APUSH Final Review

Jay's Treaty

- John Jay, chief justice of the Supreme Court, was sent by Washington to negotiate the conflicts between the United States and Britain in 1794 - Jay's Treaty granted British trade a most-favored-nation status in exchange for the agreement of the British to abandon their northwestern forts - barely ratified in June 1795

Potsdam Conference

- July 17 - August 2, 1945 - held at Cecilienhof, the home of Crown Prince Wilhelm, in Potsdam, occupied Germany - the third conference between the leaders of the Big Three nations - faced two related issues: ending the war against Japan and restructuring Germany and Eastern Europe - led to tensions between the United States and Russia and contributed to the start of the Cold War

The Battle of Bull Run

- July 21, 1861 - Prince William County, Virginia - first major battle of the American Civil War - also known as the Battle of Manassas - although the Union outnumbered the Confederates, Confederates had won the battle

Homestead Strike

- July 6, 1892, in Homestead, Pennsylvania - violent labor dispute between the Carnegie Steel Company and many of its workers - Carnegie Steel Company closed its Homestead plant planning to reopen with nonunion workers; the union went on strike refusing to leave the building, which led to a gun battle and several deaths - 1892 Andrew Carnegie was determined to break the union that, in 1889, had won a favorable three-year contract

Berlin Airlift

- June 24, 1948 - May 12, 1949 - avoiding another World War, Truman ordered a massive airlift of supplies into West Berlin, the first leaving from bases in England on June 26, 1948 - American and British aircraft that provided all of the items needed in West Berlin during the Berlin Blockade, which was when the Soviet Union cut off all highways, railroads, and water routes into West Berlin, Germany in attempt to weaken the nation - one of the first major international crises of the Cold War

Battle of Midway

- June 4 to 7, 1942 - U.S. planes sank four Japanese carriers and destroyed a total of 322 planes - United States Navy defeated a Japanese attack against Midway Atoll, marking a turning point in the war in the Pacific theatre - showed the importance of aircraft carriers as the key to the Pacific theatre of operations

Flexible Response

- Kennedy's approach to the Cold War that aimed to provide a wide variety of military and nonmilitary methods to confront communist movements - became the umbrella term to cover a wide range of military and nonmilitary strategies that Kennedy promised to deploy against communism - by implementing it, Kennedy gained immediate attention

Taft-Hartley Act

- Labor-Management Relations Act - passed by Congress in 1947 - limited a union's power to conduct boycotts, force employers to hire only union members, and to continue a strike harmful to national security - required union officials to sign affidavits stating that they did not belong to the Communist Party - a union that refused to comply was effectively denied protections under national labor laws

Radical Republicans

- Led by Thaddeus Stevens and Charles Sumner - distrusted oaths of allegiance sworn by ex-Confederates - wanted to go much further than Lincoln

Abraham Lincoln/Kansas-Nebraska Bill

- Lincoln was propelled back into politics by the shock of the Kansas-Nebraska bill - Lincoln admitted he did not know how to end slavery - he believed that the country must face up to the problem; must stop any further expansion of slavery as the first step on the long road to its "ultimate extinction"

Levittown

- Long Island town in New York - welcomed its first residents in October 1947 - made the "American Dream" of suburban living an affordable reality for middle-income families - by 1950, Levittown contained more than 10,000 homes and 40,000 residents - until well into the 1960s, various informal and extralegal arrangements prevented any African American from buying a home in Levittown

Tenure of Office Act

- March 2, 1867 - intended to restrict the power of the President of the United States to remove certain office-holders without the approval of the Senate - aimed specifically at preventing President Johnson from removing Secretary of War Edwin Stanton from office - with the violation of this act, Johnson was impeached - was repealed partly in 1869 and entirely in 1887

Triangle Shirtwaist Co. Fire

- March 25, 1911, a fire broke out on an upper floor of the company's building in New York - owners of the factory had locked the entrances to each floor as a way of keeping their employees at work - killed 146 workers who were unable to find their way to safety; perished in the fire or from desperate nine-story leaps to the pavement below - was the deadliest industrial disaster in the history of the city, and one of the deadliest in US history

"Seward's Folly"

- March 30, 1867 - the US agreed to purchase Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million - considered to be a massive mistake of the United States Secretary of State, William Seward - allowed for American commercial expansion in the Pacific region

Boston Massacre

- March 5, 1770 - colonial protestors in front of customs house who began to taunt soldiers - British killed 5 colonists and 6 others were wounded - marked the failure of Britain's first attempt at military pressure

Pullman Strike

- May 11, 1894 - following the economic depression caused by the Panic of 1893 George Pullman increased working hours, cut wages and cut jobs - labor strike that became the first nationwide workers' strike against the railroad - turning point for US labor law - was important because it was the first time a federal injunction had ever been used to break up a strike

Vicksburg

- May 18, 1863 - Jul 4, 1863 - the Battle of Vicksburg is also known as the Siege of Vicksburg - it was the culmination of a long land and naval campaign by Union forces to capture a key strategic position during the American Civil War - Union forces gained complete control of the Mississippi River, splitting the Confederacy in two

Lewis and Clark Expedition

- May 1804 to September 1806 - first American expedition to cross what is now the western portion of the United States - sent by Jefferson to gather information on the United States' new land (Louisiana Purchase) and map a route from the Mississippi to the Pacific - kept detailed record of expedition

Selective Service

- May 1917 - empowered the administration to raise an army by drafting of most men of a certain age - local Selective Service boards had registered 24 million young men age 18 and older - drafted nearly 3 million into the military; another 2 million volunteered for service

The Khmer Rouge seizure of the U.S. ship Mayaguez

- May 1975, a contingent of Khmer Rouge boarded a U.S. ship, the Mayaguez, taking its crew hostage - the military response, coupled with Chinese pressure on the Khmer Rouge, secured the release of the Mayaguez and its crew - the Mayaguez rescue cost more lives than it saved

The Andrew Johnson Reconstruction Plan

- May 29, 1865, he issued two proclamations: provided amnesty for all but the highest-ranking Confederates and named provisional governor for NC and directed him to call an election of delegates to frame a new state constitution - excluded both blacks and upper-class whites from the reconstruction process - issued special pardons to many ex-Confederates, restoring to them all property and political rights

Battle of Coral Sea

- May 4 to 8, 1942 - major naval battle between the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) and naval and air forces from the United States and Australia - first pure carrier-versus-carrier battle in history as neither surface fleet sighted the other - important turning point in the war in the Pacific because, for the first time, the Allies had stopped the Japanese advance

Lusitania

- May 7, 1915, German U-boat attacked the Lusitania, which was traveling from New York to London - the ship sank in 22 minutes, resulting in the death of 1,198 passengers, 128 being U.S. citizens - it was carrying munitions to Great Britain, so the Germans stated that it was subject to an attack - Wilson denounced the sinking of the Lusitania

V-E day

- May 8, 1945 - Victory in Europe Day - mark the formal acceptance by the Allies of World War II of Nazi Germany's unconditional surrender of its armed forces, marking the end of WWII in Europe - formal surrender of the German forces occupying the Channel Islands did not occur until the following day, 9 May 1945

Medicare/Medicaid

- Medicare: nationally funded medical coverage for the elderly - Medicaid: medical coverage for low-income citizens - both grew out of healthcare proposals from the New- and Fair-Deal eras

Mexican War

- Mexican-American War - 1846 to 1848 - conflict over annexation of Texas; Mexico still considered it theirs despite the Texas revolution in 1836 - Polk provoked the war to get Texas and other territories to join the Union - American troops led by Zachary Taylor - Santa Anna led Mexican troops - Mexico faced many losses, America had gained California and New Mexico, but Mexico didn't give up - the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed in 1848 ending the war

Microsoft and Apple

- Microsoft and Apple challenged mighty IBM for supremacy in the personal computer market and introduced competing operating systems and Web browsers - their CEOs, Bill Gates and Steve Jobs, became two of the wealthiest and most influential people in the world—and came to symbolize key differences between these cyber-era giants - Microsoft quickly beat out Apple for domination in the war over lucrative operating systems

Mugwumps, Stalwarts, and Half-Breeds

- Mugwumps: reformers - Stalwarts: opposed reform - Half-Breeds: supported half-way reforms

NASA

- National Aeronautics and Space Administration - founded on July 29, 1958 as a result of the space race between USA and the Soviet Union in the 1950s - National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29, 1958, disestablishing NASA's predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) - given control of all non-military activity in space - July 1969: astronaut Neil Armstrong had walked on the lunar surface - early 1986: a Challenger shuttle exploded shortly after liftoff

NAACP

- National Association for the Advancement of Colored People - is a civil rights organization in the United States, formed in 1909 as a bi-racial organization to advance justice for African Americans by W. E. B. Du Bois - was one of the earliest and most influential civil rights organization in the U.S. - during its early years, it focused on legal strategies designed to confront the critical civil rights issues of the day

The NAACP

- National Association for the Advancement of Colored People - organization launched in 1910 to fight racial discrimination and prejudice and to promote civil rights for blacks

NIRA

- National Industrial Recovery Act - June 16, 1933 - most important legislation of Roosevelt's Hundred Days - based on the idea that curtailing production would trigger economic recovery - labor and consumer law passed to authorize the President to regulate industry for fair wages and prices that would stimulate economic recovery - in 1935, the U.S. Supreme Court declared it was unconstitutional, ruling that it infringed the separation of powers under the U.S. Constitution

NOW

- National Organization of Women - founded by Betty Friedan - organization formed to work for economic and legal rights of women; demanded equality in educational and job opportunities, wages, and political representation - purpose of NOW is to take action to bring women into full participation in the mainstream of American society now, exercising all privileges and responsibilities thereof in truly equal partnership with men

NRA

- National Recovery Administration - 1933 attempt to promote economic recovery by persuading private groups of industrialists to decrease production, limit hours of work per employee, and standardize minimum wages - undertook a high-powered publicity campaign - brought together the largest producers in every sector of manufacturing - in fall 1934, it was clear that the NRA had failed

NSC-68

- National Security Council Document number 68 (1950) - provided the rationale and comprehensive strategic vision for U.S. policy during the Cold War - top-secret policy paper shaped by Paul Nitze - urged a dramatic upgrade of U.S. national security capabilities - endorsed covert action, economic pressure, propaganda campaigns, and a massive military buildup

Ojibwas in Great Lake Regions

- Native American Tribe found in The Great Lakes region. - although divided into separate tribes by Europeans, these people saw themselves as a collective whole - traveled long distances to hunt and fish, to trade, or join alliances

Sensitive U.S. military communications about operations in the Pacific were kept under secret because of the use of

- Navajo Indians, creating the Navajo Signal Corps - their language was unfamiliar to Japanese intelligence officers, thus creating a unique success

Code-Talkers

- Navajo radio operators who helped secure communications in the Pacific - they were treated with the utmost respect by their fellow marines - all of the messages were transmitted without error

Presidential Election of 1972

- Nixon ran for reelection, his political strategist formed CREEP because they were worried that he might not get another term - Senator George McGovern won the Democratic nomination - although the 26th Amendment had lowered the voting age to 18, very few of the newly enfranchised voters cast ballots - Nixon had won the election, but other branches of government soon began scrutinizing its legitimacy

Henry Kissinger

- Nixon's national security adviser and Secretary of State - worked to ease tensions with the two major communist nations: the Soviet Union and China - expected that improved relations might lead these nations to reduce their support for North Vietnam - personally conducted secret negotiations that led to a slight easing of U.S. trade restrictions

NATO

- North Atlantic Treaty Organization - established by treaty in 1949 to provide for the collective defense of noncommunist European and North American nations against possible aggression from the Soviet Union - encouraged political, economic, and social cooperation - pledged that an attack against one nation would automatically be treated as if a strike against all

Daniel Boone

- North Carolina hunter and pioneer settler of Kentucky - hacked a trail, the Wilderness Road, from the Cumberland Gap to the Kentucky bluegrass country in early 1775 - most famous American frontiersman of his generation

Northern military advantages

- North had a larger population, therefore they had more people serve in total - Union eventually allowed blacks to enlist as soldiers - economic superiority was greater

"Carpetbaggers"

- Northerners who settled in the South during Reconstruction - Many carpetbaggers were said to have moved South for their own financial and political gains: buying land and manipulating new black voters

Russian Revolution

- November 1917 - had overthrown Kerensky's liberal-democratic government and brought to power a revolutionary socialist government under Vladimir Lenin and his Bolshevik Party - Lenin pulled Russia out of the war, which hurt the Allies

Tehran Conference

- November 28 - December 1, 1943 - held in the Soviet Union's embassy in Tehran, Iran - was a strategy meeting of Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill that took place after the Anglo-Soviet Invasion of Iran - first meeting between the "Big Three" Allied leaders - chief discussion centered on the opening of a "second front" in western Europe - more discussion of political issues than had occurred in any previous meeting between Allied governmental heads - Roosevelt told Stalin that U.S. voters of Eastern European descent expected their homelands to be independent after the war - all three Allied leaders appeared uncertain; their views were imprecise on the topic of a postwar international organization

El Alamein

- Oct 23 - Nov 5, 1942 - marked an important turning point of the Western Desert Campaign and it was the first major victorious offensive of the Western Allies - Allied victory of the battle lead to the retreat of the Afrika Korps and the German surrender in North Africa in May 1943

Cuban Missile Crisis

- October 1962 - serious Cold War confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union over the installation of Soviet missiles in Cuba - the Soviet Union, responding to pleas from Castro, sent sophisticated armaments to Cuba - the Kennedy administration declared it would never allow the Soviet Union to place nuclear warheads so close to U.S. soil - Kennedy rejected a military strike against Cuba; instead, he ordered the Navy to "quarantine" Cuba - unknown until mid-1990s, the Soviets had already placed tactical nuclear weapons, which could have reached U.S. targets, inside Cuba - crisis ended on October 28, 1962

The government office devoted to coordinating policies related to wartime propaganda was called the

- Office of War Information (OWI) - created in 1942 by President Roosevelt to coordinate propaganda and censorship

OPEC

- Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries - cartel dominated by oil-rich nations in the Middle East - 1978, it dramatically raised the price of crude oil and precipitated acute worldwide shortages - gasoline became expensive and scarce, which sparked anger both at OPEC and at the administration as it helped drive the damaging stagflation of the 1970s

Little Rock High School

- Orval Faubus promised to prevent black students from entering the school building and deployed his state's National Guard to block them - in 1957, Eisenhower took command of the Arkansas National Guard and augmented its forces with members of the U.S. Army - the Little Rock Nine, a group of nine African American students enrolled in Little Rock Central High School, escorted by armed troops, finally entered Central High

Oregon Annexation

- Polk called for US expansion, which was to include the Oregon territory, whose northern boundary line was at latitude line of 54˚40' - Oregon Treaty is a treaty between the United Kingdom and the United States that was signed on June 15, 1846, in Washington, D.C. - Territory of Oregon was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from August 14, 1848, until February 14, 1859, when the southwestern portion of the territory was admitted to the Union as the State of Oregon

Election of 1864

- President Abraham Lincoln (National Union Party) ran for reelection against George B. McClellan (Democratic candidate) - John C. Frémont ran as the Radical Democracy Party candidate, but later withdrew - took place during the American Civil War - no electoral votes were counted from any of the eleven southern states that had joined the Confederate States of America - Lincoln won the election, but his second term only lasted 42 days because he was assassinated on April 15, 1865

Spot Resolution

- President Polk had called for war against Mexico, claiming they had shed "American blood on American soil" - resolution offered by Congressman Abraham Lincoln demanding to know the precise location where Mexicans had allegedly shed American blood on the "America" soil - requested President James K. Polk to provide Congress with the exact location upon which blood was spilt on American soil

Square Deal

- President Theodore Roosevelt's domestic program - based on three basic ideas: protection of the consumer, control of large corporations, and conservation of natural resources - significant component of its policies were aimed at regulating trade and manufacturing to ensure that there were oversights and controls to keep business fair and equitable - was later largely incorporated into the platform of the Progressive (Bull Moose) Party

Nicholas Biddle

- President of the Second Bank of the United States - had a hard time keeping the bank functioning when Jackson tried to get rid of it - Biddle demanded all laws to be repaid, which caused a financial panic; his way of getting back at Jackson

The 10% Plan

- Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction - US presidential proclamation - issued on December 8, 1863 - introduced by Abraham Lincoln; part of his plan for reconstruction - proposed that a state could be readmitted to the Union once 10% of its voters swore an oath of allegiance to the Union

Fundamentalism

- Protestant fundamentalism was the most enduring of all the movements protesting against the modern elements of urban life in the 1920s - religious groups that preached the necessity of fidelity to a strict moral code, individual commitment to Christ, and faith in the literal truth of the Bible - took shape in reaction against two additional aspects of urban society: the growth of liberal Protestantism and the revelations of science

Causes of U.S. emergence from its relative isolation in the late 19th century

- Protestant missionaries began to direct interest to Asia, specifically China - imperialists viewed expansion as essential - businessmen saw expansion overseas as a way to make a greater fortune

PWA

- Public Works Administration - launched by the National Industrial Recovery Act - strengthened the nation's infrastructure of roads, bridges, sewage systems, hospitals, airports, and schools - labor needed would shrink relief rolls and reduce unemployment - created economic investment rather than short-term relief - authorized the building of three major dams in the West that opened up large stretches of Arizona, California, and Washington to industrial and agricultural development

Roger Williams

- Puritan and Separatist - banished from Massachusetts in 1630 after challenging the king - founded Providence with a few disciples

Anne Hutchinson

- Puritan religious radical - claimed she received direct messages from God; convicted of Antinomian heresy - banished to Rhode Island in 1638 - organized weekly meetings of Boston women to discuss recent sermons and to give expression to her own theological views; before long her sessions attracted ministers and magistrates as well - stressed the individual's intuition as a means of reaching God and salvation, rather than the observance of institutionalized beliefs and the precepts of ministers - her opponents accused her of antinomianism—the view that God's grace has freed the Christian from the need to observe established moral precepts

U.S. soldiers in Lebanon/President Reagan/1983

- Reagan administration deployed U.S. military power, initially in southern Lebanon in 1982 - fearing loss of influence within Lebanon, the Reagan administration convinced Israel to withdraw and sent 1,600 U.S. Marines as part of an international "peacekeeping force" - in April 1983, Reagan decided to end the ill-defined undertaking after a massive truck bomb attack against a military compound killed 241 U.S. troops

Consequence of developing internet technology

- some feared that Internet news and commentary only made the adversarial framework that had come to dominate cable TV news more ubiquitous - saw Internet journalism preying on the legwork of writers for print publications rather than encouraging original reporting by its bloggers - magazines and newspapers began to cease publication - critics also feared that the process of "linking up" was destroying traditional notions of privacy was well as threatening the safety of the young and the innocent

Literacy test

- southern state legislatures employed literacy tests as part of the voter registration process starting in the late 19th century - used in an effort to keep African Americans from voting - required voters to read and understand the Constitution - the Voting Rights Act of 1965 abolished literacy tests and poll taxes designed to disenfranchise African American voters

Globalization

- spread of businesses throughout world - U.S. automakers, for example, increasingly looked outside the United States to procure parts and even to assemble its automobiles and trucks - foreign buyers purchased U.S. companies and real estate holdings

Jim Crow Laws

- state and local laws passed by southern states mandating racial segregation in public facilities of all kinds - originated from the Black Codes that were enforced from 1865 to 1866 and from prewar segregation - mandated de jure segregation in all public facilities, with a supposedly "separate but equal" status for Americans of African descent

Domestic success of the Clinton presidency

- steered a family leave plan for working parents through Congress - helped establish AmeriCorps, a program that allowed students to repay college loans through community service - secured passage of the Brady Bill, which instituted restrictions on handgun purchases that the Supreme Court subsequently declared unconstitutional

Opechancanough

- succeeded Powhatan - launched an attack on Jamestown in 1622, killing 347 settlers, intending on getting rid of the colony

Panic of 1857

- sudden collapse in the economy - caused by declining international economy and over-expansion of the domestic economy - caused by inflation of California gold, overproduction of grain, and over-speculation of railroads - failures of banks and businesses - first worldwide economic crisis - hit harder in the North, didn't affect South as much

Baby Boom

- sudden increase in births in the years after World War II - baby boomers were people born between 1946 and 1964 - more than 75 million babies were born in the U.S. during this time - a number of factors, including earlier marriages and rising incomes, fueled a continuing boom in babies - baby boomers became closely identified with the new suburbia

Freedom Summer

- summer of 1964 when nearly one thousand white volunteers went to Mississippi to aid in voter registration and other civil-rights projects - sponsored by a coalition of activist groups and led by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

Federalists

- supported the Constitution - first American political party, founded by Hamilton - supported a strong central government - supported ratification of the Constitution

Spoils System

- system in which the victorious political party rewarded its suppliers with government jobs - Jackson had done it on a large scale, making it very well known

encomienda

- system of labor used by the Spanish rulers in Mexico and Peru - holder could claim labor from an Indian district for a certain period of time

Iran-Contra Affair

- Reagan administration scandal in which the U.S. secretly sold arms to Iran, a country implicated in holding American hostages, and diverted the money to finance the attempt by the contras to overthrow the Sandinista government of Nicaragua - both transactions violated acts of Congress, which had prohibited funding the contra and selling weapons to Iran - Ronald Reagan stepped forward and testified, through a deposition, that he could not recall any details about either the release of hostages or the funding of the contras - Oliver North and several others in the Reagan administration were convicted of felonies, including falsification of documents and lying to Congress, but appellate courts later overturned these verdicts - in 1992, just a few days before the end of his presidency, George H. W. Bush pardoned six former Reagan-era officials connected to the Iran-contra controversy

Zimmerman Telegram

- telegram from Germany's foreign secretary instructing the German minister in Mexico to ask that country's government to attack the United States in return for German assistance in regaining Mexico's lost provinces - given by the British to Wilson - U.S. was outraged, prompting them to soon declare war

Contraband

- term commonly used in the United States military during the American Civil War - described a new status for certain escaped slaves or those who affiliated with Union forces - slaves who fled plantations and sought protection behind union lines during the Civil War - the army determined that the US would not return escaped slaves who went to Union lines

Continental Army improvements after Trenton and Princeton Battles

- term of enlistment increased to three years - strict discipline instituted and increase of severity of punishments - new drill techniques - offered cash bonuses and land bounties for those who reenlisted

