *fair employment commission*, and laws against poll taxes and discrimination in transportation. When the Republican Congress failed to pass these and other pieces of legislation, *Truman* called them "the do-nothing Congress." Under pressure from civil rights leaders, *Truman* overruled the objections of some of the nation's highest-ranking military officers and ordered the desegregation of the nation's armed forces in 1948. It would take several years before the last segregated regiments were phased out, but the process was underway for a dramatic change from the segregated military of *World War II*. (755) 1

Harry Truman

In spite of ___'s tough tone with *Molotov* in April 1945, ___ knew that he had a weak hand in dealing with the Soviets. He sent one of *Roosevelt's* most trusted advisors to Moscow to try to build a better relationship, and then in July for the first—and only—time, he met face to face with *Stalin* in *Potsdam*, just outside the newly conquered Berlin. ___ and *Stalin* seemed to get on, and after the *Potsdam* meeting, ___ wrote, "I can deal with Stalin." The Americans agreed that *Stalin* had the right to dismantle factories in eastern Germany and move them to Russia and could arrange the government of Poland as he chose. (742) 3

William Douglas

In the year that followed the end of the war, however, both sides hardened their positions. In February and March 1946, new tensions flared. In a speech on February 9, *Stalin* said that the only key to future world peace was for "monopoly capitalism" to be replaced by Communism around the world. Supreme Court Justice ___ called *Stalin's* speech a "Declaration of World War III." (742) 5

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

Just as the crisis in Berlin was coming to an end, the U.S. Senate ratified American membership in the ___, by an 82 to 13 vote in July 1949. Fearing a Soviet invasion of western Europe, 12 nations, led by the United States and Britain, created the ___ alliance, in which each member agreed to treat an attack on any one from any source—though only one source was feared—as an attack on all. There would be no repeat by any country of Nazi Germany's attacks on the nations of Europe, one after another. The ___ treaty was the first time in history that the United States agreed to such a peacetime partnership. (744) 4

Armistice

The Chinese and American governments became resigned to a partial victory. Neither wanted a larger war, no matter what the two Korean governments thought. Battles for places the American troops called "Heartbreak Ridge," or "No-Name Ridge," described how those on the ground thought about what they were doing. ___ negotiations began in the summer of 1951, but stalled over the fact that many Chinese and North Korean prisoners did not want to be returned home. It would take 2 more years, and the election of a new U.S. president, before the final ___ was signed in July 1953. More than 36,000 Americans were killed in the war, many times more Korean and Chinese troops, and probably 3 million Korean civilians. The final ___ line was not far from where the prewar line had been near Panmunjom. Sixty years later, Korea is still a tense and divided place. (753) 2

Korean War

The Communist leaders had misread U.S. intentions. *Truman* viewed the Korean invasion through the prism of British and French inaction in the face of Nazism. He was determined to maintain the *Truman Doctrine* of containment of communism anywhere in the world. With the Soviets absent, *Acheson* appealed to the *United Nations Security Council* and got a unanimous vote in favor of *UN* action to stop the North Koreans. The ___ was called a *UN* police action, although nearly all of the fighting was done by U.S. and Korean troops. (751) 8

Berlin Berlin Airlift

The Soviets saw _(1)_ as a useful pressure point in the *Cold War*. By closing off western access to the city, they could challenge the *Truman Doctrine* and the *Marshall Plan*. When they blocked all rail and highway access to _(1)_ in the spring of 1948, *Truman* decided to support the city with an airlift. In the days and weeks that followed, the _(2)_ sent hundreds of U.S. airplanes every day to *Templehoff Airport* in the western sector of _(1)_. The city was well supplied and West _(1)_ withstood the siege. Eventually in May 1949, the Soviet Union relented and reestablished access to _(1)_. Nevertheless, by the beginning of 1949, the *iron curtain* that *Churchill* had described was more firmly in place than ever, and the *Cold War*, which had been developing since 1945, was a reality. (744) 3

Syngman Rhee Kim Il Sung

The United States backed a new government led by the 75-year-old _(1)_, who was conservative, charming, fiercely independent, as well as corrupt and dictatorial. The Soviets backed an even more dictatorial 31-year-old communist, _(2)_. Both _(1)_ and _(2)_ were committed to Korean unification, but on very different terms. Between the end of *World War II* and 1950, constant clashes between the two governments cost perhaps 100,000 Koreans their lives. (751) 5

Potsdam

There were many reasons for these concessions. Most important, when the fighting in Europe ended, the Soviet army was in Eastern Europe and the American army was not. *Truman* knew that the American people had no stomach for maintaining an army in Europe after the war. Until the last day of the ___ meeting, *Truman* was not sure that the atomic bomb would work. Finally, with war still raging in the Pacific, *Truman* wanted the Soviets to keep their promise to attack Japan once the war in Europe was over. (742) 4

United Soviet Socialist Republic

Those who had been fighting in Europe or Asia wanted to get home as fast as they could, certainly faster than was possible given difficulties in transporting troops and managing Germany and Japan. For some women working in wartime production, it was time to welcome a long absent husband or boyfriend, quit work, and raise a family. Other women very much wanted to continue working. For some who had moved because of the war, it was time to go home. Others who had moved wanted to stay in their new locations and have families join them. For industrial leaders, peacetime conversion meant new profits that would come from fulfilling pent-up demands for goods that had been unavailable during the war and from harnessing new discoveries sited to medicines and emerging technologies. For government leaders, negotiating the international arrangements and managing the uneasy postwar alliances, especially with the ___, commonly called the *Soviet Union*, made the postwar era one of the most difficult ever. (731) 2

General Motors

No automobiles for private use had been produced in the United States between 1942 and 1945. But by 1947, new models were replacing the old vehicles from the 1930s. Sales of passenger cars jumped to 6.7 million per year in 1950 and to 7.9 million in 1955. ___, which then sold about half of all cars in America, became the first corporation to earn $1 billion in a single year. Advertising by ___, *Ford*, and *Chrysler* convinced people to trade in 4.5 million old cars per year in the 1950s for large, sleek new models with automatic transmissions, air conditioning, and picturesque tail fins. By 1960, 80 percent of all American families owned a car, and 15 percent owned two or more cars. (732) 1

