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John Jay

Leading American revolutionary and diplomat, who negotiated the Treaty of Paris and later, the much-criticized _____ Treaty of 1794, which averted war with Britain but failed to address key American grievances. He also served as the first chief justice of the Supreme Court from 1789-1795, a post he left to become governor of New York.

Oliver Cromwell

Puritan general who helped lead parliamentary forces during the English Civil War, and ruled England as Lord Protector from 1653 until his death in 1658.

Anthony Johnson

African slave who purchased his freedom and himself became a slave holder in Virginia, serving a testament to the relative fluidity of early colonial society.

Phyllis Wheatley

African-American poet who overcame the barriers of slavery to publish two collections of her poems. As a young girl, she lived in Boston, and was later taken to England where she found a publisher willing to distribute her work.

Hiawatha

Along with Deganawidah, legendary founder of the Iroquois Confederacy, which united the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Seneca tribes in the late sixteenth century.

George Rogers Clark

American frontiersman who captured a series of British forts along the Ohio River during the Revolutionary war.

Benjamin Franklin

American printer, inventor, statesman and revolutionary. He first established himself in Philadelphia as a leading newspaper printer, inventor and author of Poor Richard's Almanac. He later became a leading revolutionary and signatory of the Declaration of Independence. During the Revolutionary War, he served as commissioner to France, securing the nation's support for the American cause.

Patrick Henry

American revolutionary and champion of states' rights, Henry became a prominent anti-federalist during the ratification debate, opposing what he saw as despotic tendencies in the new national constitution.

John Adams

American revolutionary, statesman and second president of the United States. One of the more radical patriots on the eve of the Revolution, he helped guide the Continental Congress toward a declaration of independence from Britain. From 1778 to 1788, he served as minister to France, Britain and the Netherlands. After serving as Washington's vice president, he was elected president in his own right in 1796. His administration suffered from Federalist infighting, international turmoil, and domestic uproar over the Alien and Sedition Acts, all of which contributed to his defeat in the election of 1800.

Anne Hutchinson

Antinomian religious dissenter brought to trial for heresy in Massachusetts Bay after arguing that she need not follow God's laws or man's, and claiming direct revelation from God. Banished from the Puritan colony, she moved to Rhode Island and later New York, where she and her family were killed by Indians.

Charles II

Assumed the throne with the restoration of the monarchy in 1660. He sought to establish firm control over the colonies, ending the period of relative independence on the American mainland.

Thomas Jefferson

Author of the Declaration of Independence, ambassador to France, and third president of the United States. As one of the leaders of the Democratic-Republican Party, he advocated a limited role for the national government, particularly in the area of finance. As president, however, he oversaw significant expansion of the federal state through the purchase of Louisiana Territory and the enactment of the Embargo of 1807.

George III

British monarch during the run-up to the American Revolution, he contributed to the imperial crisis with his dogged insistence on asserting Britain's power over her colonial possessions.

William Pitt

British parliamentarian who rose to prominence during the French and Indian War as the brilliant tactician behind Britain's victory over France.

Samuel Adams

Boston revolutionary who organized Massachusetts' committees of correspondence to help sustain opposition to British policies. A delegate to the First and Second Continental Congresses, he continued to play a key role throughout the revolutionary and early national periods, later serving as governor of his home state.

John Hancock

Boston smuggler and prominent leader of the colonial resistance, who served as president of the Second Continental Congress. In 1780 he became the first governor of Massachusetts, a post he held with only a brief intermission until his death.

Lord Charles Cornwallis

British general during the Revolutionary War who, having failed to crush Greene's forces in South Carolina, retreated to Virginia, where his defeat at Yorktown marked the beginning of the end for Britain's efforts to suppress the colonial rebellion.

John Burgoyne

British general who led an ill-fated invasion of upstate New York, suffering a crushing defeat by George Washington at Saratoga.

William Howe

British general who, despite victories on the battle field, failed to deal a crushing blow to Washington's Continental army. By attacking Philadelphia instead of reinforcing General Burgoyne at Saratoga, he also inadvertently contributed to that crucial American victory.