George H. W. Bush

- Republican President (1989-1993) who directed an international coalition against Iraq in the Persian Gulf War - was Reagan's vice president - pledged "no new taxes" and chose Senator J. Danforth (Dan) Quayle as a running mate - in 1992, just a few days before the end of his presidency, George H. W. Bush pardoned six former Reagan-era officials connected to the Iran-contra controversy - during his presidency, the federal deficit grew, the Soviet Union collapsed, the US invaded Iraq, and the Persian Gulf War began

Henry Cabot Lodge

- Republican Senator from Massachusetts who led the campaign to reject the Treaty of Versailles - members of his campaign rejected Wilson's belief that every group of people on earth had a right to form their own nation; that every state should have a voice in world affairs - preferred to let Europe return to the power politics that had prevailed before the war

Whiskey Rebellion

- Revolt in Western Pennsylvania against the federal excise tax on whiskey - settlers up and down the frontier refused to pay the Federalists' excise tax on whiskey - July 1794, near Pittsburgh, 500 militiamen marched to house of federal excise collector General John Neville, which was eventually looted and burned. Two were killed and 6 wounded - 2 weeks later, 6,000 "Whiskey Rebels" met at Braddock's Field near Pittsburgh, threatening to attack the town

Presidential Election of 1980

- Ronald Reagan (Republican) stressed his opposition to domestic social spending and high taxes while promising support for a stronger national defense - Jimmy Carter had run for reelection under the Democratic Party - Reagan-Bush team swept to victory; gained only slightly more than 50% of the popular vote

Conservation

- Roosevelt had a different view of conservation than John Muir - movement that called for managing the environment to ensure the careful and efficient use of the nation's natural resources - conservationists wanted to manage the environment scientifically so as to ensure that the nation's resources were put to the most efficient economic use

Bank Holiday

- Roosevelt's immediate order that all the nation's banks closed on March 6 and lasted for several days - Roosevelt set out to rebuild confidence in the nation's banking system - during this time, Congress passed several pieces of legislature, including the Emergency Banking Act and the Economy Act

New Nationalism

- Roosevelt's reform program between 1910 and 1912 - called for establishing a strong federal government to regulate corporations, stabilize the economy, protect the weak, and restore social harmony - platform for the 1912 Progressive Party presidential platform - sweeping regulation of the corporations, extensive protections for workers, a sharply graduated income tax, and woman suffrage

Sputnik

- Russian for "satellite" - world's first artificial satellite, 22 inch sphere, that the Soviets launched in October 1957 - circled the earth, initially accompanied by a "beep beep" soundtrack, for nearly three months - Sputnik Crisis took place following Russia's second successful satellite launch, the possibility of nuclear weapons development forced President Eisenhower to expand military arsenal, educational resources, and research capabilities

Glasnost

- Russian term describing increased openness in Russian society under Mikhail Gorbachev - was instituted by Mikhail Gorbachev in the late 1980s and began the democratization of the Soviet Union - permitted criticism of government officials and allowed the media freer dissemination of news and information

Perestroika

- Russian term describing the economic liberalization that began in the late 1980s - program instituted in the Soviet Union by Mikhail Gorbachev in the mid-1980s to restructure Soviet economic and political policy - 1988 a new parliament, the Soviet Congress of People's Deputies, was created and similar congresses were established in each Soviet republic - for the first time, elections to these bodies presented voters with a choice of candidates, including non-communists, though the Communist Party continued to dominate the system

Andrew Carnegie

- Scottish immigrant who was a philanthropist and the most efficient entrepreneur in the U.S. steel industry, earning a great fortune - led the expansion of the American steel industry in the late 19th century - left the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1865 and started managing the Keystone Bridge Company - concentrated on steel, founding the J. Edgar Thomson Steel Works, which would eventually evolve into the Carnegie Steel Company - in the 1870's his new company built the first steel plants in the United States to use the new Bessemer steelmaking process, borrowed from Britain - 1890 the American steel industry's output surpassed that of Great Britain's for the first time, largely owing to Carnegie's successes and the company continued to prosper even during the depression of 1892

Kellogg-Briand Pact

- Secretary of State Kellogg drew up a treaty with Aristide Briand, the French foreign minister, outlawing war as a tool of national policy - signed by representatives of the United States, France, and 13 other nations who met in Paris in 1928 - attracted the support of 48 other nations - contained no enforcement mechanism, thus rendering itself ineffective as a foreign policy tool

Lost Generation

- term used by Gertrude Stein to describe U.S. writers and artists who fled to Paris in the 1920s after becoming disillusioned with America - included Gertrude Stein, Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and T. S. Eliot - used generally to refer to the post-World War I generation - after the war many of them were disillusioned with the world in general and unwilling to move into a settled life

John Foster Dulles

- Secretary of State from 1953 to 1959 under President Dwight D. Eisenhower - 3 factors determined his foreign policy: profound detestation of Communism (based on deep religious faith); powerful personality (often insisted on leading); and strong belief in the value of treaties - repeatedly warned that a new administration might seek to "roll back," rather than simply to contain, communism - early 1954, he announced that the United States reserved the right to respond to military aggression - critics viewed him as harsh, inflexible, and a tactician, rather than an architect of international diplomacy, but Eisenhower ignored it and kept him

Edwin M. Stanton

- Secretary of War under President Abraham Lincoln - played a leading role in the investigation and trial of the conspirators - managed the demobilization of Union forces - secret representative of the Radical Republicans in Congress - clashed with Johnson over Reconstruction - removed from office by Johnson in February 1868

Alexander Hamilton - Financial Plan

- Secretary of the Treasury under Washington - organized the finances of the new government - Hamilton asked Congress to charter a Bank of the United States - Passed in April 1791, the national bank and the federal excise measures completed Hamilton's organization of government finances - replica of the treasury-driven government of Great Britain

SEC

- Securities and Exchange Commission - June 6, 1934 - an independent, federal government agency responsible for protecting investors, maintaining fair and orderly functioning of securities markets, and facilitating capital formation - designed to help investors feel more comfortable about putting their money back into the stock market

Selective Service Act

- Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 - FDR signed the bill into law on September 16, 1940 - first peacetime draft in U.S. history - all males of ages 21 to 36 were required to register with the resurrected Selective Service System - 45 million men registered and more than 10 million were inducted through the Selective Service System between November 1940 and October 1946

The Pilgrims

- Separatists who left England, spent 10 years in the Netherlands, then migrated to America - negotiated with the London Company to sail on the Mayflower - arrived to what they called Plymouth

Boston Police Strike

- September 1919 - Boston policemen walked off their jobs after the police commissioner refused to negotiate with their newly formed union - Governor Calvin Coolidge refused to negotiate with them, called out the National Guard to restore order, and fired the entire police force

Tecumseh

- Shawnee leader - assumed political and military leadership of the pan-Indian religious movement began by his brother Tenskwatawa - confederacy posed a threat to the United States

Gold Standard

- Sherman Silver Purchase Act in 1890 increased the amount of silver coinage, but not at the 16-to-1 ratio; went too far to suit "gold bugs," who wanted to keep the United States on the international gold standard - President Cleveland blamed the Panic of 1893 on the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, which caused a run on the Treasury's gold reserves triggered by uncertainty over the future of the gold standard - Gold Standard Act of the United States was passed in 1900, establishing gold as the only standard for redeeming paper money, stopping bimetallism; signed by President William McKinley

Sherman's and Sheridan's victories

- Sherman reached his victories by using total war - Sheridan, a Union general, had won the battle of Shenandoah

Battle of Little Big Horn

- Sioux and Cheyenne Indians defiantly left their reservations; gathered in Montana with Sitting Bull to fight for their lands - a battle in eastern Montana Territory on the bluffs above Little Big Horn River on June 25, 1876 - pitted federal troops led by Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer against a band of Lakota Sioux and Cheyenne warriors - was the most successful action fought by the American Indians against the United States Army in the West - part of the Campaign of 1876, an effort by the United States Government to force the Sioux tribes onto their reservations

Quakers

- Society of Friends - religiously motivated migration to America from 1675 to 1690 - first settled in West New Jersey and Pennsylvania, later bought East New Jersey and gained power in Delaware - seen as threats by others because of beliefs - found God in everyone as a form of Inner Light

SCLC

- Southern Christian Leadership Conference - formed by MLK and other black ministers - demanded desegregated public facilities - sought to organize an ongoing socio-political movement that would work for other changes - young, male ministers in the SCLC sought assistance across generational and gender divides

Pro-Slavery Christianity

- Southerners preached that the Chosen People of the Old Testament had been patriarchs and slaveholders - most common religious argument was that slavery had given millions of Africans the opportunity to become Christians

St. Augustine, Fl.

- Spanish fortress built in 1565 - one of the first successful settlements in America - founded by Spanish admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés

St. Augustine, FL

- Spanish fortress established in Florida in 1589 - Carolina slavers invaded Florida (1702-1704) and failed to take the fortress

James K. Polk

- Speaker of the House of Representatives - 11th president - beat Henry Clay in the election of which 1844, which was unexpected - served one term, didn't run for reelection - favored Manifest Destiny - promised to bring Texas and Oregon into the Union - territorial expansion through the Mexican War; provoked it to acquire New Mexico and California - during his term, Texas, Iowa and Wisconsin entered the Union

The development of space technology was most important for

- Sputnik Crisis, as the Soviet Union could eventually rain down nuclear weapons on U.S cities - the U.S. then expanded its military arsenal, educational resources, and research capabilities

The "Dixiecrats"

- States' Rights Party - the Dixiecrat movement portended a political shift among Southern whites - Dixiecrat Democrats joined conservative Republicans to block any legislation that they feared might threaten local and state laws upholding white supremacy in the South

SALT

- Strategic Arms Limitation Talks - opened in 1969 - two rounds of bilateral conferences and corresponding international treaties involving the United States and the Soviet Union, the Cold War superpowers, on the issue of arms control - SALT I limited further development of both antiballistic missiles (ABMs) and offensive intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs)

SDI

- Strategic Defense Initiative - popularly termed "Star Wars," a proposal to develop technology for creation of a space-based defensive missile shield around the United States - was proposed in 1938, by Reagan - it soon had its own agency, and as the most expensive defense system in history, over fiver years it sought $26 billion for research costs alone - although most scientists dismissed the plan as too speculative, Congress voted appropriations for SDI, and Reagan steadfastly insisted that a defensive missile shield could work

SNCC

- Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee - interracial civil-rights organization formed by young people involved in the sit-in movement that later adopted a direct-action approach to fighting segregation - strengthened its efforts in community organization and supported Freedom Rides in 1961, along with the March on Washington in 1963, and agitated for the Civil Rights Act (1964) - played a central role in the civil rights movement in the 1960s

SDS

- Students for a Democratic Society - emerged in 1962 - endorsed familiar causes, especially civil rights, it also attracted attention for the personalized style of its politics - Port Huron Statement (1962) pledged to fight the "loneliness, estrangement, isolation" that supposedly afflicted many people - spoke for alternative visions, like "participatory democracy"—grassroots activism and institutions responsive to local needs

Dwight Eisenhower

- Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces in Europe, orchestrator of the Normandy Invasion, and President of the United States (1953-1961) - when the United States entered World War II, he was appointed to the army's war plans division in Washington, D.C., where he prepared strategy for an Allied invasion of Europe - promoted to lieutenant general in July 1942 and named to head Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of French North Africa launched on November 8, 1942 - directed Operation OVERLORD, known as D-Day

Roger B. Taney

- Supreme Court Chief Justice from 1836-1864 - 1857: made a pro-slavery ruling determining blacks weren't citizens of the United States - said that neither free nor slaves could ever become citizens; decided during the Dred Scott case

Charles River Bridge v. Warren River Bridge

- Supreme Court case decided in 1837 - a case regarding the Charles River Bridge and the Warren Bridge of Boston, Massachusetts, heard by the United States Supreme Court under the leadership of Chief Justice Roger B. Taney - Charles River Bridge Company protested when the Warren Bridge Company was authorized in 1828 to build a free bridge where it had been chartered to operate a toll bridge in 1785 - Supreme Court ruled that a charter granted by a state to a company cannot work to the disadvantage of the public

Roe vs. Wade

- Supreme Court decision in 1973 - ruled that a blanket prohibition against abortion violated a woman's right to privacy and prompted decades of political controversy - the decision outraged anti-abortion groups, who rallied under the "Right-to-Life" banner on behalf of the unborn fetus - feminist groups made the issue of individual choice in reproductive decisions a central rallying point

Douglas MacArthur

- Supreme commander of Allied forces in the southwest Pacific during the Second World War - leader of the occupation forces in the reconstruction of Japan - favored an offensive launched from his headquarters in Australia through New Guinea and the Philippines and on to Japan

Tariff of Abominations

- Tariff of 1828 - protective tariffs passed by the Democratic Congress in 1828 - hurt the South by diminishing exports of cotton and raised prices of manufactured goods - Calhoun's Exposition was a response to the tariffs, which stated that if the tariff was not repealed, South Carolina would secede

TVA

- Tennessee Valley Authority - ambitious and successful use of government resources and power to promote economic development throughout the Tennessee Valley - built hydroelectric generators and soon became the nation's largest producer of electricity - constructed waterways to bypass non-navigable stretches of the river, reduced the danger of flooding, and taught farmers how to prevent soil erosion and use fertilizers - helped ease the poverty and isolation of the area's inhabitants - generated little support for more ambitious experiments in national planning

New Frontier

- term used by John F. Kennedy in his 1960 campaign as a reference to what lied ahead for the country - Kennedy spoke of new social programs to rebuild rural communities, increase educational opportunities and improve urban conditions - he also promoted economic growth and more aggressive foreign policy

"The Prophet"

- Tenskwatawa, a Shawnee who had failed as a warrior and medicine man - entered a deep trance, woke up and said he received a prophetic vision - all Indians must stop drinking and fighting among themselves - must return to traditional food, clothing, tools, and hairstyles - must extinguish all of their fires and start new ones without using European tools

Scalawags

- Term used by southern Democrats to describe southern whites who worked with the Republicans - they cooperated politically with black freedmen and Northern newcomers

The Texas Revolution

- Texas declared independency from Mexico - war broke out between Texas settlers and Mexico between 1835 and 1836 - Mexican tejanos joined with the Anglo-Americans to fight for independence - Texas won; resulted in the formation of the Republic of Texas

Enron

- Texas-based energy firm with close ties to members of the Bush administration - had gained an ill-deserved reputation for innovation among market analysts of the 1990s, and the value of its stock had soared - one of the fraud-plagued firms that fell into bankruptcy in 2002

Activist President

- Theodore Roosevelt - supported the miners during the coal strike in 1902, using the military to threaten the owners rather than the workers - saw 230 million acres of land become subject to U.S. federal protection - his Square Deal was based on three basic ideas: protection of the consumer, control of large corporations, and conservation of natural resources - supported the Pure Food and Drug Act, Hepburn Act, and Meat Inspection Act - conservationist who wanted to manage the environment scientifically so as to ensure that the nation's resources were put to the most efficient economic use - became known as a trust buster, breaking up large monopolies to restore competition

Stonewall Jackson

- Thomas Jonathan "Stonewall" Jackson - Confederate general during the American Civil War - the best-known Confederate commander after General Robert E. Lee - lead troops at Manassas, Antietam and Fredericksburg - earned nickname at the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861 when he rushed his troops forward to close a gap in the line against a determined Union attack - was accidentally shot and killed by Confederate troops at the Battle of Chancellorsville

"Republican Motherhood"

- term used to describe role of women after Revolutionary War - idea of beginning to educate women - first academies for women opened in 1790s - suggested that women would be responsible for raising and educating their children

filibusters

- term used to describe several groups that invaded or attempted to invade various Latin American areas to attempt to add them to the slaveholding regions of the US - word originated from filibustero, meaning a freebooter or pirate - The filibusters of the 1840s and 1850s had attempted to acquire new territories in which to extend slavery.

T.A.R.P.

- Troubled Assets Relief Program - signed into law by President George W. Bush on October 3, 2008 - section of the Emergency Economic Stabilization act of 2008 that authorized the Treasury Department to spread $700 billion throughout the financial system - created and run by the U.S. Treasury to stabilize the country's financial system, restore economic growth, and mitigate foreclosures in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis

Committee on Public Information

- U.S. Government agency established in 1917 to arouse support for the war and, later, to generate suspicion of war dissenters - distributed 75 million copies of pamphlets explaining U.S. war aims in several languages - trained a force of 75,000 "Four-Minute Men" to deliver succinct, uplifting war speeches to numerous groups in their home cities and towns

U.S. newspaper accounts of the Cuban-Spanish conflict

- U.S. newspapers portrayed Cuban rebels as similar to white Americans - later created conflict because the Cubans were not what the American soldiers had expected - led to yellow journalism

Puerto Rico

- US annexed Puerto Rico with the Foraker Act (1900); contained no provision for making the inhabitants of Puerto Rico citizens of the United States - was designated an "unincorporated" territory, which meant that Congress would dictate the island's government and specify the rights of its inhabitants - were granted U.S. citizenship in 1917 and won the right to elect their own governor in 1947, but still had fewer political rights than those in the states - 1948: ¾ of Puerto Rican households subsisted on $1,000 or less annually; resembled poorly developed nations of Central and South America, more than the affluent country that took over its government in 1900.

Shortly after September 11, 2001, President Bush announced he would wage war against

- terrorism - Afghanistan - Iraq - any force that endangered American security (Bush Doctrine)

Winfield Scott

- US army general - unsuccessful Whig candidate for 1852 presidential election - during the Battle for Mexico City, which took place from September 8 to September 15, 1847, he captured Mexico City during Mexican-American War - served as military governor of Mexico City - created the Anaconda Plan in 1861, which was a U.S. Union Army outline strategy for suppressing the Confederacy at the beginning of the American Civil War

Panic of 1837

- US financial crisis from 1837-1847 - created a major recession which lasted until the mid-1840s - partly caused by some policies of Jackson, like refusing to renew the charter of the Second Bank of the United States

Significant legislation in Wilson's first term

- Underwood Tariff: reduced tariff barriers from approximately 40 to 25 percent - Federal Reserve Act: act that brought private banks and public authority together to regulate and strengthen the nation's financial system - Federal Trade Commission Act: the act created a government agency by that name to regulate business practices

West Virginia

- Union border state - delegates who had opposed Virginia's secession from the Union were determined to secede from Virginia - entered the Union in 1863

Ulysses S. Grant

- United States Army general during the American Civil War - was a Commanding General at the end of the Civil War - became the first president after the Civil War - fought for the Union

The War of 1812

- United States attacked Canada in 1812, with disastrous results - conflict fought between the United States and Britain (with their allies) - issues of trade and impressment - demonstrated America's willingness to defend its interests militarily - earned the nation new found respect among the European nations

Interstate Commerce Act of 1887

- United States federal law that was designed to regulate the railroad industry, particularly its monopolistic practices - the railroads became the first industry subject to federal regulation - ultimately outlawed unfair pricing activities on the part of railroads - three provisions: -- railroad rates must be "reasonable and just," but did not empower the government to fix specific rates -- required that the railroad companies publish all rates and make financial reports -- provided for the creation of the Interstate Commerce Commission, and independent regulatory agency, to investigate alleged abuses and stop them

Aaron Burr

- Vice President under Thomas Jefferson - killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel - hatched schemes to detach parts of the west from the United States.