American Crackpots Association

Not everyone in the United States agreed that a *Cold War* with the Soviet Union was inevitable. Three senators issued a statement saying, "Mr. *Churchill's* proposal would cut the throat of the Big Three, without which the war could not have been won and without which the peace cannot be saved." Former Vice President *Henry Wallace*, by then secretary of commerce, insisted that it was important for the United States to "allay any reasonable Russian grounds for fear, suspicion, and distrust." Privately, Truman called these critics of *Churchill's* speech "the ___." (743) 2

Philip Murray John Snyder

Not everyone was caught up in the *Red Scare* hysteria. _(1)_, president of the *Congress of Industrial Organizations*, one of the nation's largest unions, wrote to President *Truman* in 1947 to protest that government policy did not ensure due process for accused employees. Secretary of the Treasury _(2)_ protested the government's *Loyalty Review Board* in 1948. (751) 1

Veterans Administration Federal Housing Authority

Occupants moved into the first houses in Levittown in October 1947. At first, houses were sold only to veterans but soon were sold also to other families. Modest down payments and _(1)_ and_(2)_ loans brought the price of $7,990 to S9,500 within the range of many middle-class and aspiring middle-class families. Long Island's Levittown was so successful that the Levitts built two more planned communities near Philadelphia. Other developers—*Del Webb* in Phi; *Joseph Kelly* in Boston, *Louis Boyar* and *Fritz Burns* in Los similar developments that sold at an astounding pace. Between 1945 and 1960, 10 times as many houses were constructed in suburbs as in older central cities and 95 percent of these houses were detached single family homes. Mass production that had come to automobiles in the earliest 1900s came to housing after 1945. (734) 3

Hydrogen Bomb George Kennan

Officials and scientists within the *Truman* administration debated the development of an even more powerful weapon to counter the Russian bomb. The atomic bomb depended on nuclear fission (the splitting of an atom), but scientists knew that theoretically an even more powerful explosion could arise from nuclear fusion (the merging of atoms) to create a thermonuclear explosion—a _(1)_. While virtually no one involved opposed the development of the atomic bomb during *World War II*, many senior scientists opposed the "super bomb." *Albert Einstein*, whose scientific work formed the basis for nuclear science, said that with such a super bomb, general annihilation beckons." *Robert Oppenheimer*, who led the development of the first atomic bomb at Los Alamos, New Mexico, in 1944, opposed the larger bomb on moral and practical grounds. _(2)_, the state department official often most associated with the coming of the *Cold War*, argued that an arsenal of atom bombs was ample deterrent for the Soviets. Others disagreed. When President *Truman* asked his advisory panel, "Can the Russians do it?" even those who opposed development of the _(1)_ had to answer yes. The president responded, "In that case, we have no choice. We'll go ahead." (732) 5

Atomic Age

On August 6, 1945, the White House released a statement from President *Harry Truman*: Sixteen hours ago an American airplane dropped one bomb on Hiroshima....It is an atomic bomb. It is a harnessing of the bask power of the universe. The force from which the sun draws its power has been loosed against those who brought war to the Far East. Thus began the ___, a new and previously unimagined era. The bomb brought *World War II* to a quick end, but it also launched the United States and the world into an uncharted arena. For people living in the United States in 1945, that announcement was but one of many extraordinary changes that year. (730) 1

Joseph McCarthy

On January 21, 1950, *Alger Hiss*, a former State Department official who had been with *FDR* at *Yalta* and who helped organize the *United Nations*, was accused of having been a spy for the Soviets in the 1930s. One week later, *Klaus Fuchs*, an atomic scientist, was arrested in London and accused of turning over nuclear secrets to the Soviets. *Fuchs* implicated several Americans, including *David Greenglass*, *Greenglass's* sister *Ethel Rosenberg*, and her husband *Julius Rosenberg*. And little more than a week after the arrest of *Fuchs*, Wisconsin Senator ___ gave a speech in Wheeling, West Virginia, in which he claimed to have a list of active Communist Party members who worked for the federal government. People began to suspect communist infiltration everywhere. The nation was in for 5 years of fear and suspicion. (747) 3

Cold War

On June 25, 1950, to the surprise of U.S. leaders, the army of North Korea attacked South Korea. Korea was a part of the world to which U.S. planners had paid very little attention. But it was the place where the ___ turned very hot. (751) 3

International Harvester Cotton Picking Machine

On October 2, 1944, as the tide of war was turning, a crowd gathered at the *Hopson* cotton plantation outside of Clarksdale, Mississippi, on Highway 49 to look at a new machine that had nothing to do with the war. *Howell Hopson* was conducting the first public demonstration of a new ___. He described the scene: An estimated 2,500 to 3,000 people swarmed over the plantation on that one day, 800 to 1,000 automobiles leaving their tracks and scars throughout the property." (737) 1

World Bank

The *Bretton Woods* delegates also created the *International Bank for Reconstruction Development* (better known as the _(__) to get the world on stable economic footing as quickly as possible after the devastation of the war. The ___ was designed to support economic recovery in war-torn Europe and to reduce world poverty, especially in Latin America, Africa, and parts of Asia that did not have the economic foundation for recovery. The first loans from the ___ were made to war-torn France in 1947, and loans were soon extended around the world. (739) 4