George Grenville

British prime minister who fueled tensions between Britain and her North American colonies through his strict enforcement of navigation laws and his support for the Sugar and Stamp Acts.

Charles Townshend

British prime minister whose ill-conceived duties on the colonies, the _____ Acts, sparked fierce protests in the colonies and escalated the imperial conflict.

Thomas Paine

British-born pamphleteer and author of Common Sense, a fiery tract that laid out the case for American independence. Later an ardent supporter of the French Revolution, he became increasingly radical in his views, publishing the anticlerical The Age of Reason in 1794, which cost him the support of his American allies.

Duke of York

Catholic English monarch who reigned as James II from 1685 until he was deposed during the Glorious Revolution in 1689. When the English seized New Amsterdam from the Dutch in 1664, they renamed it in the Duke's honor to commemorate his support for the colonial venture.

John Marshall

Chief Justice of the Supreme Court from 1801 until his death in 1835, he strengthened the role of the courts by establishing the principle of judicial review. During his tenure, the court also expanded the powers of the federal government through a series of decisions that established federal supremacy over the states.

Powhatan

Chief of the _____ Indians and father of Pocahontas. As a show of force, he staged the kidnapping and mock execution of Captain John Smith in 1607. He later led the _____ Indians in the first Anglo-_____ War, negotiating a tenuous peace in 1614.

Lord De La Warr

Colonial governor who imposed harsh military rule over Jamestown after taking over in 1610. A veteran of England's brutal campaigns against the Irish, he applied harsh "Irish" tactics in his war against the Indians, sending troops to torch Indian villages and seize provisions. The colony of Delaware was named after him.

John Trumbull

Connecticut-born painter who, like many of his contemporaries, traveled to England to pursue his artistic ambitions. He was best known for his depictions of key events in the American Revolution, including the signing of the Declaration of Independence.

Pocahontas

Daughter of Chief Powhatan, she "saved" Captain John Smith in a dramatic mock execution and served as a mediator between Indians and the colonists. In 1614, she married John Rolfe and sailed with him to England, where she was greeted as a princess, and where she passed away shortly before her planned return to the colonies.

Peter Stuyvesant

Director general of Dutch New Netherland from 1645 until the colony fell to the British in 1664.

Jacobus Arminius

Dutch theologian who rejected predestination, preaching that salvation could be attained through the acceptance of God's grace and was open to all, not just the elect.

William and Mary

Dutch-born monarch and his English-born wife daughter of King James II, installed to the British throne during the Glorious Revolution of 1689. They relaxed control over the American colonies, inaugurating a period of "salutary neglect" that lasted until the French and Indian War.

John Smith

English adventurer who took control of Jamestown in 1608 and ensured the survival of the colony by directing gold-hungry colonists toward more productive tasks. He also established ties with the Powhatan Indians through the Chief's daughter, Pocahontas, who had "saved" him from a mock execution the previous year.

John Rolfe

English colonist whose marriage to Pocahontas in 1614 sealed the peace of the First Anglo-Powhatan War.

Sir Walter Raleigh

English courtier and adventurer who sponsored the failed settlements of North Carolina's Roanoke Island in 1585 and 1587. Once a favorite of Elizabeth I, he fell out of favor with the Virgin Queen after secretly marrying one of her maids of honour. He continued his colonial pursuits until 1618, when he was executed for treason.

Henry Hudson

English explorer who ventured into New York Bay for the Dutch in 1609 in search of a Northwest Passage across the continent.

Sir Francis Drake

English sea captain who completed his circumnavigation of the globe in 1580, plundering Spanish ships and settlements along the way.

William Bradford

Erudite leader of the separatist Pilgrims who left England for Holland, and eventually sailed on the Mayflower to establish the first English colony in Massachusetts. His account of the colony's founding, Of Plymouth Plantation, remains a classic of American literature and in indispensable historical source.

Lord Baltimore

Established Maryland as a haven for Catholics. He unsuccessfully tried to reconstitute the English manorial system in the colonies and gave vast tracts of land to Catholic relatives, a policy that soon created tensions between the seaboard Catholic establishment and backcountry Protestant planters.