Virginia Plan/New Jersey Plan

- Virginia Plan composed of resolutions proposed by James Madison - supported separation of powers - proposed bicameral legislature (members would be elected depending on state populations--small states feared) - New Jersey Plan called for one-house Congress with equal representation

War Powers Act

- War Powers Resolution of 1973 - passed in the aftermath of the Vietnam War - passed by both Houses of Congress, overriding the veto of President Nixon - federal law intended to check the president's power to commit the United States to an armed conflict without the consent of the U.S. Congress - states that the President must tell Congress within 48 hours if he sends armed forces anywhere, and Congress must give approval for them to stay there for more than 90 days

WIN

- Whip Inflation Now - program pushed by Ford - included a one-year surcharge on income taxes and cuts in federal spending as solutions - after both unemployment and prices still crept higher, Ford conceded WIN to be a loser

William Jennings Bryan/"cross of gold" speech

- William Jennings Bryan attacked "gold bugs" at an 1896 Democratic convention - insisted that U.S. currency was to only be backed by gold

USS Maine

- William McKinley ordered the battleship into Havana harbor late 1897 to protect U.S. citizens and their property - February 15, 1898, the Maine exploded in Havana harbor, killing 260 American sailors - most probable cause of the explosion was a malfunctioning boiler

Woodrow Wilson/Pancho Villa

- Wilson had supported Pancho Villa and Venustiano Carranza, refusing to recognize Victoriano Huerta's government - Wilson withdrew his support for Villa when Carranza's forces defeated Villa's forces in 1915 - Villa and his forces then pulled 18 U.S. citizens from a train and murdered them - in return, Wilson sent troops after Villa and his men but were unsuccessful

New Freedom

- Wilson's reform program of 1912 - promoted antitrust modification, tariff revision, and reform in banking and currency matters - called for temporarily concentrating government power so as to dismantle the trusts and return America to 19th-century conditions of competitive capitalism

The initial U.S. policy regarding the European war

- Woodrow Wilson told Americans that it was a European war - the U.S. initially proclaimed neutrality and tried to maintain normal relations with both sides - U.S. bankers granted loans to the Allies

WPA

- Works Progress Administration - federal relief agency established in 1935 that disbursed billions to pay for infrastructural improvements and funded a vast program of public art - provided jobs to approximately 30 percent of the nation's jobless - fostered the creation of art that spoke to the concerns of ordinary Americans, adorned public buildings with colorful murals, and boosted public morale

Thomas Jefferson/Declaration of Independence

- a Founding Father - wrote the Declaration of Independence - delegate from Virginia sent to Continental Congress - elected as the third president, serving 1801 to 1809

Panama Canal

- a French company had obtained land rights and had begun construction of a canal across the Colombian province of Panama in the 1880s - an engineering marvel completed in 1914 across the new Central American nation of Panama - connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, it shortened ship travel between New York and San Francisco by 8,000 miles - Philippe Bunau-Varilla, a director of the company from which the US had bought the rights to the canal, and Secretary of State Hay signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903); granted the US a 10-mile-wide canal zone in Panama in return for the package Colombia had rejected—$10 million down and $250,000 annually

Anaconda Plan

- a U.S. Union Army outline strategy for suppressing the Confederacy at the beginning of the American Civil War - created by Union General Winfield Scott in 1861 - never officially adopted by the Union government - three main parts: --- blockade all Eastern and Southern ports in Confederate States --- divide the South; take control of the Mississippi River --- control the Tennessee Valley and march through Georgia to the coast

Grandfather Clause

- a clause in the constitutions of some Southern states after 1890 intended to permit whites to vote while disfranchising blacks - exempted from new literacy and property qualifications for voting those men entitled to vote before 1867 and their lineal descendants - limited black voting rights - in Williams v. Mississippi (1898), the U.S. Supreme Court upheld these disenfranchisement clauses on the grounds that they did not discriminate "on their face" against blacks

98th Meridian

- a dividing line between west and east, extending from western Oklahoma, central Kansas and Nebraska, and eastern Dakota - east of the line has good soil and abundant rain - west of the line receives less than 20 inches of rain per year; known as the Great Plains, which treeless and mostly prairie grass and dunes, the soil turned to dust due to the dryness and caused many problems

Trench Warfare

- a form of land warfare using occupied fighting lines consisting largely of trenches - by using the trenches, troops are significantly protected from the enemy's small arms fire and are substantially sheltered from artillery - the ground between two opposing trenches was known as No Man's Land - diseases spread rapidly in the trenches (cholera and trench foot)

Statements regarding the "Conscience Whigs"

- a group of antislavery members of the Whig Party - fled to the Free Soil Party after their party nominated Zachary Taylor for president

John Winthrop

- a leading figure in founding the Massachusetts Bay Colony - fleet bought over 1000 settlers in 1630 - elected governor and led the settlers through the harsh first winter - envisioned the Massachusetts Bay Colony, centered in present-day Boston, as a "city upon a hill" from which Puritans would spread religious righteousness throughout the world

William Bradford

- a leading figure in the Puritan's Separatist movement - migrated to Plymouth colony in 1620, and became governor after first winter

Most immigrants between the 1840s and 1850s

- a majority of German and Irish peasants - many, especially the Irish, joined the unskilled and semiskilled labor force - most were Roman Catholics

The "black power" crusade consisted of

- a new emphasis on African-American culture and heritage - establishment of self-defense groups to protect African Americans from police harassment - demands for the release of African-American prisoners - guaranteed employment for all citizens

Farmers' Alliances

- a new farmers' organization that expanded rapidly in the 1880s - helped address political concerns of farmers and the farm families' social and cultural needs - provided a sense of community for farmers - began in Texas as the Southern Farmers ' Alliance and expanded into other southern states and the North - by 1890, the movement had evolved into the National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union - set up marketing cooperatives to eliminate the middlemen who profited as "parasites" on the backs of farmers

A Century of Dishonor

- a non-fiction book written by Helen Hunt Jackson, the most prominent Eastern reformer, that was first published in 1881 - was an outraged indictment of anti-Indian violence, exploitation, and broken treaties - detailed the injustices made to Native Americans during US expansion - exposed the U.S. government's many broken promises to the Native Americans

Imperialism

- a policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force - in the late 19th century, the US expanded their overseas territorial possessions - some supported it (imperialists) and some did not (anti-imperialists) for various reasons - during this time, they gained control over the Philippines, Guam, Hawaii, Samoa, Puerto Rico, Cuba, the Virgin Islands

Tuskegee Institute

- a private, historically black university located in Tuskegee, Alabama, United States - established by Booker T. Washington in 1881 under a charter from the Alabama legislature for the purpose of training teachers in Alabama - Tuskegee's program provided students with both academic and vocational training. - focused on training young black students in agriculture and the trades to help them achieve economic independence - Washington justified segregated, vocational training as a necessary first step on the road to racial equality

King Cotton

- a slogan which summarized the strategy used before the American Civil War by pro-secessionists in the Southern States - indicated the economic and political importance of cotton production - used to convince the southern states that they could win the war simply based on starving the textile industry of other countries - U.S. Senator James H. Hammond declared, "Cotton is king." on March 4, 1858

Gifford Pinchot

- a specialist in forestry management - led the drive for scientific management of natural resources - in 1905, he persuaded Roosevelt to relocate jurisdiction for the national forests from the Department of the Interior to the Department of Agriculture - Pinchot and fellow conservationists declared vast stretches of federal land in the West off-limits to mining and dam construction

Poll tax

- a tax based on people or population rather than property. It was usually a fixed amount per adult - levied as a prerequisite for voting; many southern states passed poll taxes in an effort to keep African Americans from voting - used until 1966 - emerged in some states of the United States in the late 19th century as part of the Jim Crow laws

Range Wars

- a type of armed conflict over control of "open range", or range land freely used for cattle grazing - erupted out of the tensions between competing groups such as sheepmen and cattle, and ranchers and farmers - although open-range grazing was declining, rangers faced clashes with grangers and with a growing army of sheep ranchers on the other led to several range wars

13th Amendment

- abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime - passed by the Senate on April 8, 1864, and by the House on January 31, 1865 - the adoption confirmed the supreme power of the national government to abolish slavery and ensure the liberty of all Americans - signed by Lincoln on Feb. 1, 1865 - ratified on December 6, 1865

13th Amendment

- abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime - was passed by the Senate on April 8, 1864, and by the House on January 31, 1865 - former Confederate States were required to ratify the amendment prior to gaining reentry into the Union

Harriet Tubman

- abolitionist - born as a slave - led hundreds of slaves to freedom during the Civil War through the Underground Railroad

William Lloyd Garrison

- abolitionist - published first issue of the Liberator in 1831 - historians consider this as the start of American abolitionism - stated that slavery was America's great national sin - opposed discrimination - demanded immediate emancipation and equal citizenship for African Americans

Sojourner Truth

- abolitionist and women's rights activist - born into slavery; escaped in 1826 - important spokesperson for abolitionist movement - bridge between abolitionist movement and the women's right movement - "Ain't I a Women"

Federal Reserve Act

- act that brought private banks and public authority together to regulate and strengthen the nation's financial system - passed in 1913 - compromise plan that included both private and public controls, created by Wilson as a result of the Progressives opposing the overhaul of the banking system - established 12 regional banks, each controlled by the private banks in its region

Conscription

- act that produced the first wartime draft of U.S. citizens in American history - called for registration of all males between the ages of 20 and 45, including aliens with the intention of becoming citizens - the U.S. government implemented the act in 1863 - also known as the Enrollment Act

George W. Bush - Iraq War

- acting without UN authorization, in early 2003 the Bush administration assembled its own "coalition of the willing" - March 20, the coalition launched an air and ground assault against Iraq - May 1 President Bush proclaimed that "significant combat" had ended in Iraq, which quickly rebounded against the president, however, as resistance flared against the American-dominated occupation - factional struggles, complicated by the presence of Western troops with little knowledge of Iraq's socio-religious dynamics, embroiled the country in civil war - lack of international support for U.S. action meant that U.S. taxpayers directly bore the costs of this operation

Free Soil Party

- active in the 1848 and 1852 presidential elections, and in some state elections - formed by people who opposed the expansion of slavery into the territories

Sit-ins

- activity that challenged legal segregation by demanding that blacks have the same access to public facilities as whites - these nonviolent demonstrations were staged at restaurants, bus and train stations, and other public places - movement began in 1960, when African American students sat down at a lunch counter and politely asked to be served in the same manner as white customers

Know-Nothing Party

- adherents of nativist organizations and of the American party who wanted to restrict the political rights of immigrants - formal name: American Party - was the result of the merge in 1852 of two secret fraternal societies - members were pledged to secrecy; had to say "I know nothing" if asked about it - faced the same problem as Whigs; southerners for slavery, northerners anti-slavery - had issue of nativism

Land Ordinance of 1787

- adopted by Congress on May 20, 1785 - Congress authorized the division of the Northwest Territory into townships, each 6 miles square - land was sold at an auction, starting at $1 per acre

Articles of Confederation

- adopted by Continental Congress on November 15, 1777 - written by John Dickinson, delegate from Pennsylvania - served as first constitution of the United States - ratification by all thirteen states did not occur until March 1, 1781

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

- adopted on July 13, 1787, by the Second Continental Congress - established the Northwest Territory between the Ohio River and Great Lakes - abolished slavery in the area - provided the area to be divided into 3-5 states, which would eventually be fully admitted to the Union as equals

The "gospel of wealth"

- advocated by Andrew Carnegie - believed the wealthy should consider all income in excess of their needs as a "trust fund" for their communities

Gospel of Wealth

- advocated by Andrew Carnegie - he wrote the article in June 1889 - describes the responsibility of philanthropy by the new upper class of self-made rich - believed the wealthy should consider all income in excess of their needs as a "trust fund" for their communities

Factors contributed to the postwar depression in U.S. agriculture

- after the war Europe's farmers reestablished normal levels of production, foreign demand for American foodstuffs fell quickly, leaving farmers with an oversupply - produce flooded the market; prices fell even further, as did farm incomes

The Anglican Church

- after the war, independence made the Anglican Church vulnerable - religious dissenters disestablished the church in all southern states - was deprived of tax support and other privileges

Munich Agreement

- agreement between France, Italy, Nazi Germany and Britain - after Germany invaded the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia, the British and French prime ministers tried to get Hitler to agree not to use his military in the future in return for the land he had taken - arrangement became a symbol of what interventionists called the "appeasement" of aggression

Atlantic Charter

- agreement between Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill made in August 1941 - drafted at the Atlantic Conference in Placentia Bay, Newfoundland - disavowed territorial expansion - endorsed protection of human rights and self-determination - pledged the postwar creation of a new world organization that would ensure general security

Treaty of Tordesillas

- agreement between Spain and Portuguese that adjusted the dividing line - Spain: eastern hemisphere and Philippines - Portugal: eastern hemisphere, African coast and Brazil

Gentlemen's Agreement

- agreement by which the Japanese government promised to halt the immigration of its adult male laborers to the United States in return for President Theodore Roosevelt's pledge to end the discriminatory treatment of Japanese immigrant children in California's public schools - represented an effort by President Roosevelt to calm growing tension between the two countries over the immigration of Japanese workers - was never written into a law passed by Congress, but was an informal agreement between the United States and Japan

The Mayflower Compact

- agreement of the passengers of the ship before landing - bound them to obey decisions of the majority - precaution because the colony had uncertain legal status

Iroquois Confederacy (Five Nations)

- alliance between Mohawks, Oneidos, Cayugas, Onandagas, and Senecas - members agreed not to wage war against one another

Warren Harding

- allowed high-ranking members of his administration to indulge in spectacular forms of corruption - defeated Democrat James M. Cox for the presidency in 1920 - rose to the U.S. Senate chiefly because the powerful Ohio Republican machine knew it could count on him to do its bidding, which is why he won the presidency - released Eugene V. Debs from jail

personal registration laws

- allowed voters to register only if they appeared at a designated government office with proper identification - meant to disfranchise citizens who showed no interest in voting until Election Day - excluded many poor people who wanted to vote but had failed to register, either because of work schedules or because of intimidation, and immigrants with limited knowledge of English

The Termination and Relocation Programs implemented by the federal government resulted in

- almost 12,000 people lost their status as tribal members, and the bonds of communal life for many Indians grew weaker - Indians from terminated tribes also lost both their exemption from state taxation and social services from the BIA

The Grange: Oliver Kelley

- along with six of his associates from the US Bureau of Agriculture, he founded the National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry (the Grange) on December 4, 1867 - was devoted to improving conditions for farmers - first objective was to enhance the lives of isolated farmers through social, educational, and fraternal activities

Gunboat Diplomacy

- also known as "Big Stick ideology" - refers to the pursuit of foreign policy objectives with the aid of conspicuous displays of naval power - implying or constituting a direct threat of warfare, should terms not be agreeable to the superior force - used by Theodore Roosevelt

Cornelius Vanderbilt

- also known as "Commodore Vanderbilt" - was an American business magnate and philanthropist who built his wealth in railroads and shipping - the 1850s and 1860s, Vanderbilt began buying railroads, first acquiring the New York & Harlem Railroad in 1863 - self-made multi-millionaire who became one of the wealthiest Americans of the 19th century

South Carolina Exposition and Protest

- also known as Calhoun's Exposition - John C. Calhoun wrote it while vice president - protested the Tariff of 1828 - stated if the tariff was not repealed, South Carolina would secede from the Union

Vigilante Justice

- also known as frontier justice - extrajudicial punishment that is motivated by the nonexistence of law and order or dissatisfaction with justice - forms include: lynching and gunfighting

The Battle of Shiloh

- also known as the Battle of Pittsburg Landing - April 6, 1862 - April 7, 1862 - Hardin County, Tennessee - the first battle of the Civil War that saw large-scale death and suffering - more than 23,000 casualties - Confederate forces launched a surprise attack against Union troops - Union won the battle

Force Bill

- also known as the Force Act - passed in 1833 - authorized the president to use the army and navy to collect duties on tariffs - passed in response to South Carolina declaring the tariffs null and void - South Carolina also nullified the Force Act

Quota Laws

- also known as the Immigration Law of 1921 - restricted immigration into the U.S. from any country to 3% of the number of the residents from that country living in the U.S. as of the U.S. Census of 1910 - intended to be temporary, but had a lasting impact as it limited immigration using the quota system - did not apply to countries with bilateral agreements with the U.S. or to Asian countries that were a part of the Asiatic Barred Zone - was revise with the Immigration Act of 1924

1924 Immigration Law

- also known as the Johnson-Reed Act - limited immigration to the United States to 165,000 per year - shrank immigration from southern and eastern Europe to insignificance - banned immigration from East and South Asia - supporters believed that certain groups were racially superior and that they should be allowed to enter the US in greater numbers - annual immigration from transoceanic nations fell by 80% - governed U.S. immigration policy until 1965

Populist Party

- also known as the People's Party - was an agrarian-populist political party in the United States - consisted primarily of farmers unhappy with the Democratic and Republican Parties - believed that the federal government needed to play a more active role in the American economy by regulating various businesses, especially the railroads - 1892-1896, it played a major role as a left-wing force in American politics - main goal was to replace the Democrats as the nation's second party by forming an alliance of the farmers of the West and South with the industrial workers of the East

The Populist Party

- also known as the People's Party - was an agrarian-populist political party in the United States - consisted primarily of farmers unhappy with the Democratic and Republican Parties - believed that the federal government needed to play a more active role in the American economy by regulating various businesses, especially the railroads - 1892-1896, it played a major role as a left-wing force in American politics - main goal was to replace the Democrats as the nation's second party by forming an alliance of the farmers of the West and South with the industrial workers of the East

1921 Immigration Law

- also known as the Quota Laws - signed into law on May 19, 1921 - limited the number of immigrants that that could enter the United States through a quota - the 1910 U.S. Census was used to determine the number of immigrants that would be allowed

Adams-Onis Treaty

- also known as the Transcontinental Treaty - treaty between the US and Spain in 1819 - ceded Florida to the US - defined the boarder between the US and New Spain - helped prevent seminoles from invading

Washington Naval Conference

- also known as the Washington Conference on the Limitation of Armaments - designed by Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover - Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes served as a negotiator at the conference - Five-Power Treaty was signed during the conference

Indian Reorganization Act

- also known as the Wheeler-Howard Act - passed in 1934 - revoked the allotment provisions of the Dawes Act - recognized the rights of Native American tribes to chart their own political, cultural, and economic futures - restored land to tribes, granted Indians the right to establish constitutions and bylaws for self-government, and provided support for new tribal corporations that would regulate the use of communal lands

Bland-Allison Act

- also referred to as the Grand Bland Plan of 1878 - was an act of United States Congress requiring the U.S. Treasury to buy a certain amount of silver and put it into circulation as silver dollars - vetoed by President Rutherford B. Hayes, but Congress overrode Hayes' veto on February 28, 1878 to enact the law - created some economic stability after the Panic of 1873

The large-scale riots that garnered national attention in 1965

- altercation between a white highway patrol officer and a black motorist escalated into six days of violence, centered in the largely African American community of Watts in the South-Central area of Los Angeles - mayor and police chief of Los Angeles blamed civil rights "agitators" and sought new resources for law enforcement

Jacob Riis

- among the first journalists to use photos in documenting the living conditions of the poor - his novel "How the Other Half Lives" exposed the desperate and squalid conditions of New York City's tenement slums and gave momentum to a sanitary reform movement - fought for laws that set minimum living standards for apartments and the tearing down of dangerous, unhealthful tenements - revealed that the economy of the Industrial Revolution had resulted in horrific living conditions for thousands of citizens

Edward Bellamy

- an American author and socialist, most famous for his utopian novel, Looking Backward, a tale set in the distant future of the year 2000 in which "labor troubles" and social inequities had been eradicated through a form of socialism called Nationalism - his powerful fictional indictment of Gilded Age society resonated with half a million readers, making his novel one of the most popular of the 19th century - became an active propagandist for the nationalization of public services, and his ideas encouraged the foundation of Nationalist clubs

War Industries Board

- an administrative body established by Wilson in July 1917 to harness manufacturing might to military needs - U.S. government agency responsible for mobilizing American industry for war production - floundered for its first nine months, lacking the statutory authority to force manufacturers and the military to adopt its plans - flourished under investment banker Bernard Baruch

League of Nations

- an assembly in which all nations would be represented and in which international disputes would be given a fair hearing and an opportunity for peaceful solutions - part of Wilson's Fourteen Points - precursor to the United Nations - the US, Britain, France, Italy, and Japan would have permanent seats on the council, while the other four seats would rotate among the smaller powers

Characteristics of Richard Nixon's policy of detente toward the Soviet Union and China

- an easing of tensions, particularly between the United States and the Soviet Union - 1969, the two superpowers opened the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) - signed an agreement (SALT I) that limited further development of both ABMs and offensive ICBMs - 1972: the UN admitted the People's Republic as the sole representative of China

United Nations

- an international organization of Allied powers formed in 1945 to promote peaceful political change and to deter aggressive nations - replacement for the defunct League of Nations - included a General Assembly, in which each member nation would be represented and cast one vote - the Security Council, would include five permanent members from the Allied coalition—the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, France, and Nationalist China—and six rotating members - adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, which established human rights and freedoms as cornerstones of international law

Emilio Aguinaldo

- anti-colonial leader who fought for independence of the Philippines first from Spain and then from the United States - was captured by the United States Army in 1901 - officially recognized as the first and the youngest President of the Philippines and first president of a constitutional republic in Asia

Counterculture

- antiestablishment movement that symbolized the youthful social upheaval of the 1960s - ridiculing traditional attitudes toward such matters as clothing, hair styles, and sexuality, the counterculture-urged a more open and less regimented approach to daily life - first burst into view in low-income neighborhoods and along the streets bordering college campuses - ventures drew on earlier models, especially those of the "Beat movement" of the 1950s - eventually left an imprint on a wide range of social and cultural movements, including the cooperative movement, radical feminism, and environmentalism

Republican Party's 1860 platform

- appealed to many groups in the North - main plank pledged exclusion of slavery from the territories - other planks called for a higher tariff, a homestead act, and federal aid for construction of a transcontinental railroad and for improvement of river navigation

Warren Burger

- appointed as Chief Justice by Richard Nixon - the new "Burger Court" immediately faced controversial rights-related cases of its own - upheld the 1966 Miranda decision requiring police to fully explain a person's rights upon arrest - focused his efforts on the administrative functions of his office and worked to improve the efficiency of the judicial system

Sandra Day O'Connor

- appointed as Supreme Court Justice by Ronald Reagan in July 1981 - was confirmed unanimously by the Senate and was sworn in as the first female justice on September 25, 1981 - quickly became known for her pragmatism and was considered, with Justice Anthony Kennedy, a decisive swing vote in the Supreme Court's decisions - she attempted to fashion workable solutions to major constitutional questions, often over the course of several cases

The Insular Cases

- are a series of opinions by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1901, about the status of U.S. territories acquired in the Spanish-American War - the U.S. Supreme Court determined the constitutional and political status of the new territories - ruled that full constitutional rights did not automatically extend to all areas under American control

Romanticism

- artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement - movement appealed to emotion rather than reason - basic idea is that reason cannot explain everything - originated in Europe - at its peak from 1800 to 1850 - emphasized the importance of the individual experience and interpretation of the world

Sam Adams

- as an American statesman, political philosopher, and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States - strong opponent of British taxation, Adams helped formulate resistance to the Stamp Act and played a vital role in organizing the Boston Tea Party - is often credited as being the founder and leader of the Sons of Liberty

Republican Party

- as the Whig Party collapsed, there were spontaneous political coalitions under different names in the North - the Republican name was first used at an anti-Nebraska rally in May 1854 - most congressional candidates fielded by the anti-Nebraska coalitions ran campaigns under the Republican banner

Commercial Agriculture

- as time went on, farmers began to depend on large, expensive machinery, and stores for goods - many small farms were unable to afford the equipment, thus causing them to be driven out of business

House of Burgesses

- assembly in Virginia that first met in 1619 - settlers were allowed to elect the members of the assembly - members met with the governor and his council to make laws

Massive Retaliation

- assertion by the Eisenhower administration that the threat of U.S. atomic weaponry would hold Communist powers in check - modified through emphasized more flexible approaches to national security policy - emerged following a speech made by U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles in January 1954, when he declared that in the future a U.S. response to aggression would be "at places and with means of our own choosing" - was interpreted as threatening nuclear attack against targets in the Soviet Union and China in response to conventional aggression anywhere in the world - was widely criticized

Betty Friedan

- author of The Feminine Mystique (1963) and founder of the National Organization for Women (1966) - warned about an analogous malaise among women - broke new ground by exploring the idea of women finding personal fulfillment outside of their traditional roles - conformist who wrote that "feminine mystique" stifled women's individuality and power

Teddy Roosevelt

- became Assistant Secretary of the Navy - led war efforts during the Spanish-American War by actually going to war to fight, recruiting the Rough Riders - Thomas Platt offered him the position of Governor of New York - against his wishes, he was nominated as McKinley's vice president - known as a "trust buster," first breaking up J.P. Morgan's trust - supported the miners during the coal strike in 1902, using the military to threaten the owners rather than the workers - saw 230 million acres of land become subject to U.S. federal protection

cotton

- became an important cash crop - required a lot of unskilled labor - slaves gave up skills and went to work with axes, hoes, and their hands