Israel

*Truman* also favored the establishment of an independent state of ___. On this issue, there was deep disagreement within the administration. Secretary of State *Marshall* threatened to resign if the United States gave support to ___, and most leaders of the State, Army, and Navy departments opposed recognizing the new nation. They feared that the United States would permanently alienate the Arab world, jeopardize the smooth flow of oil to the United States and Europe, and create a situation that would remain tense and untenable. Those on the White House staff tended to support creation of a Jewish state in the Middle East. *Truman's* own reading about the Holocaust and Middle Eastern history led him to support ___. He got—and occasionally resented—considerable pressure from American Zionists. Thirty-three state legislatures passed resolutions favoring the establishment of a Jewish state. *Truman* responded to one anxious State Department official, "I have to answer hundreds of thousands who are anxious for the success of Zionism. I do not have hundreds of thousands of Arabs among my constituents." On May 14, as the last British forces left Palestine, Zionists proclaimed the independent state of ___. At *Truman's* direction, the United States immediately recognized the new government. To the surprise of many, ___ was able to defend itself successfully against an Arab attack and secure its borders and its existence. (755) 2

Douglas MacArthur Pusan Perimeter

*Truman* ordered General _(2)_, then commander of US. troops occupying Japan, to take command in Korea, and troops were rushed to Korea. Meanwhile, the North Koreans kept coming. By September, 3 months after the war began, U.S. and South Korean forces controlled only a small section of southeast Korea around the port of Pusan, known as the _(2)_. Slowly, however, the U.S. forces were built up and supplies brought into Korea. American planes bombed North Korean troops heavily. The bombing wreaked havoc on Communist supply lines but also destroyed rice fields. Perhaps half the invading North Korean army were killed or wounded in the first 2 months of the war, and most of the North Korean tanks were disabled. Two to three million Korean civilians, 10 percent of the prewar population of Korea, died during the war either from bombing or from starvation because of lost rice crops. (752) 2

George Kennan Long Telegram Containment

A week later, _(1)_, a senior diplomat in the American embassy in Moscow, sent what came to be known as the "_(2)_" to the U.S. State Department. This widely distributed document called the Soviet government an "Oriental despotism" in which Communist ideology was merely a "fig-leaf" covering tyranny at home and rapid expansion abroad. _(1)_ told his State Department superiors that the Soviet Union was "a political force committed fanatically to the belief that with the United States there can be no permanent modus vivendi [accommodation between disputing parties], that it is desirable and necessary that the internal harmony of our society be destroyed, the international authority of our state be broken." He suggested that the United States should adopt a policy of _(3)_, acknowledging Soviet influence where it existed but taking all net necessary steps to ensure that the influence did not spread into new areas of the globe. _(3)_ of Soviet communism would come to define U.S. foreign policy for a long time. (742) 6

Levittown

All-white developments like___ were not unique. Post-*World War II* suburbanization was a white affair that greatly exacerbated housing segregation in the United States. Urban communities had long been segregated. Most cities had their Irish, Italian, and Jewish neighborhoods as well as neighborhoods for African-Americans, and in the Southwest, for Latinos. However, the move to the suburbs meant that many whites left the cities and many nonwhites were left behind in core urban communities with a declining tax base, declining services, and declining opportunities. (735) 2

George Marshall Department of Defense

As 1946 came to an end, more Americans were coming to the conclusion that *Stalin* was an evil dictator and the *Soviet Union* could not be trusted. *Truman* decided that his administration needed to speak with a single voice and dropped *Wallace* and Secretary of State *James Byrnes* from the cabinet, replacing the latter with _(1)_, who was U.S. chief of staff during the war. A year later *Truman* also sponsored a reorganization of the nation's military forces in which the previously separate cabinet-level War and Navy departments were merged into a single _(2)_ that was responsible for all military matters. *Truman* was quickly concluding that the end of *World War II* did not mean the end of the need for U.S. military strength. (743) 2

Levittown William Levitt

As many in the postwar generation moved to suburbia, Americans also moved the from the East to the West. Between 1940 and 1950—the years of the war and the immediate postwar era—the Sunbelt grew rapidly. Texas grew by 20 percent, Nevada 45 percents and Arizona and California by over 30 percent. Soldiers and sailors coming through California on the way to the Pacific liked what they saw and vowed to return. However, not all Young Americans could or wanted to participate in the rush either to the suburbs or to the West. African-Americans, Latinos, and Asians were excluded from most suburban developments. _(1)_ specifically excluded people of color from its subdivisions for the first 20 years of the community's existence. _(2)_ believed that if blacks were allowed to move in to _(1)__, the whites would leave. He commented, "We can solve a housing problem, or we can try to solve a racial problem. But we cannot combine the two." As late as 1960, not a single African-American lived among the 82,000 residents of _(1)_, New York. (735) 1

World War II

As people whose lives were centered in the communities, churches, and culture of the rigidly segregated South moved North, they now lived in quite different communities with changing norms. Racial discrimination, generally seen as a southern issue until ___, became a national one. Nevertheless, opportunities in the North were better than those offered by sharecropping, and the newcomers created their own jobs and a new urban culture. (737) 4

Harry Truman

As war and foreign policy dominated ___'s first months in office, ___ said he felt like he was riding a tiger. The liberal wing of the Democratic Party included New Deal activists such as Secretary of Commerce *Henry Wallace* and Secretary of the interior *Harold Ickes* who never trusted ___, viewing him as a product of Missouri machine politics who had been forced on *FDR* by the conservative wing of the party. ___ reciprocated the distrust. Looking ahead to the postwar world, ___ told *Clark Clifford*, one of his key advisors, "I don't want any experiments. The American people have been through a lot of experiments, and they want a rest from experiments." *But ___ was not proposing any sort of Warren Harding "normalcy." (754) 2

Dean Acheson

At the same time, the *Truman* administration, worried that the United States was spread too thin, and seeing Korea as of only marginal significance, withdrew the U.S. military, leaving *Rhee's* government on its own. A year later in 1950, in a speech he later regretted, Secretary of State ___ described the U.S. "defensive perimeter" in Asia in a way that did not include either Korea or Taiwan. *Stalin* and the North Korean dictator *Kim II-Sung* assumed that the United States was not prepared to defend South Korea. *Kim* pressed *Stalin* to approve an attack and *Stalin* agreed, though he warned *Kim*, "If you get kicked in the teeth, I shall not lift a finger." It was all the permission *Kim* needed. On June 25, 100,000 North Korean troops, supported by tanks, artillery, and planes, invaded the South. (751) 7