Samuel Chase

Federalist Supreme Court Justice who drew the ire of Jeffersonian Republicans for his biting criticism of Republican policies. In 1804, the House of Representatives brought charges of impeachment against him but failed to make the case that his unrestrained partisanship qualified as "high crimes and misdemeanors." Acquitted by the Senate, he served on the court until his death.

John Winthrop

First governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony. An able administrator and devout Puritan, Winthrop helped ensure the prosperity of the newly-established colony and enforce Puritan orthodoxy, taking a hard line against religious dissenters like Anne Hutchinson.

James I

Formerly James VI of Scotland, he became king of England at the death of Elizabeth I. He supported overseas colonization, granting a charter to the Virginia Company in 1606 for a settlement in the New World. He also cracked down on both Catholics and Puritan Separatists, prompting the latter to flee to Holland and, later, to North America.

Father Junipero Serra

Franciscan priest who established a chain of missions along the California coast, beginning in San Diego in 1769, with the aim of Christianizing and civilizing native peoples.

John Calvin

French Protestant reformer whose religious teachings formed the theological basis for New England Puritans, Scottish Presbyterians, French Huguenots and members of the Dutch Reformed Church. He argued that humans were inherently weak and wicked, and believed in an all-knowing, all-powerful God, who predestined select individuals for salvation.

Admiral de Grasse

French admiral, whose fleet blocked British reinforcements, allowing Washington and Rochambeau to trap Cornwallis at Yorktown.

Robert de La Salle

French explorer who led an expedition down the Mississippi River in the 1680s.

Charles Maurice de Talleyrand

French foreign minister whose attempts to solicit bribes from American envoys in the infamous XYZ Affair prompted widespread calls for war with France.

Marquis de Lafayette

French nobleman who served as major general in the colonial army during the American Revolution and aided the newly-independent colonies in securing French support.

Michel-Guillaume Jean de Crevecoeur

French settler whose essays depicted life in the North American colonies and described what he saw as a new American identity—an amalgam of multiple ethnicities and cultures.

Samuel de Champlain

French soldier and explorer, dubbed the "Father of New France" for establishing the city of Quebec and fighting alongside the Huron Indians to repel the Iroquois.

Christopher Columbus

Genoese explorer who stumbled upon the West Indies in 1492 while in search of a new water route to Asia. He made three subsequent voyages across the Atlantic and briefly served as a colonial administrator on the island of Hispaniola, present day Haiti.

Comte de Rochambeau

General in command of French forces during the American Revolution, he fought alongside George Washington at Yorktown.

Nathanael Greene

General in command of the Continental army in the Carolina campaign of 1781, the "Fighting Quaker" successfully cleared most of Georgia and South Carolina of British troops despite loosing a string of minor battles.

Martin Luther

German friar who touched off the Protestant Reformation when he nailed a list of grievances against the Catholic Church to the door of Wittenberg's cathedral in 1517.

Baron von Steuben

German-born inspector general of the Continental army, who helped train the novice colonial militia in the art of warfare.

Edward Braddock

Hardheaded and imperious British general, whose detachment of British and colonial soldiers was routed by French and Indian forces at Fort Duquesne.

Malinche

Indian slave who served as an interpreter for Hernán Cortés on his conquest of the Aztecs. She later married one of Cortés's soldiers, who took her with him back to Spain.

Richard Montgomery

Irish-born British army veteran, who served as a general in the Continental army during the Revolution. He joined Benedict Arnold in a failed attempt to seize Quebec in 1775.

John Cabot

Italian explorer sent by England's King Henry VII to explore the northeastern coast of North America in 1497 and 1498.

George Whitefield

Iterant English preacher whose rousing sermons throughout the American colonies drew vast audiences and sparked a wave of religious conversion, the First Great Awakening. His emotionalism distinguished him from traditional, "Old Light," ministers who embraced a more reasoned, stoic approach to religious practice.

Louis XVI

King of France from 1774 to 1792, he, along with Queen Marie Antoinette, was beheaded during the French Revolution.