Chief Joseph

- became chief of the Wal-lam-wat-kain band of Nez Perce, a relatively peaceful Native American tribe of the interior Pacific Northwest region of the United States, in 1871 - led his people in an unsuccessful resistance to white settlers who were confiscating land after a branch of the tribe signed a treaty giving away the land - led his people in the 1870s on a desperate attempt to reach Canada rather than submit to forcible settlement on a reservation after three of his tribe killed a group of settlers

George Grenville

- became first lord of the treasury April 1763 - head of British government from 1763 to 1765 - passed for acts: Sugar, Quartering, Currency, and Stamp - caused outrage in colonies, provoking imperial crisis of 1765-1766

Mikhail Gorbachev

- became general secretary of the Communist Party in 1985, promising a new style of Soviet leadership - he implemented a policy of glasnost ("openness") and perestroika ("economic liberalization") - agreed to Reagan's proposal to ban nuclear weapons and eliminated the policy that prohibited nations under Soviet influence from rejecting Communism, which brought an end to the Cold War

Vietcong

- became the military arm of the National Liberation Front (NLF) in December 29, 1960 - Vietnamese Communists - the guerrilla force that fought against South Vietnam and the United States - was supported by the North Vietnamese Army

Anglican Church

- became the official church of England during the reign of Elizabeth I - embraced Calvinist doctrines, keeping much of the Catholic liturgy

Protestant Reformation

- began in 1517 - religious movement that argued Catholic beliefs - led to rejection of the Roman Catholic Church throughout parts of Europe

Era of European Exploration

- began in 15th century - Portugal initially led the way, first going to the African coast and engaging in slave trade - Spain led the way to the Americas, first to establish European settlement there - reason: desire to expand its commerce, searching for newer and better routes

English Reformation

- began in 16th century when King Henry VIII broke away from the pope to remarry and declared himself as the head of the Church of England - created an opportunity for the Protestant Reformers - led to conflict between Non-Separatists (Puritans) and Protestants (Separatists)

The Bank War

- began in 1832 when the Bank of the United States applied for a recharter - Andrew Jackson opposed the bank - Jackson sent Bank Veto to Congress after they passed the recharter - Jackson claimed the bank was unauthorized by the constitution and gave stockholders a special privilege - Jackson was determined to get rid of the bank by withdrawing government deposits as needed, but the secretary of the treasury had to do it, who refused to

Suez Crisis

- began in October 1956 - international crisis launched when Egyptian President Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, which had been owned mostly by French and British stockholders - led to a British and French attack on Egypt, which failed without aid from the United States - marked an important turning point in the post-colonial Middle East and highlighted the rising importance of oil in world affairs

Public School Movement

- began in earnest in the 1830s in New England as reformers, often from the Whig party, began to argue successfully for a greater government role in the schooling of all children - Horace Mann of Massachusetts led the common-school movement, which advocated for local property taxes financing public schools - Mann also emphasized positive reinforcement instead of punishment - goals of the common school movement were to provide a free education for white children, to train and educate teachers, and to establish state control over public schools

Secession

- began in the Deep South shortly after Lincoln was elected president - South Carolina was the first to secede, then others in the Deep South followed: Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas - other states that seceded were: Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Virginia - in total eleven states seceded, forming the Confederacy

Stono Rebellion

- began on September 9, 1739, in South Carolina - most violent and largest slave revolt in the history of the 13 colonies - began when a slave called Jemmy led a group of about 20 slaves who broke into a store, killed the store owner, and armed themselves with a supply of guns and ammunition - the slaves killed more than 20 white people as they traveled to St. Augustine, Florida, where the Spanish were offering freedom and land to any fugitive slave - about 50 slaves attempted to reach Florida but were stopped along the way

Era of the "Common Man"

- began with Andrew Jackson's presidential term (1829-1837) - a time which promoted the common man, states' rights and strict construction - era ended with the start of the Civil War

Manifest Destiny

- belief that the United States was destined to grow from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the Arctic to the tropics - providence supposedly intended for Americans to have this area for a great experiment in liberty - gave American people a sense of superiority over others who lived in North America - James K. Polk was a supporter

Colonial rhetoric about liberty and rights

- believed ALL "were created equal" - rights to "life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness" - slaves, and some others, wanted to be included under this branch of rights

Andrew Jackson criticized the Bank because...

- believed that the Bank was unauthorized by the Constitution - benefited northern and foreign investors at the expense of southern and western farmers - believed the bank was too powerful

Calvin Coolidge

- believed that the best government was the government that governed least - gained national visibility in September 1919, when as governor of Massachusetts he took a firm stand against Boston's striking policemen - took greatest pride in measures that reduced the government's control over the economy - curtailed the power of the Federal Trade Commission to regulate business affairs - endorsed Supreme Court decisions invalidating laws that strengthened organized labor & protected children & women from employer exploitation - known as "Silent Cal" for his quiet, steadfast and frugal nature

Theodore Roosevelt's antitrust policy

- believed that the federal government should dissolve monopolies that violated the law - became the first to use the Sherman Law against monopolies

Democratic Party

- believed that the government should leave business alone (laissez faire) - favored state government - believed in agriculture - more likely to embrace immigrants and states rights

Great Migration

- between 1916 and 1920 - 500,000 African Americans moved from rural South to the north and other places - as workers were needed in the North, African Americans began to fill in these positions as unskilled labors, since European immigrants weren't coming over and those in the states were enlisted in the army - also included white southerners and Mexicans

Civil Rights Act 1964

- bipartisan measure that denied federal funding to segregated schools and barred discrimination by race and sex in employment, public accommodations, and labor unions - strengthened federal remedies, monitored by a new Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), against racially inspired job discrimination - array of federal programs designed to "enrich and elevate our national life," some fulfilling the dreams of his Democratic predecessors

David Walker

- black abolitionist - supported immediate emancipation of slaves - 1829: wrote a pamphlet urging African Americans to fight for freedom and equality - believed the only way to end slavery was for slaves to physically revolt

Niagara Movement

- black civil rights organization founded in 1905 by a group led by W. E. B. Du Bois and William Monroe Trotter - had little impact on legislative action - its ideals led to the formation of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909, with Du Bois as its director of publicity and research and journal editor

Marian Anderson

- black opera singer who broke a color barrier in 1939 when she sang to an interracial audience of 75,000 from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial - 1939: Eleanor Roosevelt resigned from the Daughters of the American Revolution when the organization refused to allow Anderson to perform in its concert hall - Roosevelt then pressured the federal government into granting Anderson permission to sing from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial

Democracy in America

- book written by Alexis de Tocqueville in 1835 - explored the United States history with democracy and its effect on the way people lived - claimed that people were closer to equality in the U.S. than anywhere else in the world - though it failed to notice the poor people that existed under Jackson, it recognized the changes the U.S. was going through and is still historically significant today

Open-range grazing declined in the West because

- boom years of the early 1880s had overstocked the range and driven down prices - cold and blizzards: cattle froze or starved to death

The cattle industry in the late 19th century

- boosted by growth of railroads - had been in decline: cattle drives to the north brought greater profits where there were railroads, creating bigger market

JFK's foreign policy included all of the following

- boosted the defense budget - supported military assistance programs, propaganda agencies, and covert-action plans - created the Peace Corps, a volunteer program that sent Americans to nations around the world to work on development projects that might undercut communism's appeal - "Alliance for Progress" promised $20 billion in loans over a 10-year period to Latin American countries that would undertake land reform and economic development measures

The year 1968 was significant because

- both Martin Luther King, Jr. and Robert Kennedy were assassinated - Lyndon Johnson announced he would not seek reelection so he could devote his time to ending the Vietnam War - antiwar demonstrators and the Chicago police rioted at the Democratic Convention - Richard Nixon was elected President

Similarities of both North and South militaries

- both sides expected a short and victorious conflict - mainly volunteers, but relied on drafts as well

Cesar Chavez & Dolores Huerta

- both were political activists, leaders of the United Farm Workers of America, and the most influential Mexican American leaders during the 1970s - Chavez undertook personal hunger strikes - Huerta helped organize well-publicized consumer boycotts of lettuce and grapes to pressure growers into collective bargaining agreements with the UFW

King Philip's War (Metacom)

- broke out in New England in 1675 after Plymouth executed three Wampanoags for murdering John Sassamon - Metacom won several engagements against Plymouth militia by ambushing intruders - settlers won the war in 1676 by adopting Indian tactics; killing and enslaving hundreds of Indians - dozens of towns damaged/destroyed - 800 settlers were killed

The Panic of 1873

- building of a 2nd transcontinental line precipitated a Wall Street panic in 1873 and plunged the economy into a five-year depression - Jay Cooke's banking firm was the 1st to go bankrupt; thousands others collapsed - Unemployment rose to 14%

Forts Donelson and Henry in Tennessee

- built at strategic points along the rivers as protection - gunboats knocked out Fort Henry on February 6 - the Confederate commander asked for surrender terms on February 16

Boston Manufacturing Company

- built mills that differed from Rhode Island mills: --- were heavily capitalized and as fully mechanized as possible; turned raw cotton into finished cloth with little need for skilled workers --- workers were young, single women recruited from farms of northern New England

Union membership declined in the 1920s because of

- business and government, backed by middle-class opinion, remained hostile to labor organization - employees had to sign yellow dog contracts, which were written pledges by employees promising not to join a union while they were employed - Supreme Court ruled in 1921 that lower courts could issue injunctions against union members, prohibiting them from striking or picketing an employer

Watergate

- business and residential complex in Washington, D.C., that came to stand for the political espionage and cover-ups directed by the Nixon administration - complicated web of Watergate scandals brought about Nixon's resignation in 1974 - succession of witnesses testified about illegal activities committed by CREEP and the White House - testimony from John Dean linked Nixon himself to attempts to cover up Watergate and to other illegal activities

ESPN

- cable network devoted entirely to sports - initially helped so-called minor collegiate sports, such as gymnastics and lacrosse, gain TV time, but college football and basketball ultimately benefited the most

Ronald Reagan's position/stance on the following in 1980

- called for greater defense spending - urged for tax cuts - opposed abortion rights - advocated prayer in school - extolled conservative family values

Most European immigrants who arrived between 1880 and 1914

- came from Eastern and Southern Europe - 3 to 4 million Italians, 2 million Russian and Polish Jews, 2 million Hungarians, and an estimated 5 million Slavs and other peoples

Pet banks

- carefully selected state banks Jackson used while trying to get rid of the Bank of the United States - Jackson withdrew government deposits as needed and then deposit new government revenues in the banks

Enumerated Commodities

- category created by Navigation Act of 1660 - required that a group of colonial products had to be shipped to another colony or England from original colony - most important products: sugar and tobacco

The Great Depression

- caused by stock market speculation, mistakes made by the Federal Reserve Board, the Tariff Act of 1930, and a maldistribution of wealth - began on Black Tuesday when share prices on the New York Stock Exchange completely collapsed - severe worldwide economic depression that took place mostly during the 1930s, originating in the United States - recovery from the Great Depression lagged until 1941

The roles of saloons in ethnic, working-class neighborhoods

- caused drinking problems - led to financial problems, draining accounts and leading to other problems - saloons were placed where workers could eat, offered loans and checking services

Malcolm X

- charismatic African American leader who criticized integration and urged the creation of separate black economic and cultural institutions - initially gained attention as a minister in the Nation of Islam, a North American-based group popularly known as the "Black Muslims" - oftentimes criticized Dr. King's gradual, nonviolent approach as largely irrelevant to the everyday problems and questioned the desirability or feasibility of racial integration - became a hero to members of the Black Power movement - murdered in 1965, Malcolm X remained a powerful symbol for black-centered political and cultural visions of the future

Dutch West India Company

- charted by the States General in 1621 - control over the African Slave Trade, Brazil, Caribbean, and North America - New Netherland founded through this company

Types of colonies

- charter - proprietor - restoration - royal

Massachusetts Bay Company

- charter obtained by several Puritans in 1629 - charter didn't specify where the colony was going to be located - settlers scattered in small groups around the bay, founded different towns

Aztecs

- civilization located in Mesoamerica on Lake Texcoco - alliance between Tenochtitlán, Texcoco, and Tlacopan that rose to power in 1400 - led by Mactezuma when conquered by Spaniards in 1519

Francis Townsend

- claimed that the way to end the Depression was to give every senior citizen $200 a month - his plan promised to end the Great Depression by opening up jobs for younger workers, while forcing seniors to spend more money in the consumer economy - the Townsend Plan briefly garnered the support of an estimated 20 million Americans

Rome-Berlin Axis

- coalition formed in 1936 between Italy and Germany - an agreement formulated by Italy's foreign minister Galeazzo Ciano informally linking the two fascist countries was reached on October 25, 1936 - formalized by the Pact of Steel in 1939 - term Axis Powers came to include Japan as well

Operation TORCH

- code name of the North African operation - began with Anglo-American landings in Morocco and Algeria in November 1942 - led by General Dwight D. Eisenhower - marked the introduction of American forces into the European theater against the Germans from North Africa

New Spain

- colonial territory in America of the Spanish Empire, included parts of southwestern United States, Florida, Central America, and the Philippines - established in 1521 after the conquest of the Aztecs

Loyalists

- colonists who were loyal to Britain during the war - also called Tories - many left colonies after the war

Salem Witch Trials

- colony of Massachusetts - began in June of 1692 - many accused of witchcraft; 50 confessed and had let go, 19 innocent hanged and several more left to die in jail - trials ended when governor's wife was accused

The theory of "survival of the fittest"

- comes from Social Darwinism - belief that the wealthy have an advantage over others, allowing them to rise up higher

American Expeditionary Force

- commanded by General John J. Pershing - began landing in France in 1918 - launched their first major offensive in Europe as an independent army - successful campaign was a major turning point in the war for the Allies

John J. Pershing

- commander of the American Expeditionary Force that began landing in Europe in 1917 and that entered battle in the spring and summer of 1918 - put his troops through additional training before committing them to battle in France - military reputation depended so heavily on the black troops who fought for him that he had acquired the nickname Black Jack - was given the rank of general of the armies of the United States in 1919

Stagflation

- condition of simultaneous economic stagnation and price inflation - conflicts arose as to how to deal with the situation: Democrats favored programs that might stimulate employment and economic growth; Republicans leaned toward policies that cut government spending - by 1980 the economy had virtually stopped expanding; unemployment continued to rise; and inflation topped an alarming 13%

Casablanca

- conference held in Casablanca, Morocco in January 1943 - FDR and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met to plan the Allied European strategy for the next phase of World War II - announced that the Allies would accept only unconditional surrender from the Axis powers

Black Tuesday

- confidence in future earnings faltered, creditors began demanding that investors who bought stocks on margin repay their loans - October 29, 1929 - share prices on the New York Stock Exchange completely collapsed, becoming a pivotal factor in the emergence of the Great Depression

Hamilton vs. Burr

- conflict between prominent American politicians Aaron Burr, the sitting Vice President of the United States, and Alexander Hamilton, the former Secretary of the Treasury - duel, fought at Weehawken, New Jersey on July 11, 1804, was the culmination of a long and bitter rivalry between the two men - following his failed attempt at the presidency in 1801, Burr's further intrigues with northern Federalists broke down—a breakdown that helped lead to a duel in which Burr killed Alexander Hamilton

Korean War

- conflict lasting from 1950 to 1953 between communist North Korea, aided by China, and South Korea, aided by United Nations forces consisting primarily of U.S. troops - June 25, 1950: Kim Il-sung moved troops across the 38th parallel in an attempt to reunify Korea - called a "limited" war because it never spread off the Korean Peninsula or involved nuclear weapons - number of estimated dead and wounded reached perhaps one tenth of North and South Korea's combined population

Father Charles Coughlin

- the "radio priest" from the Midwest who alleged that the New Deal was being run by bankers - his growing anti-Semitism discredited him by 1939 - appealed to anxious middle-class Americans and to once-privileged groups of workers who believed that security and respectability were slipping from their grasp - called for a strong government to compel capital, labor, agriculture, professionals, and other interest groups to do its bidding - founded the National Union of Social Justice (NUSJ) in 1934 as a precursor to a political party that would challenge the Democrats in 1936

Persian Gulf War

- conflict that lasted six weeks in 1991 between the U.S. and Iraq - Bush ordered aid to Kuwait when Saddam Hussein and his armies invaded their land on August 2, 1990 - led to Operation Desert Shield, which was launched to help Saudi Arabia, building up a U.S. military presence there - Bush approached the UN, ordered economic sanctions against Iraq, and authorized the United States to lead an international force into the Gulf region if Saddam Hussein's troops did not withdraw from Kuwait - mid-January 1991 the United States launched an air war against Iraq and, after a period of devastating aerial bombardment, began a ground offensive in late February

Dick Cheney

- conservative republican who served as vice president to George W. Bush - put together an ambitious energy plan, focused on easing restrictions on oil drilling and regulations on pricing - played a central, controversial role in conveying intelligence reports that Saddam Hussein of Iraq had developed weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) in violation of resolutions passed by the United Nations

utopian communities

- considered to herald a new age in human civilization in America, 19th century - often led by leaders with high religious or secular moral ideas - experimented with different models of government, marriage, labor, and wealth - New Harmony was an attempted utopian community

Problem with waterworks in the large cities

- construction and administration occurred within political systems that were often notorious for their corruption - those in charge often didn't do enough to protect laborers from hazards of working underground, ensure that consumers used the water efficiently, or protect lakes, rivers, and oceans from contamination from sewage - typhoid and other water-born epidemics periodically struck inhabitants - by 1900, problems caused by contaminated water began to yield to the insistence of urban reformers that cities improve water treatment

The Constitution of the Confederate States of America

- contained clauses that guaranteed slavery in both the states and the territories, strengthened the principle of state sovereignty, and prohibited its Congress from enacting a protective tariff - limited the president to a single six-year term

The International Workers of the World and the Socialist Party

- continued to insist that the true enemies of American workers were in the ranks of American employers - in the spring 1918, government agents raided countless IWW offices & arrested 2,000 IWW members, including its entire executive board

Chinese and Japanese immigrants

- contributed in major ways to the development of two of the major industries: railroad building and commercial agriculture - many intended to move abroad just long enough to make enough money to establish themselves economically in their homelands - many tried to enter the US with forged papers declaring them to be merchants, or that they'd been resident in the US before exclusion laws had gone into effect - Angel Island in San Francisco was the principal port of entry

Sacco & Vanzetti

- controversial conviction of two Italian-born anarchists accused of armed robbery and murder - May 1920, Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were arrested in Brockton, Massachusetts - both proclaimed their innocence and insisted that they were being punished for their political beliefs - despite the weak case against them, they were convicted of first-degree murder and sentenced to death

Alexander Hamilton's Report on Public Credit

- controversial document written/proposed by Hamilton to repair war debts - suggested that America was too heavily dependent Dutch and British loans - selling of securities and federal lands, assumption of state debts, set up the first National Bank

William Penn

- convert and leader of the Quakers - acquired a charter for Pennsylvania in 1681, launching a migration of Quakers to the Delaware Valley

Graft

- corrupt acquisition of funds, through theft or embezzling or through questionably legal methods like kickback or insider trading - by 1900, it became essential to the day-to-day operation of government in most large cities - made local office holding source of economic gain - politicians built political organizations called machines to guarantee success in municipal elections

African Americans and the employment prospects in the 1920s

- could only find work in New York City's least-desired and lowest-paying jobs - Henry Ford hired lots of African Americans to work in his Detroit auto factories

Bush vs. Gore

- court case over the 2000 election between George W. Bush and Al Gore - the courts ceased the recounting of ballots in Florida and ruled George W. Bush the 43rd President of the United States - December 12, 2000, the Court handed down its final decision: five conservative Republicans ruled that no more ballots could be recounted - they announced that their legal holding only applied to this particular case and should not be cited as precedent for any future lawsuit

MTV Aesthetic

- created a relationship between music and visual imagery - played with traditional ideas about time and space, recycled images from earlier movies and TV programs, and often carried a sharply satirical edge

Committees of Correspondence

- created by 12 colonial assemblies to keep in touch with each other - important role in exchanging ideas and information; spread anti-British material - important first step in uniting the colonies

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

- created by the National Security Act of 1947 - gathered information about communist threats and conduct covert activities outside the United States - helped finance pro-U.S. labor unions in Western Europe to curtail the influence of leftist organizations

Andrew Johnson's National Union Party

- created for his campaign for the 1866 election - formed by Republicans as a way to attract War Democrats

New England Confederation

- created in 1643 - Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven - adopted their own constitution - defensive alliance against the area Indians

Halfway covenant

- created in 1662 - solution to the lack of conversions - allowed parents, if they themselves were baptized but hadn't experienced conversion, to bring their children to be baptized

Reconstruction Finance Corporation

- created in 1932 as a part of Herbert Hoover's program - made $2 billion available in loans to ailing banks and to corporations willing to build low-cost housing, bridges, and other public works - biggest federal peacetime intervention in the economy up to that point in American history - Hoover insisted that the RFC issue loans only to relatively healthy institutions that were capable of repaying them and that it favor public works that were likely to become self-financing

Head Start Program

- created in 1965 - program of the United States Department of Health and Human Services - provided help for children considered educationally unprepared for kindergarten - provides comprehensive early childhood education, health, nutrition, and parent involvement services

President Jimmy Carter/domestic policies

- cut spending for social programs - sought to reduce capital gains taxes to encourage investment - inaugurated the process of "deregulating" various industries, beginning with the financial and transportation sectors

September 11, 2001

- day on which U.S. airliners, hijacked by Al Qaeda operatives, were crashed into the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, killing around 3,000 people - 19 suicide terrorists, organized in separate squads, seized four jetliners, already airborne and loaded with highly flammable jet fuel, for use as high-octane, human-guided missiles - the courageous action of passengers on a fourth plane, which crashed in Pennsylvania, prevented another attack against the nation's capital - this led to President Bush, donning the mantle of a wartime president, declaring a war on terrorism

Webster-Hayne debate

- debate between Robert Y. Hayne and Senator Daniel Webster - took place from January 19 to the 27 in 1830 - debated over protectionist tariffs

Lochner v. New York

- decided in 1905 - U.S. Supreme Court declared unconstitutional a seemingly innocent New York state law that limited bakery employees to a 10-hour day - is one of the most controversial decisions in the Supreme Court's history - reinforced the AFL conclusion that labor's powerful opponents in the legislatures and the courts would find ways to undermine whatever governmental gains organized labor managed to achieve