Ida Gladney Robert Foster

Black migrants also found new freedoms and opportunities in the North. _(1)_, who had never been able to vote in Mississippi, cast her first vote for* Franklin Roosevelt* in Chicago in 1940. (The black vote in Chicago carried the state of Illinois and, thus, the Electoral College for *Roosevelt* in that election.) _(2)_, a physician in Louisiana, established a new practice in the rapidly expanding black community of Los Angeles in 1954 and 1955. The several million other people making the move from the states of the Old Confederacy to New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and a hundred other cities in the North and West each had his or her own tale of the transformations taking place in every region of the country. (738) 2

Polio

By 1956, 80 percent of prescribed drugs had been invented after the beginning of *World War II*. Vaccines ended traditional childhood diseases such as whooping cough, diphtheria, mumps, and measles. In 1955, a vaccine was found for the feared scourge of ___. For those having a hard time keeping pace with modern life, physicians offered tranquilizers, sales of which boomed. People were growing taller and living longer thanks to advances in medicine, nutrition, and hygiene. In 1940, the average American's lifespan was 62.9 years, but by 1960 it had reached 69.7. Science, it seemed, was offering the key to life itself. (731) 4

Seventh Infantry Division

By late November, as MacArthur's army continued north, a huge Chinese army attacked them. "The Chinese have come in with both feet," *Truman* said. This time it was the Americans that had long drawn-out supply lines. They were ill prepared for the freezing cold of a Korean winter. The Chinese wore warm padded clothing, had fought for years in similar territory, and were adept at terrifying hand-to-hand night fighting when American planes and troops could not see them. The fighting in November and December of 1950 was brutal. Soldiers were killed as they slept or froze in the winter cold. The retreats were frightful. The U.S. Army ___ lost 5,000 troops, one third of its force, in a 3-day retreat over mountainous roads as the Chinese attacked from every angle. By January 1951, the line dividing the two armies was well south of the *38th parallel*. The war settled into a bloody stalemate. (752) 5

Divorce

Coming home from the war was joyous but also difficult. Soldiers and sailors, desperately tired of the killing, the dying, and the boredom of war, sometimes had a hard time adjusting to a world where life had gone on without them and in which civilians could never comprehend the horrors they had experienced. Married couples who had been apart, sometimes for 3 or 4 years, especially those who had married just before a husband shipped out, found adjustments difficult. The ___ rate skyrocketed in the late 1940s. (733) 3

Abraham Levitt Levittown

Just as these new families were getting started, _(1)_ and his sons William and Alfred bought 4,000 acres of potato farms in the town of Hempstead, Long Island, outside of New York City. On this huge parcel of land, _(1)_'s built _(2)_, the largest private housing project in American history. Their plan was simple: clear the land, lay out curving roads or lanes (never streets), pour concrete slabs every 60 feet along these roadways, drop off a set of construction materials at each slab—composition rock-board and plywood—then send in construction crews armed with new power tools—saws, routers, and nailers—each of whom was assigned a specific step in the construction process. At the peak of production, 30 houses were built each day. Each had a 12- by 16-foot living room, one bathroom, two bedrooms, and a fireplace. _(2)_ eventually included 17,400 houses that were home to 82,000 people. (734) 2

Alger Hiss Karl Mundt

Like many State Department officials, _(1)_ was from the highest social strata, making him an ideal choice for those who wanted to whip up class resentment as well as anticommunism. When _(1)_ was accused of passing state secrets to the Soviets, he insisted on testifying under oath in front of Congress, a move that opened _(!)_ to a charge of libel, and even though he was never convicted of espionage, he was eventually convicted of lying under oath to Congress and served 3 years in prison. More recently available documents make it clear that _(1)_ had, indeed, probably been a communist in the 1930s, but when politicians like Republican Representative _(2)_ of South Dakota said that the conviction proved that the United States "had been run by New Dealers, Fair Dealers, Misdealers and _(1)_ dealers" they were lumping an awful lot of other people who had never even flirted with communism in the same category. _(2)_'s comment did prove that, in many parts of the United States, deep resentment of the New Deal and of the eastern elite was alive and well and could easily be linked with each other and both could be linked with fears of the growing international influence of communism in the late 1940s. (748) 1

American Federation of Labor

Many labor unions purged communist members. Aspiring new leaders used the accusation of communist influence to push aside older leaders. The *United Electrical* Workers union was replaced by a new union of electrical workers because the *United Electrical* was considered to be communist and was expelled by the ___. Civil Rights organizations, including the *Urban League*, the *Congress of Racial Equality*, and the *National Association for the Advancement of Colored People* (NAACP), purged communist members. Many school districts and 21 states required loyalty oaths from teachers. In 1948, the University of Washington fired three professors when they refused to answer questions about the Communist Party. Some 31 professors were ultimately fired from the University of California under similar circumstances. And the *American Federation of Teachers*, the leading union of elementary and secondary teachers, voted that communists should not be allowed to be members or teach in the nation's schools. (750) 1

Harvey Clark

Many who arrived were disillusioned. When ___, who originally hailed from Mississippi, tried to move his family from a crowded apartment in South Chicago to a larger one just across the city line in Cicero, he was greeted by a mob and a Police chief who told him to "Get out of Cicero." The chief told the agent who arranged the apartment, "Don't come back in town, or you'll get a bullet through you." The white mayor of Dearborn, Michigan, told Alabama's *Montgomery Advertiser* that "Negroes can't get in here. Every time we hear of a Negro moving in, we respond quicker than you do to a fire." As Detroit became a majority black city, its suburb of Dearborn remained 99 percent white. (738) 1