Montezuma

Last of the Aztec rulers, who saw his powerful empire crumble under the force of the Spanish invasion, led by Hernán Cortés.

Louis XIV

Long reigning French monarch who took a keen interest in colonization, sending French explorers throughout North America, establishing outposts in present day Canada and Louisiana, and launching France to global preeminence. He oversaw the construction of the magnificent palace at Versailles, from where he ruled until his death.

John Singleton Copley

Massachusetts-born artist best known for his portraits of prominent colonial Americans, including Samuel Adams and Paul Revere. A loyalist during the Revolutionary war, he spent the rest of his life in London, painting portraits of British aristocrats and depicting scenes from English history.

Little Turtle

Miami Indian chief whose warriors routed American forces in 1790 and 1791 along the Ohio frontier. In 1794, he and his braves were defeated by General Anthony Wayne at the Battle of Fallen Timbers, and were forced to cede vast tracts of the Old Northwest under the Treaty of Greenville.

Joseph Brant

Mohawk chief and Anglican convert, who sided with the British during the Revolutionary war, believing that only a British victory could halt American westward expansion.

Sir Edmund Andros

Much loathed administrator of the Dominion of New England, which was created in 1686 to strengthen imperial control over the New England colonies. He established strict control, doing away with town meetings and popular assemblies and taxing colonists without their consent. When word of the Glorious Revolution in England reached the colonists, they promptly dispatched him back to England.

Jonathan Edwards

New England minister whose fiery sermons helped touch off the First Great Awakening. He emphasized human helplessness and depravity and touted that salvation could be attained through God's grace alone.

John Peter Zenger

New York printer tried for seditious libel against the state's corrupt royal governor. His acquittal set an important precedent for freedom of the press.

Sally Hemings

One of Thomas Jefferson's slaves on his plantation in Monticello. DNA testing confirms that Thomas Jefferson fathered her children.

Pontiac

Ottawa chief who led an uprising against the British in the wake of the French and Indian war. Initially routing British forces at Detroit, _he and his men succumbed after British troops distributed small-pox infected blankets among the Indians.

Lord Sheffield

Parliamentarian who persuaded Britain to take a hard line in negotiations with the newly in de pendent United States, closing off American trade with the West Indies and continuing to enforce navigation laws. His approach prompted many Americans to call for a stronger central government, culminating in the 1787 Philadelphia convention.

William Penn

Prominent Quaker activist who founded Pennsylvania as a haven for fellow Quakers in 1681. He established friendly relations with neighboring Indian tribes and attracted a wide array of settlers to his colony with promises of economic opportunity, and ethnic and religious toleration.

Elizabeth I

Protestant Queen of England whose forty-five year reign from 1558 to 1603 firmly secured the Anglican Church and inaugurated a period of maritime exploration and conquest. Never having married, she was dubbed the "Virgin Queen" by her contemporaries.

Bartolome de Las Casas

Reform-minded Spanish missionary who worked to abolish the encomienda system and documented the mistreatment of Indians in the Spanish colonies.

Edmond Genet

Representative of the French Republic who in 1793 tried to recruit Americans to invade Spanish and British territories in blatant disregard of Washington's Neutrality Proclamation.

Alexander Hamilton

Revolutionary War soldier and first treasury secretary of the United States. A fierce proponent of a strong national government, he convincingly argued for the Constitution's ratification in The Federalist. As treasury secretary, he advocated the assumption of state debts to bolster the nation's credit and the establishment of a national bank to print sound currency and boost commerce. He died from a gunshot wound suffered during a duel with Aaron Burr.

George Washington

Revolutionary war general and first president of the United States. A Virginia-born planter, he established himself as a military hero during the French and Indian War. He served as commander in chief of the Continental Army during the War of Independence, securing key victories at Saratoga and Yorktown. Unanimously elected president under the new national Constitution in 1788, he served two terms, focusing primarily on strengthening the national government, establishing a sound financial system and maintaining American neutrality amidst the escalating European conflict.

Benedict Arnold

Revolutionary war general turned traitor, who valiantly held off a British invasion of upstate New York at Lake Champlain, but later switched sides, plotting to sell out the Continental stronghold at West Point to the redcoats. His scheme was discovered and the disgraced general fled to British lines.