Muller v. Oregon

- decided in 1908 - one of the most important U.S. Supreme Court cases of the Progressive Era - Supreme Court upheld an Oregon law limiting the workday for female wage earners to ten hours - women were provided, by state mandate, lesser work hours than allotted to men

Bakke vs. University of California

- decided in 1978 - in the celebrated Supreme Court decision, a majority of justices endorsed affirmative action - by upholding affirmative action, it allowed race to be one of several factors in college admission policy - Bakke principle: Diversity benefited not just applicants from historically discriminated groups but all people who worked within those environments as well as all those who relied on their services and expertise

Bush Doctrine

- denounced not only terrorist networks but any nation sponsoring terrorism or accumulating WMD that terrorists might use - was fully expressed in the National Security Strategy of 2002 - additionally proclaimed that the United States possessed the unilateral authority to wage preemptive war against any force, including any foreign nation, that endangered American security

Problems faced by the Confederacy in 1863

- depleting supplies - the threat of the emancipation of slaves - the lack of support from the United Kingdom - the escaping of slaves

Robber Barons

- derogatory metaphor of social criticism originally applied to certain late 19th-century American businessmen - were industrial leaders who began to restrain their displays of wealth and make significant philanthropic contributions to the public - these people engaged in unethical and monopolistic practices, wielded widespread political influence, and amassed enormous wealth

Feminism

- desire for complete equality between men and women - impulse strongest among young, single, working-class women who were entering the workforce in large numbers and mixing at workplaces with men their own age - movement aimed at equal rights for women - the movement began with the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848

FDR

- developed a compassion for those suffering misfortune that enabled him to reach out to the millions caught in the Great Depression - surrounded himself with men and women who embraced a new reform movement called liberalism - managed to unite the Democrats behind him at the 1932 convention - first order of business was to save the nation's financial system, immediately ordered all the nation's banks close

Interchangeable Parts

- developed by Eli Whitney - industrial technique using machine tools to cut and shape a large number of similar parts that can be fitted together with other parts to make an entire item such as a gun - allowed relatively unskilled workers to produce large numbers of weapons quickly and at lower cost - made repair and replacement of parts infinitely easier

textile factories

- developed in New England around 1800 - used water power, produced cloth from cotton for manufactured goods - greatly increased the demand for cotton - relied heavily on children and unmarried women - Samuel Slater was responsible for the first American-built textile milling machinery in Rhode Island - during Reconstruction and the rise of the "new South," the pace of industrialization quickened in the last decades of the century, with textiles leading the way; tobacco also industrialized

The "Mississippi Plan"

- devised by Democratic Party to overthrow the Republican Party in Mississippi by means of organized threats of violence and suppression or purchase of the black vote - Democrats wanted to regain political control of the legislature and governor's office - first step was to "persuade" the 10-15% of white voters still calling themselves Republicans to switch to the Democrats - second step in the Mississippi Plan was to intimidate black voters, violence being the most effective

John Muir

- devoted most of his time to the preservation of the Western forests - petitioned the U.S. Congress for the National Park bill that was passed in 1890, establishing Yosemite National Park - founder of the Sierra Club - insisted that the beauty of the land and the well-being of its wildlife should be protected from all human interference

The Trent Affair

- diplomatic incident in 1861 during the American Civil War that threatened a war between the United States and the United Kingdom - involved a Union admiral removing two Confederate diplomats off a British ship - created a serious diplomatic crisis for Lincoln during the American Civil War - ended without incident

King Cotton Diplomacy

- diplomatic methods employed by the Confederacy during the American Civil War - tried to coerce the United Kingdom and France to support the Confederate war effort by implementing a cotton trade embargo against the United Kingdom and the rest of Europe - South overestimated its power and crops in the 1850's weakened demand for cotton - did not work

Iran Hostage Crisis

- diplomatic standoff between Iran and the United States - November 1979, Iranians seized the U.S. embassy in Tehran and 66 American hostages, who were held for 444 days - the White House allowed the deposed shah to enter the United States for medical treatment, Iran demanded the return of the shah in exchange for the hostages' release - Carter's critics cited the conflict as conclusive proof of his incompetence and used the issue relentlessly in the next presidential campaign

Dollar Diplomacy

- diplomatic strategy formulated under President Taft that focused on expanding American investments abroad, especially in Latin America and East Asia - foreign policy used from 1909-1913 - form of American foreign policy to further its aims in Latin America and East Asia through use of its economic power by guaranteeing loans made to foreign countries

The policy of "flexible response" in Vietnam resulted in

- dispatching the Green Berets, elite U.S. troops who were trained in "counterinsurgency" tactics, to aid the South Vietnamese government - sent teams of social scientists, charged with "nation building," to consult on socioeconomic reforms and internal security - JFK dispatched U.S. combat troops that would supposedly only advise South Vietnam's forces - revamping South Vietnam's internal security forces

Eleanor Roosevelt

- displayed a talent for political organization and public speaking - became an active, eloquent First Lady, her husband's trusted ally, and an architect of American liberalism - spoke out frequently against racial injustice - gave press conferences and spoke out for human rights, children's causes and women's issues, working on behalf of the League of Women Voters

Marbury vs Madison

- the 1803 case challenged a law that was passed by Congress and signed by the president - first U.S. Supreme Court case to apply the principle of "judicial review" - Supreme Court announced for the first time the principle that a court may declare an act of Congress void if it is inconsistent with the Constitution - John Marshall, who was Chief Justice, and his associates first asserted the right of the Supreme Court to determine the meaning of the U.S. Constitution

The New Right

- diverse coalition of conservatives that focused on social issues and national sovereignty - supported by the Republican party under the leadership of Ronald Reagan - the broadly-based movement succeeded in holding together several different constituencies, one provided by the disparate group that had initially gathered around William F. Buckley's National Review during the 1950s - conservative business leaders provided another important constituency, convinced that anti-corporate professors and students dominated most colleges and universities

Geneva Peace Accords

- divided French Indochina into three new nations: Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam - Vietnam was also split temporarily into two jurisdiction at the 17th parallel until an election could unify the country - the Eisenhower administration refused to sign - Ho Chi Minh and his communist allies in China and the Soviet Union accepted this settlement, confident he would win the political contest scheduled for 1956

Declaration of Independence

- drafted by Thomas Jefferson - justified American independence to the world - affirmed "that all men were created equal" and rights to "life, liberty and pursuit of happiness" - longest section condemned George III as a tyrant

Harry Truman's motives for using the atomic bomb against Japan

- eager to end the war - possible land invasion of Japan might prove costly in American lives - the Soviet Union was planning to enter the Pacific Theater, where Truman wished to limit Soviet power

Bible Belt

- early 19th century, evangelical Protestantism transformed the South into the Bible Belt - began when poor and middling whites found spiritual alternatives to the culture of the gentry

Hundred Days

- early March through early June 1933 - Roosevelt persuaded Congress to pass 15 major pieces of legislation to help bankers, farmers, industrialists, workers, homeowners, unemployed, and the hungry - prevailed on Congress to repeal Prohibition - not all of the new laws helped relieve distress and promote recovery

Antietam

- the Battle of Antietam, also known as the Battle of Sharpsburg - was fought on September 17, 1862, near Sharpsburg, Maryland and Antietam Creek - the bloodiest single-day battle in American history - over 23,000 casualties - ended the Confederate invasion of Maryland in 1862 and resulted in a Union victory

The primary motivation for late 19th century immigration

- economic hardships - European factories absorbed some of the rural surplus - industrialization and urbanization were affecting the European countryside in ways that disrupted rural ways of life - village artisans found themselves unable to compete with the cheap manufactured goods that arrived from city factories

Bimetallism

- economic term for a monetary standard in which the value of the monetary unit is defined as equivalent to certain quantities of two metals, typically gold and silver, creating a fixed rate of exchange between them - Republicans believed in a money system based on the single gold standard, while the Democrats (Populist) believed in bimetallism - economic issue during the Election of 1896

Neo-Mercantilism

- economic theory that maximizes the benefits to and interests of a country such as higher prices for goods traded abroad, price stability, stability of supply, and expansion of exports with concomitant reduction of imports - promotes exports, deters imports, and controls capital movement - system of government-assisted economic development embraced by Republican state legislatures, particularly in the Northeast - encouraged entrepreneurs to do business through market exchange for public welfare and individual opportunity

Mercantilism

- economic theory that stressed direct relationship between a nation's wealth and power - policy includes: power derived ultimately from the wealth of a country, the increase of wealth required vigorous trade, and colonies had become essential to that growth

Supply-side economics

- economic theory that tax reductions targeted toward investors and businesses would stimulate production and eventually create jobs - believed to ameliorate the economic stagnation of the 1970s - Reagan pushed a tax-reduction plan through Congress in 1981, which many Democrats endorsed - the Federal Reserve Board kept interest rates high to drive down inflation

Sarah Josepha Hale

- editor of Godey's Ladies Book and an important arbiter of domesticity and taste for middle-class housewives

The "No Child Left Behind" program

- educational program that would require nationwide testing to determine which schools were teaching students effectively - put in place during Bush's presidency

Henry Clay

- elected Speaker of the House - senator from Kentucky - National Republican presidential candidate who was the principal spokesman for the American System

Martin Van Buren

- elected as the 8th president in 1836 - served as Vice President during Andrew Jackson's second term - while in office, the Panic of 1837 took place and he received some blame - proposed separation from the government and the banking system - asked Congress to create the Independent Treasury in 1837; passed in 1840 - tried to run for President again in 1840, but Harrison won instead

Accommodation

- emphasized by Booker T. Washington - temporarily accepted segregation between the races in return for white support of black efforts for education, social uplift, and economic progress - belief that African Americans should accommodate themselves to racial prejudice and concentrate on economic self-improvement

Hoovervilles

- encampments of the poor and homeless that sprang up during the Great Depression - were named with ironic intent after President Herbert Hoover, who was in office when the depression started - made up of scraps, including old tires, cardboard boxes, newspapers, and flattened metal, making it often unsafe for living

Peace of Paris (1763)

- ended French and Indian War - Britain returned Martinique and Guadeloupe to France, in return France gave Britain several West Indian Islands and all of North America east of the Mississippi (except New Orleans) - France gave Spain land west of the Mississippi and New Orleans - Spain gave Florida to Britain and withdrew to other parts of the Spanish Empire

Woodrow Wilson envisioned an international parliament, for what?

- envisioned the creation of the League of Nations - the League was an assembly in which all nations would be represented & international disputes would be given a fair hearing and an opportunity for peaceful solutions - Wilson believed the League would redeem failures of the Paris Peace Conference

Bonus Army (Douglas MacArthur)

- the Bonus Army was a group of Army veterans who marched on Washington, D.C. in 1932 to lobby for economic relief but who were rebuffed by Hoover - in July, federal troops led by Army Chief of Staff Douglas MacArthur and 3rd Cavalry Commander George Patton entered the veterans' Anacostia encampment and dispersed the protestors - in the end, more than 100 veterans were wounded

The Reagan administration/Nicaragua

- the Reagan administration fixed its sights on Nicaragua where the Marxist-leaning Sandinista government was trying to break Nicaragua's dependence on the United States - the Reagan administration responded with economic pressure, a propaganda campaign, and greater assistance to the contras

Oneida Community

- established by John Humphrey Noyes and some of his disciples - utopian religious community that developed out of a Society of Inquiry - in 1847, Noyes proclaimed that the Spirit of Christ had earlier returned to Earth and now entered into his group at Putney. This, with the practice of complex marriage, aroused the hostility of the surrounding community, and the group left Putney to found a new community at Oneida, N.Y. - was organized into 48 departments that carried on the various activities of the settlement, and these activities were supervised by 21 committees - hostility mounted in the surrounding communities to the Perfectionists' marriage arrangements, and in 1879 Noyes advised the group to abandon the system - flourished for 30 years

American Colonization Society

- established by the elite gentlemen of the middle and upper-south states in 1816 - encouraged voluntary emancipation of slaves, to be followed by their emigration to the colony of Liberia - members, white men, never attacked slavery - addressed concerns, including the white prejudice and questions of equal rights

American Temperance Society

- established in 1826 - originally called the American Society for the Promotion of Temperance - northeastern evangelicals had led the crusade for alcohol temperance - alcohol was declared as an addictive drug, leading to temperance - by 1835, had 1.5 million members and estimated that 2 million had abandoned ordent spirit, while 250,000 had formally pledged to abstain from alcohol

Washington Temperance Society

- established in 1840 by reformed drinkers of the laboring classes - operated separate from the church - converted drinkers through compassion and persuasion - Washingtonians rejected recourse to politics and legislation - welcomed "hopeless" drunkards and hailed them as heroes when they sobered up - collapsed toward the end of the 1840s

World Trade Organization

- established in 1995 to head international trade between nations - replaced General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which promised that expanded trade ties would benefit all nations - its creation caused a lot of protest throughout the United States

Pinkertons

- established in the United States by Allan Pinkerton in 1850 as the Pinkerton National Detective Agency - is a private security guard and detective agency - was the largest private law enforcement organization in the world at the height of its power - originally specialized in railway theft cases, protecting trains and apprehending train robbers

"Granger Laws"

- established state railroad commissions to determine fair transportation rates - fixed maximum freight rates and warehouse charges

17th Amendement

- established the popular election of United States Senators by the people of the states - prior to the amendment, Senators were chosen by state legislatures - ratified in 1913 - was part of a wave of progressive constitutional reforms that sought to make the Constitution, and our nation, more democratic

Consequence of the increase in productivity in manufacturing

- every 1 out of 5 workers were unemployed - unsafe workplaces: little government regulation

World War I is called the first "total war" because

- every combatant committed virtually all of its resources - Germany had to stop fighting because they used all of their resources and reserves

Jimmy Carter's foreign policy

- expanding economic and cultural relations with the communist government in China - negotiated a peace treaty with the leaders of Egypt and Israel at Camp David - greatly emphasized human rights: rights and freedoms that all people deserve

TV Revolution

- expansion of cable during the 1980s accelerated audience fragmentation and narrowcasting - the remote control, an innovation introduced during the 1960s that finally clicked during the 1980s, created a television aesthetic called "channel surfing" - videocassette recorders (VCRs), introduced during the 1970s, became the first of the record-and-view-later technologies allowing viewers to create their own TV schedules

Clarence Darrow

- famous liberal trial lawyer - rushed to lead Scopes' defense - persuaded the judge to let Bryan testify as an "expert on the Bible" - aim was to expose Bryan as a fool for believing that the Bible was a source of literal truth and to embarrass the fundamentalists

The Constitution of 1787

- federal constitution which replaced the Articles of Confederation - would go into effect after nine states accepted it, although the Articles required all states - Delaware was first to ratify, December 7, 1787 - Rhode Island was the last to ratify, May 1790

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

- feminist abolitionist who organized the Seneca Falls Convention - leader in the women's rights movement - fought for women's right to vote and elevate their status in law and society - wrote the "Declaration of Sentiments" - In 1863 she and Susan B. Anthony organized the Women's National Loyal League, calling for immediate emancipation - helped organize the National Woman Suffrage Association in 1869

Olive Branch Petition

- final peace offer from colonies to Britain - issued June 8, 1775 - agreed to loyalty if British government addressed their grievances, repeal the Coercive Acts and end taxation without representation - rejected by Parliament, instead passed American Prohibitory Act (forbid all trade with the colonies) December 1775

Hull House

- first American settlement house established in Chicago in 1889 by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr - determined to minister to cultural as well as economic needs, Hull House sponsored an orchestra, reading groups, and a lecture series - leaders did not command the instant fame accorded the muckrakers - thousands of women across the country were inspired to build their own settlement houses on the Hull House model

Navigation Acts

- first act passed in 1651 by Parliament stating that African and Asian goods could only be imported to the British Isles or colonies in English-owned ships - another act passed in 1660; required all colonial trade to be carried on English ships - additional acts passed: Staple Act of 1663 and Plantation Duty Act of 1673

common schools

- first built in 1820s - tax-supported public schools built by state and local governments - by 1830s, both Whigs and Democrats agreed that the schools were a proper function of government - prior to these schools, most learned at home, private schools, poorly staffed schools, or schools put together by churches

Bank of the U.S.

- first chartered by the US Congress on February 25, 1791 after being proposed by Alexander Hamilton in 1790 - the purpose was to handle the financial needs and requirements of the new central government of the newly formed United States - is significant as previously the 13 colonies each had their own banks, currencies, financial institutions, and policies - set for a 20 year charter

Charles Lindbergh

- first individual to fly solo across the Atlantic (1927) and the greatest celebrity of the 1920s - flew nonstop (and without sleep) for 34 hours from the time he took off from Long Island until he landed at Le Bourget Airport in Paris - plane named "The Spirit of St. Louis" - accomplished what others said could not be done

Headright system

- first introduced in Virginia - determined how much land a colonist could receive; 50 acres of land per person, including himself, that he financed the passage to America for

Seneca Falls Convention

- first national convention of women's rights to be organized by women - organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton - held in Seneca Falls, New York, 1848 - marked the beginning of the American women's rights movement

Chinese Exclusion Act

- first significant law restricting immigration into the U.S. - was passed by Congress and signed by President Chester A. Arthur in 1882 - provided an absolute 10-year moratorium on Chinese labor immigration - explicitly denied naturalization rights to Chinese in the U.S. - supported by labor unions

Chester Nimitz

- fleet admiral of the United States Navy - directed operations against the Japanese at Midway and subsequent battles - favored an advance across the smaller islands of the central Pacific, bypassing the Philippines - forces liberated the Marshall Islands and the Marianas in 1943 and 1944

Spanish Armada

- fleet of Spanish ships that set sail in 1588 - goal was to invade and overthrow England - defeated that year by the English

Puritans

- followed John Calvin's teachings - wanted fuller reformation of the Church of England, wanted to purify it of its surviving Catholic ceremonies and vestments - established colony of Massachusetts Bay - believed that a person's salvation depended on God's grace and will

Corrupt Bargain

- followed the election of 1824 - political scandal in which Andrew Jackson and his supporters claimed that Henry Clay sold his support during the House vote in exchange for becoming the Secretary of State - John Quincy Adams was elected president, although Jackson won the popular vote

Monroe Doctrine

- foreign policy doctrine proposed by John Quincy Adams (Secretary of State) in 1823 - denied the right of European powers to establish new colonies in the Americas - helped maintain the United States' right to annex new territory

Joint-Stock Company

- form of business organization - individual could invest in the company through share, but only had one vote - these companies founded the first English colonies in North America

Marshall Plan

- formally known as the European Recovery Program - proposed by Secretary of State General George C. Marshall in 1947 - plan of U.S. aid to Europe that aimed to contain communism by fostering postwar economic recovery - the Soviet Union quickly denounced the Marshall Plan as the economic component of a larger U.S. effort to dominate all of Europe - enacted by Congress in early 1948

Warsaw Pact

- formally the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance - military alliance of communist nations including Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Albania, and the Soviet Union - organized in 1955 as a rival alliance to NATO - came to be seen as quite a potential militaristic threat, as a sign of Communist dominance, and a definite opponent to American capitalism

Patrons of Husbandry

- formed by Oliver Hudson Kelley, a former clerk in the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and six other men in December 1867 - officially referred to as The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry - also known as the Grange - is a fraternal organization in the United States that encourages families to band together to promote the economic and political well-being of the community and agriculture

Sharecroppers

- formed due to an absence of cash or an independent credit system - evolved from share wages - form of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crops produced on their portion of land, instead of paying cash rent - lacking capital and land of their own, former slaves were forced to work as "sharecroppers" for large landowners

The National Liberation Front in Vietnam was

- formed in December 1960 - included noncommunist groups; communists; an array of political leaders; and groups directly beholden to Ho Chi Minh's communist government in the North

William J. Bryan

- former Populist, progressive, and Secretary of State - announced that he would help prosecute Scopes, who was arrested for teaching evolution - testified in court as an "expert on the Bible" - died only a week after the trial ended

Elvis Presley

- former truck driver from Memphis - 1954 he rocked the pop music establishment and cultural purists with a string of "rock 'n' roll" hits on the tiny Sun record label - helped reshape older musical forms into something newer that greatly appealed to younger people - Sun Records did not have enough funds to promote him, so they sold his contract to RCA - his personal promoter, Colonel Tom Parker, had the "Elvis Brand" everywhere

New York founded

- founded by Peter Minuit in 1626 on Manhattan Island - was originally a Dutch colony called New Amsterdam - the Dutch bought the island of Manhattan from American Indians, thus forming their own colony - in 1664 the Dutch surrendered the colony to the English and it was renamed New York, after the Duke of York

Transcendentalists

- founded by Ralph W. Emerson - movement in the 19th century - arose to protest against the general state of intellectualism and spirituality at the time - someone who believes that society and its institutions, like religion or political parties, corrupt the purity of the individual

Jamestown

- founded in 1607 as England's first permanent settlement in North America - many colonists didn't survive due to the contaminated river that carried and spread diseases - went to war with the local Indians - produced tobacco as a cash crop (primary export)

Pennsylvania founded

- founded in 1681 by William Penn - Penn was issued a land grant by King Charles II largely because of a significant debt owed to his father, Admiral Penn, so he founded the colony - at the time, the grant was one of the largest in terms of area ever known - it was distinguished from other colonies because of its religious freedom

Bureau of Reclamation

- founded in 1902 - governmental agency with powerful supporters in business and in Congress - along with the Army Corps of Engineers, the bureau spent billions of dollars on dams, irrigation canals, and reservoirs - by 1960 much of the West enjoyed access to trillions of gallons of water per year

American Federation of Labor (AFL)

- founded in December 1886 by an alliance of craft unions disaffected from the Knights of Labor - was a loosely affiliated national federation of labor unions organized by trade or craft: cigar-makers, machinists, carpenters, typographers, plumbers, painters, etc - most members were skilled workers

National Women's Suffrage Association

- founded in January 1869 and based in New York City, that was created by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton when the women's rights movement split into two groups over the issue of suffrage for African American men - considered the more radical of the two - gave priority to securing women the right to vote - often stirred public debate through its reform proposals on a number of social issues, including marriage and divorce

Black Panthers

- founded in October 1966 - practiced militant self-defense of minority communities against the U.S. government - fought to establish revolutionary socialism through mass organizing and community based programs - purpose was to patrol African American neighborhoods to protect residents from acts of police brutality - its platform employed militant rhetoric on behalf of 10 objectives - fought for greater opportunities for housing, education, and employment; legal protections, especially against police misconduct; and improved health and nutrition initiatives in low-income black neighborhoods