Truman Doctrine

Meanwhile, in early 1947, Greece was in the midst of a civil war between its government and communist forces, and Turkey was resisting Soviet demands for greater control of access to the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East. Great Britain, which had been providing support for both governments, said it could no longer afford to do so. *Truman*, *Marshall*, and Marshall's deputy, *Dean Acheson*, agreed that the United States needed to step in to take Britain's place in supporting resistance to communism in the region. If the containment policy meant anything, it certainly meant stopping Soviet moves into places like Greece and Turkey. The ___ made it clear that containing communism would be at the bedrock of U.S. foreign policy. Needing the support of a reluctant Congress, *Truman* appeared in person and said, "I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." (743) 3

Clifton Taulbert

Moving from the South to an unfamiliar North could be painful for African-Americans, In *The Last Train North*, ___ described the longing for things left behind: There were no Chinaberry trees. No pecan trees....Never again would I pick dew berries or hear the familiar laughter from the field truck. this was my world now, this strange new family and their cramped quarters over the tiny grocery store they grandly called the "confectionery." Nevertheless, they kept coming through the 1940s and 1950s. As a migrant from Tennessee to Milwaukee said, "Every train, every bus, they were coming." (737) 6

Economic Bill of Rights Hill Burton Act

On September 6, 1945, just 4 days after the Japanese surrender, *Truman* proposed legislation that would implement *FDR's* _(1)_, expanding the federal role in public housing, public utilities, job creation, and national health, increasing the minimum wage, offering *Social Security* benefits to more people, while also making the *Fair Employment Practices Commission* permanent. It was a sweeping agenda, delighting liberals and dismaying conservatives. Southern segregationists filibustered the _(1)_ that would have continued *FDR's* executive order, ensuring that employers with federal contracts could not discriminate among employees on the basis of race, and kept it from reaching a vote. Other bills were watered down by Congress. Congress turned *Truman's* effort to launch a national system of health insurance into the _(2)_ that benefited doctors and hospitals and private medical insurers, but did not guarantee health insurance. (754) 3

House Committee on UnAmerican Activities

Other politicians realized that the search for Communists could lead to electoral success. The _(1)_ became a powerful forum for those who used the fear of communism to pursue other agendas. One of its members, *John Rankin*, a Democrat from Mississippi linked communism, Jews, and civil rights workers, saying of the *Civil Rights Movement*, "This is part of the communistic program, laid down by *Stalin* approximately 30 years ago. Remember communism is Yiddish. I understand that every member of the Politburo around *Stalin* is either Yiddish or married to one, and that includes *Stalin* himself." A young Republican Representative from California, *Richard Nixon*, used _(1)_ to build a national reputation, investigating *Hiss*, looking for communists in the government, and extending the search into the entertainment industry and education. (749) 4

Raise babies and keep house

Perhaps the greatest goal of returning veterans and the spouses and fiancées who met them was stated by the couple who wanted to ___!" They did both with amazing speed. Many veterans married very quickly, and the new couples started to have babies. In May 1946, 9 months after the end of the war, 233,452 babies were born in the United States, up from 206,387 earlier that February. In June, the number of babies was 242,302, and in October, 339,499. A total of 3.4 million babies were born in the United States in 1946, 20 percent more than were born in 1945, a birthrate unmatched in the United States in decades, though it kept climbing after that. (733) 5

Thomas Dewey Henry Wallace

Public opinion polls showed solid support for American action, and people as diverse as Republican Governor of New York _(1)_ and liberal _(2)_ (both of whom had run against *Truman* in the 1948 presidential election) supported *Truman*. Congress appropriated $10 billion. (752) 1

Communist Party

Reality was more complex than the picture of widespread subversion implied. Although the ___ in the United States was tiny, thousands of Americans had considered communism as an alternative to the nation's battered economic system in the 1930s. In addition, during *World War II*, the Soviet Union was the America's close ally in the fight against Nazi Germany. Before 1945, no one could have anticipated that helping the Soviets would be such a serious crime later in the decade. (747) 4

Joseph McCarthy

Senator ___ was not the first elected official to try to make political gains by stirring up the fear of communism (in fact he came late to the process), but he stole the leadership from all the others. He had been searching for a new political issue on which to build his reelection campaign in Wisconsin, and in February 1950, he thought he had found it when he heard the national reaction to a speech in which he said, "I have here in my hand a list of 205—a list of names that were made known to the Secretary of State as being members of the Community Party who nevertheless are still working and shaping policy in the State Department." (748) 3

Arms Race

Some scientists proposed the voluntary sharing of atomic technology to avoid an ___, but President *Truman* decided that the safest course was for the United States to retain sole knowledge of nuclear secrets. However, in 1949, to the great surprise of many, the *Soviet Union* successfully tested its own atomic bomb. By that time, the wartime ally had become a potential enemy. Suddenly, with the Russian test, the idea that the United States was protected by its unique control of the bomb vanished. Before long, other nations joined the "*atomic club*." Great Britain, the closest U.S. ally, exploded its own bomb in 1952, France followed in 1960, and others were not far behind. Above all other concerns, however, the fear of the Russian bomb is what hung over Americans. (732) 4

Truman Doctrine Marshall Plan

Stalin saw the _(1)_ and the _(2)_ as a direct assault. Some Americans, notably the now-out-of-office *Henry Wallace*, also thought it was a needless provocation. The Soviets quickly solidified the power of a pro-Soviet regime in Hungary and arranged a pro-Soviet coup in Czechoslovakia in February 1948. Then in June 1948, the Soviet Union closed off American, British, and French access to Berlin. Before *World War II* ended, the Soviet Union, Britain, the United States, and France had agreed that each of them would assume military authority not only in a different quadrant of Germany but also within a different quadrant in the city of Berlin, even though Berlin itself was deep inside the Soviet quadrant. The result was a divided Germany and a divided Berlin, a precarious situation especially for the former capital city. (744) 2