Ethan Allen

Revolutionary war officer who, along with Benedict Arnold, fought British and Indian forces in frontier New York and Vermont.

Anthony Wayne

Revolutionary war soldier and commander in chief of the U.S. Army from 1792-1796, he secured the Treaty of Greenville after soundly defeating the Miami Confederacy at the Battle of Fallen Timbers.

Daniel Shays

Revolutionary war veteran who led a group of debtors and impoverished backcountry farmers in a rebellion against the Massachusetts government in 1786, calling for paper money, lighter taxes and an end to property seizures for debt. Though quickly put down, the rebellion raised the specter of mob rule, precipitating calls for a stronger national government.

Thomas Hutchinson

Royal governor of Massachusetts during the run-up to the Revolution, he misjudged colonial zeal during the Tea Act controversy and insisted that East India Company ships unload in Boston Harbor, thereby prompting the Boston Tea Party.

Lord Dunmore

Royal governor of Virginia who, in 1775, promised freedom to runaway slaves who joined the British army.

William Berkeley

Royal governor of Virginia, with brief interruptions, from 1641 until his death. A member of Virginia's seaboard elite, he drew the ire of backwater settlers for refusing to protect them against Indian attacks, eventually leading to Bacon's Rebellion.

Crispus Attucks

Runaway slave and leader of the Boston protests that resulted in the "Boston Massacre," in which he was first to die.

Roger Williams

Salem minister who advocated a complete break from the Church of England and criticized the Massachusetts Bay colony for unlawfully taking land from the Indians. Banished for his heresies, he established a small community in present-day Rhode Island, later acquiring a charter for the colony from England.

Albert Gallatin

Secretary of the treasury from 1801- 1813 under Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, he sought to balance the federal budget and reduce the national debt.

James Oglethorpe

Soldier-statesman and leading founder of Georgia. A champion of prison reform, he established Georgia as a haven for debtors seeking to avoid imprisonment. During the War of Jenkins's Ear, he successfully led his colonists in battle, repelling a Spanish attack on British territory.

Francisco Pizarro

Spanish conquistador who crushed the Incas in 1532 and founded the city of Lima, Peru.

Hernan Cortes

Spanish conquistador who defeated the Aztec Empire and claimed Mexico for Spain.

Francisco Coronado

Spanish explorer who ventured from Western Mexico through present-day Arizona and up to Kansas, in search of fabled golden cities.

Isabella of Castile

Spanish monarch, along with her husband Ferdinand of Aragon, funded Christopher Columbus' voyage across the Atlantic in 1492, leading to his discovery of the West Indies.

Ferdinand of Aragon

Spanish monarch, along with his wife Isabella of Castile, funded Christopher Columbus' voyage across the Atlantic in 1492, leading to his discovery of the West Indies.

Lord North

Tory prime minister and pliant aide to George III from 1770 to 1782. His ineffective leadership and dogged insistence on colonial subordination contributed to the American Revolution.

Henry VIII

Tudor monarch who launched the Protestant Reformation in England when he broke away from the Catholic Church in order to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon.

Richard Henry Lee

Virginia planter and revolutionary, who served as a member of the Continental Congress. He first introduced the motion asserting America's independence from Britain, later supplanted by Thomas Jefferson's more formal and rhetorically moving declaration. He went on to become the first U.S. senator from Virginia under the new constitution.

Metacom

Wampanoag chief who led a brutal campaign against Puritan settlements in New England between 1675 and 1676. Though he himself was eventually captured and killed, his wife and son sold into slavery, his assault halted New England's westward expansion for several decades.

Massasoit

Wampanoag chieftain who signed a peace treaty with Plymouth Bay settlers in 1621 and helped them celebrate the first Thanksgiving.

James Wolfe

Young British commander who skillfully outmaneuvered French forces in the Battle of Quebec during the French and Indian War.

Nathaniel Bacon

Young Virginia planter who led a rebellion against Governor William Berkeley in 1676 to protest Berkeley's refusal to protect frontier settlers from Indian attacks.