America First Committee

- founded on September 4, 1940 - organized by General Robert E. Wood - was the foremost United States non-interventionist pressure group against the American entry into World War II - launched a campaign to shore up isolationist sentiment in Congress and among the public

Lord Baltimore

- founded the colony of Maryland in 1634 - Invested in the London Company, he was made "lord proprietor" of the colony by the Maryland charter of 1632. - wanted a refuge for persecuted Catholics

Booker T. Washington

- founder of Tuskegee Institute and most famous for his controversial speech at the 1895 Atlanta Exposition - 1890-1915: was the dominant leader in the African-American community - accepted segregation as a temporary accommodation between the races in return for white support of black efforts for education, social uplift, and economic progress

James Madison

- founding father - wrote Constitution and Bill of Rights - was Secretary of State from May 2, 1801 until March 3, 1809 - while Secretary of State, William Marbury, one of the justices of the peace whom Jefferson had eliminated in his first few days in office, sued Madison for his commission - established the Democrat-Republican Party with President Thomas Jefferson - fourth president

John C. Calhoun

- from South Carolina - vice president for both John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson - supported slavery and states' rights - worked with Henry Clay to create the Compromise Tariff of 1833

In 1850, southerners were most upset by the

- fugitive slave law because northerners did not follow it - admission of California as a free state, created an unbalance between free and slave states

Sedition Act 1917-1918

- full name: Espionage, Sabotage, and Sedition Act - laws passed in 1917 and 1918 - gave the federal government sweeping powers to silence and even imprison dissenters - citizens could be prosecuted for writing or uttering any statement that could be construed as profaning the flag, the Constitution, or the military - constituted the most drastic restrictions of free speech at the national level since the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798

Mountain Men and Western Fur Trade

- fur traders and trappers who began trading in the far West even though there were few of them - developed important relationships with the existing residents of the West and altered the character and society there - these men where mostly white, young, and single men - about 2/3, married Indian or Hispanic women

"New South"

- the South underwent a surge of industrialization in the last decades of the 19th century - some proclaimed that a New South had emerged, one hospitable to industry and to Northern investment - the pace of industrialization quickened in the last decades of the century, with textiles leading the way; tobacco also industrialized - surge in the growth of railroads and iron; between 1877 and 1900 the South built railroads faster than any other region in the country

Civil Service Reform

- gathered steam during the 1870s and finally achieved success in 1883 with the passage of the Pendleton Act, which established the modern structure of the civil service - chief target of civil service reform was the spoils system - reformers wanted to separate the bureaucracy from politics by requiring competitive examinations for the appointment of civil servants - many congressmen, senators, and other politicians resisted civil service reform because patronage greased the political machines that kept them in office

Rural traditions of hunting and riding

- gave South more experience - skills useful in military operations

State constitutions drawn up in the South from 1867 to 1868

- gave all men voting rights - some began to provide educations for blacks

Ulysses S. Grant and presidential election of 1868

- general-in-chief of Union armies that the Republican nominee - had no political experience - agreed to run for the presidency in order to preserve in peace the victory he had won for the Union, and liberty he had won in war

House Divided Speech

- given by Abraham Lincoln on June 16, 1858 after he had accepted the Illinois Republican Party's nomination as the state's US Senator - the speech became one of his best-known speeches - "A House Divided Against Itself Cannot Stand" - rallied Republicans across the North

Election of 1912

- given the split in Republican ranks, Democrats had their best chance in 20 years of regaining the White House - whatever its outcome, the election promised to deliver a vote for reform - all reform candidates agreed that corporations had too much economic power - rather than regulate trusts, Wilson declared his intention to break them up - Wilson won the November election with 42% of the popular vote

Sir Edmund Andros

- governor of New York (1674-1680) - appointed by James in 1686 to take over the new government of the New England colonies

George Washington

- great military leader during Revolutionary War - named Commander-in-Chief over army by fellow delegates - appointed by Second Continental Congress to be commander-in-chief of the Continental Army - chosen by fellow delegates to preside over the deliberations of the Philadelphia Convention in 1787 - elected unanimously as the first president, served two terms - sworn in as the first president after the Constitution was ratified - served two terms

W. E. B. De Bois

- greatly opposed Booker T. Washington's beliefs and policies - along with other blacks, he met in Niagara Falls in 1905 to create a new political agenda

The Progressives were (characteristics)

- group of people who had rose fighting for the workers - wanted better hours, wages, and working conditions - wanted to limit the power of corporations and to improve government things, such as voting

Kitchen Cabinet

- group of unofficial advisors to the holder of an elected office - Jackson's private cabinet consisting of 13 inconsistent members

The new consumer lifestyle of the 1920s (characteristics/examples)

- growth rested on consumer goods; car & phone sales reached new levels - tractors, washing machines, refrigerators, electric irons, radios, and vacuum cleaners became available for the first time - advertisers played on the emotions and vulnerabilities of their target audiences - most enthusiastic were middle-class Americans, who could afford to buy what the advertisers were selling

Braceros

- guest workers from Mexico allowed into the United States because of labor shortages from 1942 to 1964 - the program brought nearly 5 million Mexicans northward to fill agricultural jobs - many remained in the United States after their work contracts expired

By 1890, the Sioux and reservation Indians

- had faced many hardships and conflicts with the Americans - were reduced to lives of poverty

New England's economy

- had least economic growth during 18th century - economy weakened in 1700s - decline in value of money, paper money did not help - could not generate enough exports to pay for imports

Mid-Atlantic Colonies

- had the most prosperous family farms - immigrants saw the region as a favored destination because the region's expanding economies offered many opportunities

Characteristics of the reason the U.S. sent ground troops to Vietnam and became involved in the Vietnam War

- he feared of appearing soft on communism - feared of his domestic policies being undermined - Johnson believed that domestic programs would be ruined if the communists got control of Vietnam

In the election of 1844, James K. Polk

- he won against expectations; beat Henry Clay - promised to acquire Texas and Oregon

Douglas MacArthur

- head of United Nations forces during the Korean War - September 15, 1950: his troops landed at Inchon, suffered minimal casualties, and quickly recaptured Seoul - pushed near to the Chinese-Korean border, with which China sent at least 400,000 troops into North Korea and forced MacArthur back across the 38th parallel - Truman relieved MacArthur of his command in April 1951 because he publicly disagreed with Truman's containment policy - returned to the United States a war hero

Benito Mussolini

- headed a fascist government in Italy - launched a military buildup and dreamed of empire - October 1935 his armies took over Ethiopia, an independent nation in Africa - in 1936, he and Hitler began assisting General Francisco Franco, a fellow fascist seeking to overthrow Spain's republican government

Food Administration

- headed by Herbert Hoover - substantially increased production of basic foodstuffs and put in place an efficient distribution system that delivered food to millions of troops and European civilians - one important task was the stabilization of the price of wheat on the U.S. market

The U.S. Railroad Administration

- headed by William McAdoo, who shifted the rail system from private to public, coordinated dense train traffic, & made capital improvements that allowed goods to move rapidly - the nationalized railroad system of the United States between December 28, 1917, and March 1st, 1920

Philadelphia Convention

- held from May to September 1787 - delegates from all colonies, excluding Rhode Island, met to devise a Constitution - began with a Constitution like Virginia's, ended with one similar to Massachusetts' - main goal was to create a strong and central government

Town meetings

- held to determine how much land a person got - used for local matters - in some places, held often to make most decisions

The Farmers' Alliance

- helped address political concerns of farmers and the farm families' social and cultural needs - first national organization of the Populist Party

Declaratory Act

- helped affirm Parliament's "full power and authority to make laws and statutes of force and validity to bind the colonies and people of America" - colonists interpreted the act as something that affirmed their position and drew a distinction between legislation and taxation - also saw it as a way that would repeal the Stamp Act

3 Mile Island Incident

- housed a nuclear power plant in Pennsylvania that experienced a major reactor malfunction in 1979 - the industry stopped development following this event - the incident heightened fears of a nuclear-reactor meltdown - as a result, power companies canceled orders for new reactors, and the nuclear power industry's expansion halted

Exurbs

- housing developments that expanded further away from larger cities into farmlands and small towns - offered homebuyers more space for less money

Most popular critics of the New Deal focused on

- how it was too conservative - redistribution of wealth - the banks were running it - called for a strong government to compel capital, labor, agriculture, professionals, and other interest groups to do its bidding

Bonanza Farms

- huge wheat farms financed by eastern capital and cultivated with heavy machinery and hired labor which would perform specific tasks - established in the western United States during the late 19th century - conducted large-scale operations, mostly cultivating and harvesting wheat - replaced individual farmers, dramatically increasing farm production

Walt Whitman

- humanist and poet - helped start the transition between transcendentalism and realism - In 1855, he published his first book of poems "Leaves of Grass" - poems celebrated democracy, the liberation of the individual spirit, and the pleasure of the flesh

Labor movements in the 1920s

- hurt themselves by moving too slowly to open its ranks to semiskilled and unskilled factory workers - many workers decided they no longer needed trade unions - union membership fell to 10% of the nation's industrial workforce

Thomas Paine

- immigrant from England - wrote "Common Sense" - published in Philadelphia January 1776 - attacked monarchy and aristocracy - urged Americans to unite under a government of their own

By 1920, the majority of workers in American cities were

- immigrants who came over as a result of economic hardships in their homeland - many came temporarily in search of high wages and economic opportunity

Stimson Doctrine

- implemented on January 7, 1932 - named after Henry L. Stimson, Secretary of State in the Hoover Administration - announced a U.S. policy of "nonrecognition" toward Manchukuo, which was a puppet state of Japan that was created after they seized Manchuria

John Locke

- important philosopher during the Enlightenment - advocated the idea of a social contract - natural rights: life, liberty, and property

George Whitefield

- important preacher and most popular revivalist from the Great Awakening - embraced by Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and Baptists, but despised and denounced by others - had talent to move crowds

penny press

- improvements in printing and paper making enabled entrepreneurs to sell daily newspapers for a penny

Federal Trade Commission

- in 1914, Wilson supported the Federal Trade Commission Act - the act created a government agency by that name to regulate business practices - the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) had wide powers to collect info on corporate pricing policies and on cooperation and competition among businesses - the FTC could not attack trusts because the Senate stripped the act of the Clayton Antitrust Act

Buying on margin

- in 1928 and 1929 many investors were buying on 10% "margin" - they put up only 10% of the price of a stock and borrowed the rest from brokers or banks - investors expected to resell their shares within a few months at dramatically higher prices, pay back their loans from the proceeds, and still clear a good profit

Whig Party

- in opposition to President Andrew Jackson and the Democratic part - lasted for a little over 20 years - wanted to make America stronger by building roads, canals, etc - more nativist, Protestant, and in favor of a strong national government - believed the government should protect industry with tariffs on imports, grants of monopolies, with construction of harbors and railroads, and a national banking system - question of slavery ultimately split the party, leading to the creation of the Republican Party

Camp David Talks/Accord

- in the Camp David Peace Talks Of 1978, President Carter negotiated a peace treaty with Menachem Begin and Anwar Sadat, leaders of Israel and Egypt - reviving earlier Republican efforts to broker a peace settlement, Carter brought the leaders to the presidential retreat at Camp David - the accords reached at Camp David kept alive high-level discussions, lowered the level of acrimony between Egypt and Israel, and bound both nations to the United States through Carter's promises of economic aid

Presidential Election of 1992

- inability to project a coherent vision for either domestic or foreign policy threatened Bush's re-election and forced concessions to the New Right - Governor William Jefferson Clinton stressed economic issues - campaigning as a "New Democrat," Bill Clinton promised job creation, deficit reduction, and an overhaul of the nation's healthcare system - Ross Perot, a Texas billionaire who financed his own third-party run, took votes from both insider Bush and outsider Clinton - the 1992 election brought Clinton a surprisingly easy victory

The "Reagan Revolution"

- included lower taxes, increased federal debt, and the end of the Cold War - Reagan promoted a program to restore U.S. prominence and honor globally, and fight economic problems - Reagan advocated a more laissez faire (free trade) policy through a lessening of government activism, taxes, spending, and restrictions on business - conservatives tried to roll back the size and scope of the federal government but size of fed steadily increased - conservatives enacted programs and regulations that increased the impact of government on society

In the 1840s, the westward expansion of the United States

- included the 2000-mile-long Oregon trail to the Pacific coast - began due to the California Gold Rush, Oregon Trail, and Texas annexation

All of the following occurred during the Reagan administration

- increase in the rate of poverty - the reduction in federal spending for social welfare programs - soaring of the federal deficit - reduction in environmental protections

U.S. war financing in WWI

- increased tax rates --- 67% income tax and a 25% inheritance tax - corporations were ordered to pay an "excess profits" tax - liberty bonds: 30 year government bonds with an annual interest rate of 3.5% sold to fund the war effort

Characteristics of urban life in the late 19th century

- increasing populations - skyscrapers, larger and more elaborate buildings - electricity and elaborate water systems - more industrialization and innovation

Eisenhower's administration fought communism by all the following means

- increasing the size and power of the CIA - giving economic aid to friendly nations - funding Radio Free Europe, Voice of America, Radio Asia, and other propaganda agencies - threatening the Soviet Union with nuclear attack if U.S. security were threatened

Jazz

- influenced by the harmonies and techniques of European classical music - urban audiences, black and white, found the new music alluring - seemed to express something essentially modern - musicians broke free of convention: they improvised and produced new sounds that created new sensations

Frederick Douglas

- influential African American writer and abolitionist - referred to as Abraham Lincoln's "friend" at the end of the Civil War

Alfred T. Mahan

- influential imperialist who advocated construction of a large navy as crucial to the successful pursuit of world power - in "The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783" (1890), he argued that past empires had relied on their capacity to control the seas - called for construction of a U.S. navy with enough ships and firepower to make its presence felt across the world - recommended that the U.S. government take possession of Hawaii and other strategically located Pacific islands

Open Door Policy

- initially used to refer to the US policy established in the late 19th and early 20th century - foreign policy tactic in which the U.S. asked European powers to respect China's independence and to open their spheres of influence to merchants from other nations - developed by Secretary of State John Hay - was basically rejected by the European powers in China - Hay put the best face on their responses by declaring that all of the powers had agreed to observe his Open Door principles and that he regarded their assent as "final and definitive"

Defenders of slavery

- insisted that black slaves enjoyed a higher standard of living than white "wage slaves" in northern factories - black slaves never suffered from unemployment or wage cuts, they received free medical care, and they were taken care of in old age

Interstate Slave Trade

- international slave trade was abolished and since some states no longer needed as many slaves, they gave them to southwestern planters instead, creating interstate slave trade - men known as "Georgia Traders" appeared in the Upper South, buying slaves on speculation and selling them farther south

social networking

- internet-based sites that unite communities of people based on similar interests - use of various Internet sites to create communities of people with similarities quickly became the most important new cultural-social force of the 21st century - LinkedIn and MySpace went online in 2003 - Facebook (2004) attracted wealthy investors from Silicon Valley & got enough advertising revenues to make its operations profitable in 2009 - YouTube (2005) offered a different kind of social networking model. Its rate of growth surpassed even that of Facebook - social networking helped people re-imagine liberty, power, and equality

Wilmot Proviso

- introduced by Democratic Representative David Wilmot on August 8, 1846 - proposed an American law to ban slavery in territory acquired from Mexico in the Mexican War - barely passed through the House of Representatives and was defeated in the Senate - became a symbol of how intense dispute over slavery was in the U.S. and causes sectionalism

Crittenden Compromise

- introduced by United States Senator John J. Crittenden on December 18, 1860 - was an attempt to prevent the secession of southern states and avoid the Civil War - was a series of constitutional amendments proposed in Congress to serve as a compromise between proslavery and antislavery factions - one amendment would have permitted slavery in the territories south but not north of latitude 36°30′N (reinstate the Missouri Compromise line, extending it west) - was unsuccessful

George Creel

- investigative journalist and writer, a politician and government official - served as the head of the United States Committee on Public Information - wanted to give the people the facts of the war, believing that well-informed citizens would see the wisdom of Wilson's policies - saw his work as an opportunity to achieve the progressive goal of uniting all Americans into a single moral community

Poland was a point of great dissension between the Allies in 1945 because

- the Soviets agreed to permit free elections in postwar Poland but did not follow through with it - the Soviets did not relinquish control - the Soviets assumed that Poland would be in their sphere of influence - the Allied leaders were not clear with their desires; western Allies chose to sacrifice clarity in order to encourage cooperation from the Soviets

McKinley Tariff

- the Tariff Act of 1890 was an act of the United States Congress framed by Representative William McKinley that became law on October 1, 1890 - raised duties on a large range of products to an average of almost 50% - raised tariffs and forced farmers into purchasing protected and expensive products from American manufacturers while selling products in markets that were competitive and unprotected - hurt American farmers by raising the price of farm equipment and failing to address descending agricultural prices

Freedmen's Bureau

- the U.S. Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands - created by Congress in March 1865 - federal agency created to supervise and provide practical aid to 4,000,000 newly freed African Americans - oversaw relations between whites and blacks in the South, issued food rations, and supervised labor contracts - headed by antislavery General Oliver O. Howard and staffed by army officers

The famous naval battle of 1861

- the Virginia was used to attack a blockade - Union shot and shells bounced off the Virginia's armor plate

Examples of terrorist attacks directed at the United States by Islamic militants

- the bombing of the World Trade Center in NYC in 1993 - bombing of U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998 - the attack on a U.S. battleship, the Cole, docked in Yemen in 2000 - the September 11 plane hijack, leading to the attack on the Twin Towers and the Pentagon

Scopes Trial

- the case quickly attracted national attention as the two lawyers (Bryan and Darrow) had been allies in the progressive movement and that Scopes was arrested for teaching evolution - most of the observers expected Scopes to be convicted, which he was - took a turn when Darrow had Bryan testify as an "expert on the Bible" - the trial took its toll on fundamentalists

Philanthropy

- the desire to promote the welfare of others, expressed especially by the generous donation of money to good causes - was significant because it was a response to what many people saw as the socially irresponsible philosophy of Social Darwinism - increased during the late 1800s because of the efforts of Andrew Carnegie, the Social Gospel movement, and others who believed in the importance of helping the less fortunate

muckrakers

- investigative journalists who propelled Progressivism by exposing corruption, economic monopolies, and moral decay in American society - was coined by Theodore Roosevelt, who had intended it as a criticism of newspaper and magazine reporters who wrote stories about scandalous situations - the label became a badge of honor among journalists who were committed to exposing repugnant aspects of American life - reflected two factors, one economic—expanded newspaper and magazine circulation—and the other intellectual—increased interest in realism

Rosie the Riveter

- is a cultural icon of World War II - represents the women who worked in factories and shipyards during World War II, many of whom produced munitions and war supplies - these women sometimes took entirely new jobs replacing the male workers who joined the military - first appeared on the cover of the Saturday Evening Post in 1943 - painted by Norman Rockwell

Sherman Anti-Trust Act

- is a landmark federal statute in the history of United States antitrust law passed by Congress in 1890 under the presidency of Benjamin Harrison - intended to declare any form of trade restraint illegal, but proved to be useless in prosecution of corporations - first legislation enacted by the United States Congress to curb concentrations of power that interfere with trade and reduce economic competition - named for U.S. Senator John Sherman of Ohio, who was an expert on the regulation of commerce

National Highway System

- is a network of strategic highways within the United States, including the Interstate Highway System and other roads serving major airports, ports, rail or truck terminals, railway stations, pipeline terminals and other strategic transport facilities - was authorized on June 29, 1956 by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, popularly known as the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act of 1956 - the bill created a 41,000-mile "National System of Interstate and Defense Highways" that would, according to Eisenhower, eliminate unsafe roads, inefficient routes, traffic jams and all of the other things that got in the way of "speedy, safe transcontinental travel

American Indian Movement (AIM)

- is an American Indian advocacy group in the United States, founded in July 1968 in Minneapolis, Minnesota by young activists from several Northern Plains tribes - its objective is to protect the rights of urban Indians - began taking form when 200 people from the Indian community turned out for a meeting called by a group of Native American community activists led by George Mitchell, Dennis Banks, and Clyde Bellecour

"Gilded Age"

- is defined as the time between the Civil War and World War I during which the U.S. population and economy grew quickly - a lot of political corruption and corporate financial misdealings and many wealthy people lived very fancy lives - the explosion of Americans moving from farms to the cities caused an urban boom during the Gilded Age - growth of cities gave rise to powerful political machines, stimulated the economy, and gave birth to an American middle class

Federal Reserve System

- is the central banking system of the United States of America - was created on December 23, 1913, with the enactment of the Federal Reserve Act - was created by the Congress to provide the nation with a safer, more flexible, and more stable monetary and financial system - the Federal Reserve Act brought private banks and public authority together to regulate and strengthen the nation's financial system

War on Poverty

- is the unofficial name for legislation first introduced by United States President Lyndon B. Johnson during his State of the Union address on Wednesday, January 8, 1964 - part of a larger legislative reform program, known as the Great Society, that Johnson hoped would make the United States a more equitable and just country - quickly found its way into law and the creation of new federal programs and agencies: Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 which created the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), created Job Corps, and established VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America), a domestic counterpart to the Peace Corps, and Head Start - continued well after the 1960s, its legacy remains controversial

Executive Order 9066 (Internment Camps)

- issued by the president in February 1942 - directed the relocation and internment, removal, of first-and second-generation Japanese Americans into secured camps - a 1942 action then justified as a security measure but since deemed unjustified by evidence - nearly 130,000 people were affected

Great Basin Tribes

- its people, most of whom spoke Shoshonean or Uto-Aztecan dialects (the Bannock, Paiute and Ute, for example), foraged for roots, seeds and nuts and hunted snakes, lizards and small mammals - always on the move; lived in compact, easy-to-build wikiups made of willow poles or saplings, leaves and brush - settlements and social groups were impermanent, and communal leadership (what little there was) was informal

Kent State

- killing of four students on May 4, 1970, by the National Guard at a Kent State University protest against the U.S. incursion into neutral Cambodia - students protesting the bombing of Cambodia by United States military forces, clashed with Ohio National Guardsmen - the shooting became the focal point of a nation deeply divided by the Vietnam War

Total War (Civil War)

- kind of war requiring every combatant to devote virtually all his or her economic and political resources to fight - used in Sherman's "March to the Sea" - devastating results; lots of destruction