United Nations Security Council

The United States invited representatives from "the four policemen" to meet at a mansion known as *Dumbarton Oaks* in Washington, DC. In 7 weeks, from August to October 1944, *Edward Stettinius*, U.S. undersecretary of state; *Andrey Gromyko*, Soviet ambassador to the United States; and Sir *Alexander Cadogan*, permanent undersecretary in the British Foreign Office, consulting with *V.K. Wellington Koo*, the Chinese ambassador to London—with whom *Gromyko* refused to meet directly—erected the basic structure of what would become the _(1)_.They agreed that the core of the new organization would be a _(2)_ made up of five permanent members (France was added as a fifth member) and other delegates serving on a rotating basis. The _(2)_ would have the real power within the _(1)_. A majority vote of the _(2)_ would be sufficient to authorize military force to stop aggression. Everyone also agreed that each of the core members of the _(2)_ should have a veto over any such actions; the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union were not about to allow sanctions of which they did not approve. (739) 6

Mutually Assured Destruction

The bombs that the United States and Russia exploded were powerful beyond imagination. The United States test sent a fireball 5 miles into the sky and produced a mushroom cloud 27 miles high and 8 miles wide. *Eniwetok Island* disappeared, replaced by a large hole in the ocean floor. The Soviet bomb was similar. Soviet Premier *Georgi Malenkov* told the world that "the United States no longer has a monopoly on the hydrogen bomb." The possibility of "___," influenced international diplomacy and daily life. Children practiced hiding under school desks in case of nuclear attack, (though critics wondered what good that would do in the face of a bomb that could vaporize a city.) Families built bomb shelters in their basements. The bomb was as much a part of daily life in the 1950s as televisions, new automobiles, or healthier lives. (733) 1

GI Bill of Rights Veterans Administration

The government offered generous benefits to returning service men (and the few service women) to help with the adjustment. The _(1)_ provided $20 per week for up to a year for those seeking new jobs. (The maximum payment of $1,040 for a full year was very close to the average American salary of $1,074 in 1945.) The _(1)_ also offered college tuition for returning veterans, allowing a whole generation of young men to be the first in their families to attend college and prepare for middle class occupations. In addition, the _(2)_ made loans available for veterans to buy a house. Only later would some note that since the draft often passed over African-Americans and Latinos and excluded women, the _(1)_ constituted a kind of affirmative action for white men. But in 1945, most Americans thought that these men had richly earned any favors they got. (733) 4

Howell Hopson

The machine that the visitors had come to see changed the face of the South, and changed the lives of the nation's African-Americans. The bright red picker looked like a tractor with a large metal basket on the top. As it drove down a row of cotton, the spindles mounted on the front rotated and stripped the cotton off the plants and then suctioned the cotton up to a basket. The picker could pick a thousand pounds of cotton in an hour; a good worker, only 20 pounds. ___ said it cost $5.26 for a machine to pick a bale of cotton. A sharecropper cost $39.41 per bale. He wrote, "The introduction of the cotton harvester may have been comparable to the unveiling of *Eli Whitney's* first hand-operated cotton gin." (737) 2

UN General Assembly

The planners also proposed a ___ that would permit all of the nations of the world to debate issues but that, unlike the council, could not enforce its resolutions. In addition, they agreed that there should be a secretary with a staff. Finally, they agreed that the new body should convene for the first time the following spring in San Francisco, California. (740) 1

Edward Teller John von Neumann Eniwetok Atoll

The science and the engineering involved were daunting. When many of those who had built the first atomic bombs declined to participate in the new project, a fresh team, led by Hungarian refugees _(1)_ and _(2)_, moved ahead. The first U.S. test of a thermonuclear bomb took place on November 1, 1952, at _(3)_ in the Pacific. The predictions about the Russian capabilities also became true: the first Russian bomb was exploded in Siberia in August 1953, little more than 9 months after the first U.S. test. (732) 6

Marshall Plan

The speech was partly true. The humanitarian goals, a campaign against hunger, poverty and desperation, were real. But the ___, as it came to be called, was also directed against one country and its doctrine. People in the United States and the Soviet union knew that the goal was to stop Soviet expansion in Western Europe. Congress funded .$13.34 billion in U.S. aid for Europe between 1948 and 1.952. People were fed, economies recovered, and western capitalist democracies were established. (744) 1

Baby Boomers

The speed with which returning veterans chose to marry and have children came as quite a surprise. Nothing similar had followed other wars, certainly not *World War I*, even though "normalcy" had been a theme of the 1920s. Nevertheless, Americans across the spectrum of class and race started having children. The population soared, and a generation known as the "___" became a demographic bulge whose sheer size affected many aspects of American life throughout boomer lifespans. (733) 6

Cold War

The two nations were allies in World War II. American wartime propaganda talked positively about "our valiant allies." The Soviet people had withstood a murderous onslaught by Nazi forces and a terrible siege at *Stalingrad*. The Soviet army had done most of the fighting against Nazi Germany in *World War II*. Few Americans knew much about Stalin's policies within Russia, including the deadly purges of political enemies or the mass starvation that resulted from efforts toward collectivist Russian agriculture in the 1930s. Yet within a year, the Soviet Union and the United States were engaged in a ___ that lasted 40 years, until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s. What happened to turn former allies against each other? And why did it happen so quickly? (741) 2

Jacob Malik

Then in 1949 and 1950, a crisis developed. In 1949, the Soviet delegate to the United Nations, ___, began boycotting the *UN Security Council* because that body continued to give the Nationalist Chinese government of *Chiang Kai-shek* the *UN* vote even though the Communist government ruled mainland China. The protest meant that the Soviet Union could not veto *Security Council* resolutions at a crucial moment. (751) 6