George III

- king of Britain during Seven Years' War and imperial crisis on colonies - believed the colonists had to contribute to paying Britain's debt from war

Jane Addams

- known as the "mother" of social work - was a pioneer American settlement activist/reformer, social worker, public philosopher, sociologist, author, and leader in women's suffrage and world peace - along with Ellen Gates, she established the nation's first settlement house in Chicago in 1889, known as Hull House - played a critical role in fashioning the progressive agenda and in drafting pieces of progressive legislation - named a co-winner of the 1931 Nobel Peace Prize

U-boat

- known as the Unterseeboot - first militarily effective submarine - used by Germans to fight British control of the seas and check the flow of U.S. goods to the Allies - Germany announced its intent to use its U-boats to sink on sight enemy ships en route to the British Isles

Race Riots of 1863

- known at the time as Draft Week - were violent disturbances in Lower Manhattan - widely regarded as the culmination of working-class discontent with new laws passed by Congress that year to draft men to fight in the ongoing American Civil War

Containment

- label used to describe the global anticommunist national security policies adopted by the United States to stop the expansion of communism during the late 1940s - first appeared in a 1947 article in the journal Foreign Affairs by George Kennan - became a catchphrase for a global, anticommunist national security policy

Lowell System

- labor and production model employed in the United States, particularly in New England, during the early years of the American textile industry in the early 19th century - Lowell mills were the first hint of the industrial revolution to come in the United States - used to increase efficiency, productivity and profits - these textile mills provided dormitories for young women where they were cared for, fed, and sheltered in return for cheap labor

Southern economy on the eve of the Civil War

- lacked diversification - King Cotton was the prominent output - the price of cotton continually rose, bringing the South large amounts of prosperity

Reedemers

- largely former slave owners who were the bitterest opponents of the Republican program in the South - staged a major counterrevolution to "redeem" the south by taking back southern state governments - their foundation rested on the idea of racism and white supremacy - redeemer governments waged and aggressive assault on African Americans

Redeemers

- largely former slave owners who were the bitterest opponents of the Republican program in the South - staged a major counterrevolution to "redeem" the south by taking back southern state governments - their foundation rested on the idea of racism and white supremacy. Redeemer governments waged and aggressive assault on African Americans

Battle of Stalingrad

- lasted nearly six months between July 1942 and February 1943 - major confrontation of World War II in which Nazi Germany and its allies fought the Soviet Union - was perhaps the bloodiest in modern history as well over one million people were killed - Soviet Union won the battle

Operation Desert Shield

- launched by Bush four days after Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait - Bush sent several hundred thousand U.S. troops to Saudi Arabia, convincing the Saudi government to accept a U.S. military presence in Saudi Arabia - Bush was determined not to let Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein threaten or capture Saudi Arabia's enormous oil reserves

Amazon

- launched in 1995 - led a different kind of retailing revolution during the 1990s—e-commerce, or the practice of selling over the Internet - began with books but soon added other products

Immigration And Nationality Act Of 1965

- law eliminating the national-origins quota system for immigration and substituting preferences for people with certain skills or with relatives in the United States - this legislation laid the basis for not only a resumption of high-volume immigration but also for a substantial shift in region of origin - enabled larger numbers of immigrants from many religious backgrounds, including Islam, to settle in the United States

Kansas-Nebraska Act

- law enacted in 1854 - organized the new territories of Kansas and Nebraska that effectively repealed the provision of the 1820 Missouri Compromise - left the question of slavery to the territories' settlers - has been called the most momentous piece of legislation in the United States before the American Civil War; set in motion events that led directly to the conflict over slavery

Voting Right Act 1965

- law that provided new federal mechanisms to help guarantee African Americans the right to vote - created mechanisms for national oversight of state and local elections in the South - gave the Justice Department broadly defined authority to monitor electoral procedures in jurisdictions with a history of discriminating against African American voters

Black Codes

- laws passed in Southern states in 1865 and 1866 - enacted immediately after the Civil War - designed to replace social controls of slavery that had been removed by the Emancipation Proclamation and 13th Amendment - restricted the rights and liberties of former slaves - intended to force blacks back to plantations and impoverished lifestyles - led to the 14th and 15th Amendments and the Freedmen's Bureau

"Mad" Anthony Wayne/Battle of Fallen Timbers

- "Mad" Anthony Wayne was sent by Washington to help secure control of the Northwest, attacking the invading tribes there - Wayne's victory at Fallen Timbers in August 1794 ended the Indian-British challenge in the Northwest for many years

John Dickinson

- lawyer form Philadelphia - delegate of Continental Congress - wrote and published series of essays titled "Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania" - denied distinction between internal and external taxes, insisting all Parliamentary taxes for revenue violated the colonists' rights

W. E. B. Du Bois

- leader of the NAACP and the editor of its newspaper, The Crisis - outspoken critic of Booker T. Washington and his accommodations approach to race relations - helped to found Niagara Movement in 1905 to fight for and establish equal rights - fought for immediate implementation of African American rights

Charles Sumner

- leader of the anti-slavery forces in Massachusetts - authorized Civil Rights Act of 1875 - worked to destroy the Confederacy, free all the slaves, and keep on good terms with Europe - battled Andrew Johnson's reconstruction plans and sought to impose a Radical program on the South - was attacked on the floor of the Senate (1856) for antislavery speech - led the Radical Republicans along with Thaddeus Stevens in the 1860s

Dorothea Dix

- leading advocate of humane treatment of the insane - traveled throughout the country and was shocked with what she found - urged citizens to pressure state legislatures into building asylums, which were to be clean, safe places

Mao Zedong

- led a communist movement in China - pledged to transform China into a major world power - armies forced Jiang off the mainland to the nearby island of Formosa (Taiwan) in 1949 - founding father of the People's Republic of China - considered one of the most significant communist figures of the Cold War

Ho Chi Minh

- led a communist-nationalist movement in Indochina - he and his communist allies in China and the Soviet Union accepted the Geneva Peace Accords Of 1954, which divided French Indochina into three new nations: Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam - communist government started consolidating its control over the Democratic Republic of Vietnam

Fidel Castro

- led a revolutionary movement in late 1959, toppling Batista's pro-U.S. regime and pledged to reduce Cuba's dependence on the United States - turning to the Soviet Union, he openly embraced communism and squashed dissent at home - promised to encourage Cuban-style insurgencies throughout Latin America - after the Bay of Pigs Invasion, he tightened his grip over Cuban life and strengthened his ties to the Soviet Union - favored atomic conflict over diplomatic concessions as suggested by historical evidence

Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kia-Shek)

- led a struggling Nationalist government in China - served as the leader of the Republic of China between 1928 and 1975 - forces steadily lost ground to those of Mao Zedong's communist movement - forced out of China and to Taiwan in 1949 - dreamed of retaking the mainland, ousting the Communists, and reestablishing a free, capitalist society

Shay's Rebellion

- led by Daniel Shays - uprising of farmers in western Massachusetts - winter 1786-1787 - objected high taxes and foreclosures for unpaid debts - rebels suppressed by militia from eastern Massachusetts

March to the Sea

- led by Major General William T. Sherman of the Union - November 15 to December 21, 1864 - was a military campaign of the American Civil War conducted through Georgia (Atlanta to Savannah) - the purpose was to frighten Georgia's civilian population into abandoning the Confederate cause

Bacon's Rebellion

- led by Nathaniel Bacon - largest colonial upheaval before 1775, taking place in 1676 - began when the colonists of Virginia disagreed with Governor Sir William Berkeley's decisions about the Indians

Thaddeus Stevens

- led the Radical Republicans with Charles Sumner in the 1860s - abolitionist - worked to pass anti-slavery legislation - advocated for the extension of civil rights - insisted on stern requirements for readmission of Southern states into the Union after the Civil War - important role in preparation of the 14th Amendment and the military reconstruction acts of 1867 - introduced the resolution for Andrew Johnson's impeachment

Spain

- led the way for European expansion into the Americas - most powerful nation in Europe by mid-16th century

The War of 1812 - James Madison's War Message

- listed reasons the US were going to war -- attacks on US shipping -- impressment of US seamen -- use of foreign spies in the US -- British influence over western Indians

Comstock Lode

- located in Nevada - first major discovery of silver ore in the United States - the richest vein of silver in America - named for Henry Comstock, part-owner of the property on which it was discovered in June 1859 - mining on the Comstock Lode involved work in mines with temperatures of well over 100 degrees; the extreme heat, poor ventilation, release of toxic gases, and accidents with mining equipment caused many deaths of miners

Ellis Island

- located in Upper New York Bay - served as the prime immigration station of the country from 1892 to 1954 - point of entry for more than 12 million new arrivals to the United States - it took about three to five hours for individual inspection - of the 12 million people who passed through its doors, only around 2 percent were deemed unfit to become citizens of the United States

Mayas

- located in southern lowlands of Yucatán - consisted of competing city-states - a literate, highly urbanized Mesoamerican civilization that flourished for more than a thousand years before its sudden collapse in the ninth century A.D. - kept detailed record of their history

Race relations during the New South period

- lynchings were symbolic messages to entire black communities to keep their place in a white-dominated society - many whites refused to let go of the legacy of the defeated plantation South

Most immigrants between 1800 and 1830

- mainly from Britain - most were skilled workers, farmers, or members of white-collar occupations

George B. McClellan

- major general during the American Civil War - twice was commander of Army of the Potomac, the Union's largest army - fought as general-in-chief of the Union Army until being removed by Abraham Lincoln in 1862 - fought for the Union

Manhattan Project

- major secret military operation that involved the development of the first atomic weapon - Albert Einstein had urged Roosevelt to launch a secret program to build a bomb based on the latest atomic research - led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom and Canada - July 16, 1945, the first atomic weapon was successfully tested at Trinity Site, near Alamogordo, New Mexico

Battle of Saratoga

- major turning point in the Revolutionary War - John Burgoyne's army forced to surrender in October 1777 after American forces prevented them from reaching Albany and cut off its retreat - victory helped bring France into the war

Success in the mining frontier

- majority was through corporations - railroads played a tremendous role, providing access to mines

Groups entering the labor force in large numbers during the war

- manufacturers recruited new labor from the South, mainly African Americans - northern women found work in other jobs customarily reserved for men - white southerners and Mexicans entered the northern labor force

Native American allegiance in the Revolutionary War

- many initially declared neutrality - as war went on, many supported Britain in hopes of preventing further westward expansion - some minorities supported the Americans

The Chesapeake, 1790-1820

- many left the Chesapeake; moved to Kentucky, Tennessee, or western Virginia - many Chesapeake planters were switching to wheat, corn, and livestock on a large scale; required less (slave) labor; planters had to think up new uses for slaves - some divided land into small plots and rented the plots and slaves to white tenant farmers

Panic of 1819

- marked the end of an economic expansion - the first market depression followed - one cause was the attempt by the Second National Bank to prevent inflation, call for loans, and raise interest rates - another cause was Europe's recovery from their wars, and decreasing demand for American products

The Holocaust

- mass murder of millions of Jews, gypsies, homosexuals, communists, and anyone else whom the Nazis deemed unfit for life in the Third Reich - Germans called this "the final solution to the Jewish question" - the first German concentration camps were established in 1933 for the confinement of opponents of the Nazi Party - initially concentration camps were labor camps, many deaths due to starvation or being overworked - after 1940 death camps were established - Holocaust was carried out with very little interference from the Allies, but they liberated the extermination and concentration camps at the end of World War II

Operation OVERLORD

- massive invasion of Germany that began on June 6, 1944, known as D-Day - this event was the beginning of the end to the war in Europe - directed by General Dwight D. Eisenhower - night before three divisions of paratroopers dropped behind enemy lines to disrupt German communications - at dawn, more than 4,000 Allied ships landed troops and supplies on Normandy's beaches - changed the momentum in the West; within three months, U.S., British, and Free French troops entered Paris

John Wilkes

- member of Parliament and radical opposition journalist - 1763; fled in exile after publishing attack on the king - returned, won a seat in Parliament, and was arrested - supported by the colonists

Freedom Riders

- members of interracial groups who traveled the South on buses to test a series of federal court decisions declaring segregation on buses and in waiting rooms to be unconstitutional - the Kennedy administration dispatched U.S. marshals and National Guard troops to protect the freedom riders - partly organized by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

Mormons

- members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, founded by Joseph Smith in 1830 - the Book of Mormon is their Bible - 1847 exodus to the basin of the Great Salt Lake - built a flourishing community, making the desert bloom with grain and vegetables irrigated by water they ingeniously diverted from mountain streams - organizing the economy and the civil society as he had organized the exodus, Young reigned as leader of the church, and from 1850 to 1857 as governor of the newly created Utah Territory - Brigham Young was the successor to the Mormons after the death of Joseph Smith - most Mormon men could afford to support no more than one wife and her children; only about one-sixth of Mormon marriages were polygamous

Second Continental Congress

- met in May 1775 in Philadelphia - met after Battles of Lexington and Concord - organized Continental Army, George Washington appointed as commander-in-chief - drafted Articles of Confederation, went into force March 1781

Hartford Convention

- met in late December 1814 - protested Madison's foreign policy in War of 1812 - proposed amendments to the Constitution that indicated New England's position as a self-conscious minority within the Union - wanted to deny naturalized citizens—who were strongly Republican—the right to hold office - wanted to make it more difficult for new states to enter the Union - wanted to require a two-thirds majority of both houses for a declaration of war

The Albany Congress

- met in the year of 1754 in Albany, New York - consisted of delegates from various colonies - urged the Crown to have direct control of Indian beyond the boundaries of the colonies - drafted a plan of confederation for the colonies. but was never ratified and Parliament never accepted it

Oliver Cromwell

- military and political leader during England's Civil War - helped replace the monarchy with the Commonwealth - named Lord Protector of England in 1653

Island Hopping

- military strategy employed by the Allies in the Pacific War against Japan and the Axis powers during World War II - employed by the United States to gain military bases and secure the many small islands in the Pacific - U.S. targeted islands that were not as strongly defended by the Japanese - captured the Gilbert Islands (Tarawa and Makin), the Marshall Islands (Kwajalein and Eniwetok), the Mariana Islands (Saipan, Guam, and Tinian), Iwo Jima and Okinawa

Characteristics of U.S. society in the 1890s

- more tightly organized and structured workplaces - more corporate rather than single businesses - more women in the workforce and college - rise of strikes

subprime mortgages

- mortgages that carried a high risk of defaulting - mortgage plan that offers very low, very attractive interest rates for a short period of time and then a balloon rate after that - U.S. subprime mortgage crisis was a nationwide banking emergency, occurring between 2007-2010, which contributed to the U.S. recession of December 2007 - June 2009

J. P. Morgan

- most celebrated and powerful banker of the late 19th century - not only helped finance the Albany & Susquehanna Railroad in upstate New York but joined its board in 1870 - was successful through his shrewd investing in a variety of industries, including Edison's first electric power plant in 1882 - was part of the largest merger occurred in steel in 1901, when he and Andrew Carnegie together fashioned the U.S. Steel Corporation from 200 separate iron and steel companies - he headed the Northern Securities Company, which was the first victim of Theodore Roosevelt's trust breaking

yeomen

- most lived away from the plantations in neighborhoods with few slaves and limited commercial activities - many moved into nonslave territory north of the Ohio River, but most stayed in the South; building a yeoman society that retained many of the characteristics of the 18th-century countryside, North and South

southern voters

- most voted for the Democratic party - opposed social improvement legislation

Democratic Party

- mostly dominate in the South - pro-slavery - most immigrants became Democrats because the party welcomed, or at least tolerated them

Mexican Americans in the 1920s

- mostly settled in the Southwest, where they worked on the railroads and in construction, agriculture, and manufacturing - had little opportunity to develop settled homes and communities - some feared deportation; lacked visas, having slipped into the US illegally rather than pay the immigrant tax or endure harassment from the Border Patrol

The women's movement during the Great Depression

- movement lost momentum after achieving the vote in 1920 - prominent New Deal women, rather than vigorously pursuing a campaign for equal rights, chose to concentrate instead on "protective legislation"—laws that safeguarded female workers

The idea of "one big reservation" for Native Americans in the West was replaced in the

- movement of settlers westward - manifest destiny; gave Americans superiority over other people of North America

Rough Riders

- much-decorated volunteer cavalry unit organized by Theodore Roosevelt and Leonard Wood to fight in Cuba in 1898 - composed of Ivy League gentlemen, western cowboys, sheriffs, prospectors, Indians, and small numbers of Hispanics and ethnic European Americans - landed with the invasion force and played an active role in the three battles fought in the hills surrounding Santiago - Roosevelt saw the Rough Rider regiment as a melting pot of different groups of white Americans

Copperheads

- name given to anti-war Democrats by the Republicans - were a vocal faction of Democrats in the Northern United States of the Union who opposed the American Civil War - wanted an immediate peace settlement with the Confederates

Asylum Movement

- national reform movement that began in the 1840s in an effort to change the way that people approached the mentally ill and improved the way that the mentally ill were treated - its purpose was to emphasize treatment and rehabilitation - lead by Dorothea Dix - the Massachusetts reform movement succeeded and quickly spread to other states - by the beginning of the Civil War most states had established public mental institutions, and the practice of keeping the mentally ill in jails and almshouses was in decline

John Paul Jones

- naval commander during Revolutionary War for US - fought between 1747 and 1792 - first naval fighter for the colonies

Blockade

- naval strategy of the U.S. to prevent the Confederacy from trading - 1861-1865 - Union was successful in the blockade of the South - Confederate blockade runners worked to bring supplies to the struggling Confederacy

Alexander Hamilton's overall Hamiltonian Plan

- necessary because of debt - pay all foreign and domestic debt, tariffs, excise tax, national banks, and subsides

Standards of Living

- necessities began to be supplemented with an increasingly alluring array of little luxuries such as crockery, flatware, finished cloth, mirrors, clocks and watches, wallpaper, and the occasional book - by 1800, individual place settings with knives and forks and china plates, along with individual chairs, had become common in rural America

Ironclads

- new technology used by both sides during the Civil War - ships covered in iron; protected from cannon fire - replaced the wooden ships - used for transporting commerce - Britain made them for South, North protested and out of fear, they made them for the North as well

Yellow Journalism

- newspaper stories embellished with sensational or titillating details when the true reports did not seem dramatic enough - coined in the 1890s - described the tactics employed in furious competition between two New York City newspapers, the New York World and the New York Journal - used as a way to increase sales of newspapers

Richard Nixon

- obscure member of Congress from California - began his remarkable political ascent in 1948 when Whittaker Chambers, a journalist formerly active in communist circles, came before HUAC - was the Vice President for Dwight D. Eisenhower

GI Bill

- officially called the Serviceman's Readjustment Act of 1944 - provided veterans with college and job-training assistance, preferential treatment in hiring, and subsidized home loans, and was later extended to Korean War veterans in 1952 - the 350,000 women who had served in the military tapped its provisions far less often than men - 1947: roughly half of the students enrolled in colleges and universities were receiving assistance under the GI Bill

Knights of Labor

- officially known as the Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor - secret fraternal organization founded in 1869 in Philadelphia - was the largest and one of the most important American labor organizations of the 1880s - originated as a secret organization meant to protect its members from employer retaliations - most important leader was Terence V. Powderly

The Grange

- officially referred to as The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry - was founded in 1867 to advance methods of agriculture, as well as to promote the social and economic needs of farmers in the United States - fought monopolistic grain transport practices during the decade following the American Civil War - during the Gilded Age, farm prices fell and the federal government began supporting industry - farmers first organized the Grange, a social movement that turned political with Farmers' Alliances. The Populist Party emerged to represent agrarian interests at the national level

Stock Market Bubble and Crash

- on Black Tuesday, October 29, 1929, share prices on the New York Stock Exchange completely collapsed, becoming a pivotal factor in the emergence of the Great Depression - the Great Depression took place mostly during the 1930s and lagged until 1941

Student dissidents of the 1960s

- on college campuses, students held "teach-ins" to protest against efforts in Vietnam - draft-resistance effort emerged, symbolized by the burning of draft cards, which urged young men to help alter Lyndon Johnson's policies by refusing to serve in the military

Andersonville

- one of the largest prison camps during the American Civil War - built in early 1864 in Andersonville, Georgia - more than 45,000 Union soldiers were kept there - food shortages, overcrowding, and disease killed many

Patrick Henry

- one of the leading figures of the American Revolutionary period - opponent of the Stamp and Townshend Acts levied by England - "Give me liberty or Give me death" - drafted the Virginia Resolutions in 1765

The Whigs political party

- opposed Andrew Jackson and Democratic beliefs - supported the National Bank along with high tariffs, federal funding for internal improvements, and political action for social reform - divided over the terms of slavery

Anti-Federalists

- opposed the Constitution, believing it gave to much power to the federal government - feared it would become like the British monarchy - Bill of Rights was added as a compromise

Political machines

- organizations that controlled local political parties and municipal governments through bribery, election fraud, and support of urban vice while providing some municipal services to the urban poor - granted jobs and government building contracts to those that did them favors - reformers despised them for disregarding election laws and encouraging vice - many immigrants valued them for providing social welfare services and for creating opportunities for upward mobility

Sons of Liberty

- organized in 1765 after the Stamp Act - helped enforce boycotts against British goods - political organization for colonial independence - brought about many riots, including Boston Tea Party - mainly in cities of Boston and New York

The Judiciary Act of 1789

- organized the Supreme Court, originally with five justices and a chief justice, along with several federal district and circuit courts - created the attorney general's office - created the judiciary branch of the U.S. government

Ku Klux Klan

- original KKK, formed in the South in the late 1860s, died out with the defeat of Reconstruction and the reestablishment of white supremacy - new Klan was created in 1915 by William Simmons - in the 1920s, control of the Klan passed to Hiram Evans, and its ideological focus had expanded from a loathing of blacks to a hatred of Jews and Catholics as well - 1924: as many as 4 million Americans are thought to have belonged to the Klan

Stephen Austin

- original settler of Texas - was granted land from Mexico in exchange for no slaves, conversion to Roman Catholic, and to learn Spanish - brought the first Americans into Texas, with Mexico's permission - "Father of Texas" - successfully colonized the area, bringing in 300 families

camp meeting

- outdoor revival often lasting for days - a principal means of spreading evangelical Christianity in the United States

In the 1920s, productivity v. wages

- overproduction was impoverishing substantial numbers of farmers - produce flooded the market; prices fell even further, as did farm incomes