Chiang Kai shek

Two further events in the fall of 1949 sped the growth of *Cold War* sentiment in the United States. First, in August, the Russians exploded their own atomic bomb. Then, soon after the announcement of Soviet nuclear capacity, the government of the U.S. wartime ally ___was defeated by Chinese communists. The creation of the *Communist People's Republic of China* under the leadership of *Mao Tse-tung* and the flight of ___'s government to the island of Taiwan was a huge blow to American pride even though the United States continued to recognize the Taiwan-based government as the official voice of China until the 1970s. ___'s government had been an important symbol to Americans since the Japanese invasion of China in the 1930s, and the United States had spent almost $3 billion to help ___ since the end of *World War II*. Americans had tended to ignore the corruption and inefficiency of ___'s Nationalist government. An internal U.S. State Department paper written in August 1949 just before the fall of ___'s government said, "The unfortunate but inescapable fact is that the ominous result of the civil war in China was beyond the control of the government of the United States." However, many Americans—in Congress, in the media, and around the country—were convinced that the United States had somehow "lost China" and that the *Truman* administration was at fault. It was a sour time in a country which was not used to losses. (747) 1

United Nations Arthur Vandenberg

Two weeks before the San Francisco meeting was to begin, *Franklin D. Roosevelt* died. Moments after taking the oath of office, *Harry S. Truman* made his first presidential decision: the conference would go ahead as scheduled on April 25. Some thought the San Francisco conference would simply be a celebration of work already done, but new tensions, especially between the United States and the Soviet Union, almost scuttled the conference. Nevertheless, most Americans wanted the _(1)_ to be successful, and public opinion influenced the delegates, especially _(2)_. On June 25, 1945, the delegates unanimously approved the _(1)_ Charter. On July 28, the U.S. Senate ratified the charter by a vote of 89 to 2. The _(1)_ was launched. (740) 3

Iron Curtain

Two weeks later, *Winston Churchill*, no longer in office but still a revered war hero, gave a speech as *Truman's* guest at Westminster College in Missouri in which he said: From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an ___ has descended across the continent. From what I have seen of our Russian friends and allies during the war, I am convinced that there is nothing they admire so much as strength, and there is nothing for which they have less respect than weakness, especially military weakness. The image of an "___" dividing Europe became one of the central images of the *Cold War*. The call for military strength to counter Soviet strength became the foundation of a massive *arms race* on both sides of the ___. (743) 1

Atlantic Charter United Nations

When *Franklin Roosevelt* and *Winston Churchill* agreed to an _(1)_ in August 1941, they called for the "establishment of a wider and permanent system of general security." By 1944, however, *Roosevelt* was ready to get more specific. He proposed an international body that would include every nation but in which the most powerful ones—in his proposal, the United States, Britain, the Soviet Union, and China—would serve as the "Four Policemen." As he told reporters in the summer of 1944, if some aggressor "started to run amok," these policemen would be needed to "stop them before they got started." By 1944, the wartime alliance was calling itself the _(2)_, and *Roosevelt* wanted to keep the name. (739) 5

Harry Truman

When ___ became president in April 1945, few Americans knew much about him. Many expected ___ to merely serve out the term to which *Roosevelt* had been elected. ___ decided otherwise, but he had a lot of time and a lot of responsibility to manage before any thought of reelection loomed. (754) 1

Dwight Eisenhower Edward Murrow Joseph Welch

When he became president in 1953, _(1)__ did not challenge *McCarthy* directly, but helped those who wanted to undermine him. In 1954, _(2)_, perhaps the most respected journalist in the country, did an expose on *McCarthy* on his "See it Now" program on CBS television. Both the Senate declaration and the CBS program hurt *McCarthy's* reputation, but it was only when *McCarthy* decided to probe for communists in the US Army that he met his match. As the army's attorney _(3)_ grilled him, *McCarthy* lashed out at a young attorney who was assisting _(3)_, accusing him of being a Communist because he was a member of the left-leaning *National Lawyers Guild*, _(3)_ exploded, "Until this moment Senator, I think I never really gauged your cruelty or your recklessness." The hearing room burst into applause. After that, on December 2, 1954, the Senate voted to condemn *McCarthy* by a vote of 67 to 22. He continued to serve out his term until his death in 1957, but he was a beaten man and no longer a force in national politics. (749) 2

Philo Farnsworth

While most households had radios in 1945, only a very few had televisions (black and white, of course). Television was developed by a number of inventors, notably ___ in the early 1930s, and was introduced at the *1939 New York World's Fair*. But television production stopped during *World War II* while factories made radar equipment. The number of television sets in American homes exploded after the war. In 1946, 8,000 homes owned a set; by 1950, 5 million; and by 1960, 45 million—or 90 percent of all American homes. In 1945, half of the nation's farm homes, where 25 million people lived, still did not have electricity to plug in a TV, but that too would change very quickly. (732) 2

Joseph McCarthy

___ was far more interested in his own fame than in actually finding communists. His Senate colleagues knew him as a pathological liar who had lied about his military service (he said he had flown 30 combat missions when he had flown none; his limp was not from shrapnel, as he claimed, but from a fall), and he embarrassed them. He drank heavily, fanned the flames of homophobia, and attacked both Republicans and Democrats whom he thought were "soft on communism." Nevertheless, few were willing to challenge ___ while the country was caught up in the fear of communism. (748) 4

House Committee on UnAmerican Activities Fifth Amendment Hollywood Ten

While some in the entertainment world quickly cooperated with ___, many fought back. *Judy Garland*, one of the nation's most popular stars since her childhood role in the Wizard of Oz, pleaded, "Before every free conscience in America is subpoenaed, please speak up!" *Frank Sinatra* asked, "Once they get the movies throttled ... how long will it be before we're told what we can say and cannot say into the radio microphone? If you make a pitch on a nationwide radio network for a square deal for the underdog, will they call you a Commie?...Are they going to scare us into silence?" Undeterred, _(1)_ continued with its hearings. Many witnesses refused to testify on the _(2)_ grounds that they could not be compelled to testify against themselves. Ten actors, known as the _(3)_, took the more difficult route of claiming that the hearings threatened their *First Amendment* rights of free speech. The 10 and others were blacklisted and had their careers ruined, in spite of efforts by the *Committee for the First Amendment* led by *Humphrey Bogart, Lauren Bacall, Katherine Hepburn*, and *Danny Kaye* to protect them. (749) 5

Pori Thomas

While the great migration of African-Americans from the rural South to the urban North and West was occurring, migrations of Latino people were happening at the same time. The United States had won control of Puerto Rico in 1898, and Puerto Ricans had long been American citizens. After *World War II*, more of these Spanish-speaking citizens began moving from Puerto Rico to the U.S. mainland, especially New York City. East Harlem, long an Italian neighborhood in New York City, quickly became mostly Puerto Rican. ___ was born in New York in 1928 and described the racial discrimination faced by a young adult in Spanish Harlem in the 1950s in his 1967 memoir aptly named *Down These Mean Streets.* (738) 3

Robert Taft Taft Hartley Act

While there was Democratic as well as Republican opposition to *Truman's* domestic agenda, the president's single most powerful opponent was Ohio Senator _(1)_, the son of the former president, known to many as "Mr. Republican." _(1)_ not only opposed *Truman's* agenda but also pushed legislation that reduced taxes, forcing cuts in government programs, and persuaded Congress in 1947, over *Truman's* veto, to pass the _(2)_ that lifted many of the protections organized labor had enjoyed since the passage of the *Wagner Act* in the 1930s. (754) 4

Great Migration

While white Americans moved to the suburbs, a new generation of African-Americans moved from the South to the North. The ___ of African-Americans to the North began during *World War I*, continued through the 1920s, and slowed during the Depression years of the 1930s. During and after *World War II* the rate of migration exploded. By 1960, half of the nation's African-Americans lived in northern cities—a huge change from the time when more than 90 percent of all blacks lived in the rural South. While the pull of northern industrial jobs and the push of southern segregation and violence remained constant from the 1920s to the 1950s, another factor accelerated the pace of movement in the late 1940s; the sharecropping system, around which the economic lives of many southern blacks had been organized from the 1880s to the 1940s, began to disappear. (736) 2

38th Parallel

With the Japanese defeat in 1945, the victorious allies determined to honor Korean hopes for independence. U.S. military authorities used the same formula as they had for Germany: a divided military occupation that was meant to be temporary. Military planners agreed that the Soviet army would occupy Korea north of the ___ (North Korea) and that U.S. forces would occupy the southern half of the peninsula, including the old capital of Seoul (South Korea), until a permanent plan for national unification could be achieved. It would be a long wait. (751) 4

V Molotov

Within weeks of taking the oath of office, President *Truman* became convinced that the Soviets were violating promises they had made to *Roosevelt* and needed to be stopped. When he met with Foreign Minister ___ for the first time, he was ready to show how tough an American president could be. When ___ began the conversation with diplomatic chit chat, *Truman* immediately accused the Soviets of breaking promises they had made to *FDR* at the Yalta meeting. As Truman continued his tirade, ___ responded, "I have never been talked to like that in my life," to which *Truman* responded, "Carry out your agreements and you won't get talked to like that." It was not an auspicious start to a new relationship. *Truman* later told friends, "I gave him the one-two, right to the jaw." ___ and Stalin quickly concluded that *Truman* was reversing *Roosevelt's* policies, especially when *Truman* cut aid to the Soviet Union, claiming that, with the war in Europe over, they no longer needed it. But *Stalin* did not back down. Indeed, almost immediately after the Truman-___ meeting, *Stalin* asserted Communist control over the new governments of Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria. (742) 2

David Greenglass Julius Rosenberg Espionage Act

_(1)_ and the _(2)_s were investigated in 1950 and charged with being Soviet spies and with passing on atomic secrets to the Soviets in 1951. _(1)_ worked at the top-secret *Manhattan Project*, and _(2)_ was a wartime engineer, and both had access to highly secret data. They were also Jewish, and even though Americans were horrified by the Holocaust, anti-Semitism was alive and well in the United States in 1950. Just as *Hiss* suffered for his East Coast elite status, _(1)_ and the _(2)_s suffered for their Jewish background. In the end, _(1)_ served a long prison term. Ethel and _(2)_, who always maintained their innocence, were executed in 1953, the only Americans ever executed under the 1917 _(3)_. (In the 1990s, when Soviet archives were opened and when another one of the accused conspirators, *Morton Sobell* admitted that he had, indeed, been a spy, it seemed clear that at least _(2)_, if not Ethel, had been Soviet spies.) It was also clear that in the atmosphere of 1950 and 1951, it was virtually impossible for them to get a fair trial. (748) 2

Joseph McCarthy

___ said, "The government is full of Communists." He also said that *Acheson's* predecessor, *George Marshall*, had "lost" China. For those who believed that only a conspiracy could have led to the growth of communist influence around the world, ___ was the perfect voice. Only treason in high places could account for the nation's troubles as ___ described them. (748) 5

Suburbia

___, however, was not an attraction for all Americans. Gay men and lesbians of any race were generally excluded from ___ unless they chose to live deeply closeted lives. One lesbian wrote, "It has never been easy to be a lesbian in this country, but the 1950s was surely the worst decade in which to love your own sex." Others simply preferred to stay in older urban neighborhoods or small towns. Women who worked, especially those who remained single or were divorced, often found the conformity of ___ difficult. For the poets and playwrights who became the "beat generation" of the 1950s who celebrated nonconformity, ___ was unthinkable. There was virtually no way to get around most suburbs without a car, and for those who needed public transportation, cities remained essential. Nevertheless, starting in 1945, great numbers of American men and women moved to the suburbs and embraced life there. (736) 1

George Kennan

___, who had played an important role in launching the *Cold War*, added a somber note in his Memoirs: "What the phenomenon of *McCarthyism* did... was to implant in my consciousness a lasting doubt as to the adequacy of our political system... I could never recapture after these experiences of the 1940s and 1950s, quite the same faith in the American system of government and in traditional American outlooks that I had, despite all the discouragements of official life, before that time." Not everyone shared ___'s pessimism, but many felt that American democracy itself had been wounded by the tactics of people like *McCarthy*. (751) 2