War Production Board

- oversaw the conversion and expansion of factories, allocated resources, and enforced production priorities and schedules - former U.S. government agency, established in January 1942 by executive order to direct war production and the procurement of materials in World War II - supervised the production of $185 billion worth of weapons and supplies - most powerful wartime economic agency - abolished in Nov., 1945; the Civilian Production Administration was set up to take over the remaining WPB reconversion functions

William Randolph Hearst

- owned the "New York Journal" - his newspaper was widely read by Americans to stayed informed of the Cuban-Spanish struggles - major rival with Joseph Pulitzer who owned "New York World" - transformed newspaper publishing with the use of yellow journalism/

Dime novels

- paperbacks that sold for a dime - urban workers read a wide variety of them - heroic stories of working-class manhood in which men become the foremen or owners of factories appealed to working-class men

Fugitive Slave Law

- passed as a part of the Compromise of 1850 - passed to provide the return of slaves who escaped from one state to another state or territory - one of the most controversial provisions of the Compromise - heightened Northern fears of a "slave power conspiracy"

Writs of Assistance

- passed by British in 1760 - gave customs officers a general search warrant, allowing them to search any civilian property - officials didn't need to prove a reason that a search was needed - helped enforce Navigation Acts and aid British officials in American colonies

Three-fifths Compromise

- passed by Congress in 1787 - helped end the dispute over if slaves should be counted in population or riot - determined each slave was to be counted as 3/5 of a person - gave more political power to the Southern slave states

Missouri Compromise

- passed by Congress in 1820 - effort to keep the balanced power between slave and free states - Maine was admitted as a free state; Missouri admitted as a slave state - created a boundary line separating future slave and free slaves

The Indian Removal Act

- passed by Congress in 1830 - officially offered natives of the south land out west - authorized Jackson to negotiate land-exchange treaties with those tribes - tribes who didn't take the offer were forcefully removed from the land to go west of the Mississippi in 1838

Pendleton Act

- passed by Congress in 1833 - established a category of civil service jobs that were to be filled by competitive examinations - said the Civil Service Exam must be taken in order to receive most government jobs - established that positions within the federal government should be awarded on the basis of merit instead of political affiliation - state and local governments began to emulate federal civil service reform in the 1880s and 1890s

Civil Rights Act

- passed by Congress in 1875 - banned racial discrimination in all forms of public transportation and public accommodations - made it a crime for anyone to facilitate the denial of such accommodations or services on the basis of color, race, or "previous condition of servitude." - aimed to protect African Americans from deprivation of the minimal rights of citizenship - in Civil Rights Cases (1883), the Court declared it unconstitutional

Sugar Act

- passed by George Grenville in 1764 - placed duties on various products - caused boycotts and protests

The Alien and Sedition Acts

- passed by John Adams while president - raised the residence requirement for American citizenship from 5 to 14 years - Alien Act: gave the president the power in peacetime to order any alien out of the country - The Sedition Act: provided fines and jail penalties for anyone guilty of sedition

Tea Act of 1773

- passed by Lord North in attempt to save the failing East India Company - it repealed import duties on tea in England but retained the Townshend duty in the colonies; legal tea became the cheapest - hoped the company would be saved, and the settlers, to get cheap tea, would accept Parliament's power to tax them - colonists resisted the act, and one result in it was the Boston Tea Party

Proclamation of 1763

- passed by Parliament - created line along the Appalachian Mountains that settlers couldn't cross in hopes of regulating western expansion - colonists still crossed line, believing they had a right to do so since they helped the British fight for the land in the French and Indian War

Wool Act

- passed by Parliament in 1699 - allowed manufacturing of woolen textiles in colonies, but prohibited them to be exported anywhere but England - protected English woolen industry from Ireland and competition

Sherman Silver Purchase Act

- passed by the U.S. Congress in 1890 to supplant, or replace, the Bland-Allison Act of 1878 - not only required the U.S. government to purchase nearly twice as much silver as before, but also added substantially to the amount of money already in circulation - had been passed in response to the growing complaints of farmers' and miners' interests - after the Panic of 1893 broke, President Cleveland called Congress to a special session to repeal the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in order to stop the drain on US gold reserves

Maryland Act of Toleration

- passed in 1649 - granted freedom of worship to Christians

Stamp Act

- passed in 1765 - required all legal documents to have a proper stamp in order to be recognized - includes contracts, licenses, newspapers, dice, playing cards, etc. - began colonial boycott of British goods and formation of Sons of Liberty

Townshend Revenue Acts

- passed in 1767 - imposed import duties on tea, paper, glass, red and white lead, and painter's colors - caused imperial crisis, ending when Parliament repealed all duties except for on tea (1770) - British goods boycotted, cutting trade in half - resulted in Boston Massacre

Embargo Act

- passed in 1807 by Madison - response to British attack on American warship of the coast of Virginia - prohibited foreign commerce

Meat Inspection Act

- passed in 1906 - supported by Roosevelt - obligated the government to monitor the quality and safety of meat being sold to American consumers - made it a crime to adulterate or misbrand meat and meat products being sold as food, and ensures that meat and meat products are slaughtered and processed under sanitary conditions

Pure Food and Drug Act

- passed in 1906 - supported by Roosevelt - protected the public from fraudulently marketed and dangerous foods and medications - important piece of legislation during the history of the Progressive Era

Underwood Tariff

- passed in 1913 - supported by President Woodrow Wilson - reduced tariff barriers from approximately 40 to 25 percent - reduced tariffs encouraged the import of foreign materials and manufactured goods, and prices of goods came down

National Origins Act

- passed in 1924 and stayed in effect until the 1960s - law that severely restricted immigration by establishing a system of national quotas that blatantly discriminated against immigrants from southern and eastern Europe and virtually excluded Asians

Glass-Steagall Act

- passed in 1932 - was intended to help American banks meet the demands of European depositors who wished to convert their dollars to gold - established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) and included banking reforms, some of which were designed to control speculation - reaction of the U.S. government to cope with the economic problems which followed the Stock Market Crash of 1929

National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act)

- passed in 1935 - gave the right of every worker to join a union of his or her own choosing and the obligation of employers to bargain with that union in good faith - named after its sponsor Senator Robert Wagner - set up a National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to supervise union elections and to investigate claims of unfair labor practices

Neutrality Acts of the 1930's

- passed in 1935 and 1936 - legislation passed in attempt to avoid the entanglements that had brought the United States into the First World War - mandated an arms embargo against belligerents, prohibited loans to them, and curtailed travel by Americans on ships belonging to nations at war - act passed in 1937 extended the embargo to include all trade with any belligerent, unless the nation paid in cash and carried the purchases away in its own ships

"I like Ike"

- passed in 1958 - funneled financial aid to university programs in science, engineering, foreign languages, and the social sciences - marked a milestone in overcoming congressional opposition, especially from southerners, to federal funding of education

National Defense Education Act

- passed in 1958 - funneled financial aid to university programs in science, engineering, foreign languages, and the social sciences - marked a milestone in overcoming congressional opposition, especially from southerners, to federal funding of education

Affordable Health Care Act

- passed in March 2010 - designed to extend healthcare to some 30 million people, expand the Medicaid system, create mechanisms for increasing competition among insurance companies, prohibit the use of pre-existing health conditions to deny coverage, and provide every American health insurance - Republicans revived the strategy used to derail the Clinton healthcare plan sixteen years earlier and unanimously opposed the measure - most controversial provision required every American to carry health insurance

Lend-Lease Act

- passed on March 11, 1941 - act by which the United States "loaned" munitions to the Allies, hoping to avoid war by becoming an "arsenal" for the Allied cause - caused bitter congressional debate - Roosevelt extended Lend-Lease assistance to the communist regime of Joseph Stalin when Germany attacked the Soviet Union

Platt Amendment

- passed on March 2, 1901, as part of the 1901 Army Appropriations Bill - clause that the U.S. forced Cuba to insert into its constitution, giving the U.S. broad control over Cuba's foreign and domestic policies - outlined three conditions for Cuban independence -- Cuba would not be permitted to make treaties with foreign powers -- the United States would have broad authority to intervene in Cuban political and economic affairs -- Cuba would sell or lease land to the United States for naval stations

The Constitution

- passed on September 17, 1787 - replaced the Articles of Confederation - before being ratified by all the colonies, had caused a split between small states and large states regarding power

Spain agreed to all of the following demands in the spring of 1898

- payment of an indemnity for the Maine - abandoning its concentration camps in Cuba - committing itself to Cuban independence

Dr. Benjamin Spock

- pediatrician who wrote Baby and Child Care (1946), the most widely used childrearing book during the baby-boom generation - his book assigned virtually all childcare duties to women and implied that the family and nation depended on how well mothers looked after the Baby-Boom generation - urged parents to trust their common sense, be flexible, and refrain from using corporal punishment

The Olmec

- people of Mesoamerica - appeared along the Gulf Coast about 1200 B.C.E., became the parent culture for the region - Olmec influence reached its zenith during the domination of La Venta, which became an urban center about 1100 B.C.E., reached its peak 300 years later, and declined - known for stone heads - first pyramids and ballparks - learned how to write and developed a dual calendar system that endured through the Aztec era

abolitionists of the 1830s

- people who wanted immediate abolishment of slavery without compensation to owners - active and influential minority within the reform era

49ers

- people who went to California in hopes of finding gold and becoming rich in 1849 - thousands went to the area after gold was found at Stutter's Mill - this led to California joining the Union in 1850 as the 31st state

In World War II, African American soldiers

- performed with distinction as they were put into units for combat - the army segregated donated blood - before troop shortages that occurred towards the end of the war, African Americans were relegated to inferior, often highly dangerous, jobs and excluded from combat duty

Second New Deal

- period in which Congress passed legislation in January to June 1935 - legislation included the Social Security Act, Wagner Act, and the Works Progress Administration - Roosevelt described it as a program to limit power and privilege of wealthy few and to increase security and welfare of ordinary citizens

Great Migration

- period in which Puritans from England migrated to the Americas (1630s) - received the charter in 1629, and went to Massachusetts and the West Indies

Characteristics of the 1950s domestic scene

- period of steady economic growth that would eventually stretch from the Second World War to the early 1970s - constant economic growth and steady improvement of living standards - 1950s and early 1960s real wages rose steadily, and jobs were plentiful - 35% of the nonagricultural workers held a union card during the 1950s

John Dewey

- philosopher who believed that American technological and industrial power could be made to serve the people and democracy - taught at Columbia University but his reputation and influence extended well beyond academia - most articulate spokesman for the "pro-democracy" position - views attracted the support of a wide range of liberal intellectuals and reformers

Fourteen Points

- plan laid out by Woodrow Wilson in January 1918 to give concrete form to his dream of a "peace without victory" and a new world order - called for all nations to abide by a code of conduct that embraced free trade, freedom of the seas, open diplomacy, disarmament, and the resolution of disputes through mediation - next point, based on the principle of self-determination, proposed redrawing the map of Europe to give the subjugated peoples of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires national sovereignty - last point called for establishing the League of Nations

The domestic policies of the Carter administration

- pledged to lower both unemployment and inflation, rekindle economic growth, and balance the federal budget - pushed for tax cuts, increased public works spending, and pro-growth Federal Reserve Board policies

Langston Hughes

- poet, social activist, novelist, playwright, and columnist from Joplin, Missouri - was one of the earliest innovators of the then-new literary art form called jazz poetry - creative genius was influenced by his life in New York City's Harlem, a primarily African American neighborhood

Truman Doctrine

- policy established by President Truman in 1947 to aid Greece and Turkey in order to prevent Soviet expansionism and the spread of communism - the United States would provide political, military, and economic assistance to all democratic nations under threat from external or internal authoritarian forces - the president gained Congressional approval for $400 million in assistance to Greece and Turkey, most of it for military aid, in the spring of 1947

Vietnamization

- policy whereby the South Vietnamese were to assume more of the military burdens of the war and allow the United States to withdraw combat troops - informally began during Lyndon Johnson's administration, but Nixon sped up the process - the Nixon Doctrine envisioned the eventual removal of U.S. ground troops without accepting compromise or defeat

Frances Perkins

- political leader and reformer of the 20th century - briefly served at Jane Addams's Hull House and worked in various reform activities and government positions - 1933 FDR made her the first woman to hold a cabinet position when he appointed her secretary of labor - helped in the creation of the New Deal and Social Security programs - fought for laws to set minimum wages, pensions, unemployment insurance, and restrictions on child labor practices

Bull Moose Party

- political party formed by Theodore Roosevelt in 1912 when the Republicans refused to nominate him for president - adopted a sweeping reform program - also known as the Progressive Party

The Whig Party

- political party founded in 1833 by Henry Clay and Daniel Webster - founded to oppose Jackson and the Democrat Party - believed in protective tariffs, national banking, and federal aid for internal improvements - supportive of government involvement in market developments - William Henry Harrison was the first Whig president - party dissolved in 1853

Teapot Dome Scandal

- political scandal by which Secretary of Interior Albert Fall allowed oil tycoons access to government oil reserves in exchange for $400,000 in bribes - Fall issued the leases secretly, without allowing other oil corporations to compete for them - began to be exposed in 1923 when journalists and senators began to focus public attention on the actions of Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall

Kentucky and Virginia Resolves

- political statements drafted in 1798 and 1799 - the Kentucky and Virginia legislatures took the position that the federal Alien and Sedition Acts were unconstitutional; helped get rights back that were taken away - put into practice in 1798 by Jefferson and James Madison - brought about the later compact theory which gave the states more power than the federal government

Cold War

- political, military, cultural, and economic rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union - developed after the Second World War - lasted until the disintegration of the Soviet State after 1989 - almost every view of the Cold War assigns the presidential administration of Harry Truman a central role - Truman ended Lend-Lease assistance to the Soviet Union at the end of the war

Joseph Smith

- poor New York farm boy whose visions led him to translate the Book of Mormon in late 1820s - he became the founder and the prophet of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons)

"Star Wars"

- popular name for Reagan's proposed space-based nuclear defense system, officially called the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) - plan to create a missile-defense system over American territory to block a nuclear attack - it typified Reagan's commitment to vigorous defense spending even as he sought to limit the size of government in domestic matters

Characteristics of the "new immigrants"

- post-1880 arrivals - came from Eastern and Southern Europe - few spoke English - most adhered to Catholicism, Orthodoxy, or Judaism rather than Protestantism - most were peasants, unaccustomed to urban industrial life

Reconstruction Act of 1867

- prescribed new procedures for full restoration of former Confederate states to the Union - divided the 10 Southern states into five military districts - directed army officers to register voters for the election of delegates to new constitutional conventions-enfranchised males aged 21+ (including blacks) to vote in those elections - disenfranchised (for these elections only) ex-Confederates disqualified from holding office under the not-yet-ratified 14th Amendment - Andrew Johnson tried to veto the Reconstruction Acts but Congress overturned his vetoes

Lee's Resolution

- presented by Richard Henry Lee on June 7, 1776 in Second Continental Congress - proposed independence for the American colonies - also known as resolution of independence - passed by Congress on July 2, 1776

Ronald Reagan

- president of the Screen Actors Guild and a secret informant for the FBI (identified as "T-10") - testified about communist influence in Hollywood - he and his first wife, actress Jane Wyman, gave the FBI the names of actors who they believed were members of a clique with a pro- Communist line - later became president of the United States (1981-1989)

Election of 1840

- presidential candidates were Martin Van Buren (trying to get re-elected) and William Henry Harrison (Whig Party) - signaled completion of the second party system - both candidates contested the election in nearly every state, receiving equal levels of support in all states - high voter turnout - Harrison beat Van Buren

Election of 1932

- presidential candidates: Franklin D. Roosevelt (Democratic) and Herbert Hoover (Republican) - Republicans were voted out of office after dominating national politics for 36 years - Hoover received 39.6% of the popular vote and 59 electoral votes - Roosevelt won the presidential election

During the Gilded Age, railroad pricing practices

- prices were often higher where there was no competition - ultimately it was farmers who were forced to pay higher prices

temperance crusade of mid-19th century

- primarily middle-class - movement strongest in the northeast - pushed for a ban on alcohol

President John Tyler

- primary goal was to annex Texas; named John C. Calhoun as Secretary of State to negotiate a treaty of annexation - unexpectedly become president after death of President William Henry Harrison in 1841 - was nominally a Whig, but soon broke with the party

John Peter Zenger

- printer for the "New York Weekly Journal" - put on trial in 1735 - acquitted after being tried by a jury for the crime of seditious libel after his paper criticized Governor William Cosby - was declared innocent and it was a great victory for freedom of the press

New Rights activists and the Bush administration enjoyed considerable success in the area of

- private inquiries into Bill Clinton's past, such as the "Whitewater" real-estate scandal and the case with Paula Corbin - as things from his past came out, the legitimacy of his presidency was questioned

Boxing

- prizefighting emerged from the same subterranean culture that sustained blood sports - imported from Britain - popularity rose during 1840s - 1850s, time of increasing immigration and violence in poor city neighborhoods

Democratic Party

- pro slavery - popular in the south, especially among large plantation owners - favored secession from the Union and states' rights - feared strong central government - used the spoils system - opposed funding projects for internal improvements that would raise taxes and increase state debts

Gag Rule

- procedure in which Congress voted at each session from 1836 until 1844 to delay antislavery petitions without reading them in order to avoid any debate - it was adopted by Congress to prohibit discussion of the slavery issue - also prevented Congress from enacting any new legislation pertaining to slavery

referendum

- procedure that allows the electorate to decide an issue through a direct vote - gave voters the right in general elections to repeal an unpopular act that a state legislature had passed - first proposed by Populists in the 1890s - adopted first by Oregon in 1902 - 18 other states between 1902 and 1925 adopted it

farms

- production for markets both intensified that labor and made it more exclusively male - improved winter feeding for cattle and better techniques for making and storing butter and cheese kept dairy products on the tables of the more prosperous farm families throughout the year

Human Genome Project

- program launched in 1985 to map all genetic material in the 24 human chromosomes - sparked ongoing debate over the potential consequences of genetic research and manipulation - sought to introduce new techniques for gene transfer, embryo manipulation, tissue regeneration, and even cloning

Affirmative Action

- program or policy that attempted to compensate for past injustice or discrimination to ensure more employment and educational opportunities - the programs grew from bipartisan roots in the administrations of Lyndon Johnson and Richard Nixon - advocates of affirmative action emphasized that any process of selection inevitably "affirmed" some qualities at the expense of others

Alger Hiss

- prominent Democrat with a lengthy career in public service - high-level State Department employee who was accused, in a controversial case, of being a communist and Soviet spy - charged with having been a party member and with passing classified information to Soviet agents during the late 1930s

John Brown

- prominent abolitionist - fought for the antislavery cause in Kansas (1856); led attacks known as "Bleeding Kansas" - May 1856: led a group of followers to Pottawattamie Creek and launched a bloody attack against pro-slavery men, killing five people - led to seize the Harpers Ferry arsenal in 1859 - became a martyr among those seeking to end slavery in America

Domino Effect

- prominent theory from the 1950s to the 1980s - posited that if one country in a region came under the influence of communism, then the surrounding countries would follow in a domino effect - coined by President Dwight D. Eisenhower - significant as a reason for the United States to get involved in the conflict in Vietnam as the US was dedicated to preventing the spread of communism

Lyman Breecher

- prominent, leading figure against the use of alcohol (temperance movement) - minister who converted during the Second Great Awakening - wanted to bring the kingdom of Christ to the United States

Joseph Smith

- prophet that claimed to have been visited by an angel who told him about golden plates that held the word of God, which tells how the bible took place in America - founder of the Mormon religion - succeeded by Brigham Young

Eisenhower Doctrine

- proposed January 1957 by President Dwight D. Eisenhower - policy that stated that the US would use armed force to respond to imminent or actual communist aggression in the Middle East - intended to check increased Soviet influence in the Middle East - represented no radical change in U.S. policy; the Truman Doctrine had pledged similar support to Greece and Turkey 10 years earlier - continuation of the U.S. policy of containment

Fair Deal

- proposed in 1949 by President Truman - extend New Deal programs such as Social Security and minimum wage laws - enact legislation dealing with civil rights, national health care, and federal aid for education, provide funds for public housing, and support farm prices - its core assumption was that sustained economic growth could finance new government programs

Popular Sovereignty

- proposed to let the settlers of each territory decide for themselves whether to permit slavery without interference from Congress - supported by Democrats, - Senator Lewis Cass was known as the "father of popular sovereignty"

Specie Circular

- provision added to the Deposit Act in 1836 - required speculators to pay in silver and gold coins when buying large parcels of public land - Jackson's final assault of the paper economy - showed favoritism of settlers over speculators and the South and West over the Northeast

Feminine Mystique

- published on February 19, 1963 - book written by Betty Friedan which is widely credited with sparking the beginning of second-wave feminism in the United States - is often seen as the beginning of the Women's Liberation Movement - is said to have stifled women's individuality and power

Welfare Capitalism

- purpose was to encourage employees to be loyal to their firm and to convince them that industry did have the best interests of its employees at heart - reflected the confidence that capitalism had become more responsive to employee concerns and thus more humane - corporate leaders set up workplace cafeterias, hired doctors and nurses to staff on-site medical clinics, and engaged psychologists to counsel troubled workers

Women in the 1920's generally sought work as

- pursued "female" professions, such as teaching, nursing, social work, and librarianship - had trouble finding work in the automobile industry, the highest paying of the mass-production industries

Influenza epidemic

- "Spanish" flu pandemic of 1918 - infected an estimated 500 million people worldwide - began in Europe and then spread across the ocean - caused the biggest loss for Americans during WWI; 500,000 died

Warren Harding - "Normalcy"

- "return to normalcy" was U.S. presidential candidate Warren G. Harding's campaign slogan for the election of 1920 - called for a return to the way of life before World War I - his promise was to return the United States prewar mentality, without the thought of war tainting the minds of the American people

Zachary Taylor

- 12th president - national war hero for his battles in the Mexican War - led the nation during its debates on slavery and Southern secession - viewed matters as a nationalist, not as a southerner - proposed to admit California and New Mexico immediately as states

Emmett Till

- 14 year old African American that was murdered by two white Mississippians in August 1955 after a white woman said she was offended by him in her family's grocery store - August 31, 1955, Till's corpse was discovered in the Tallahatchie River - Mamie Till Bradley insisted that her son's death not remain a private incident - an all-white Mississippi jury quickly found the two men—who confessed their crime—not guilty - his murder became a rallying point for the civil rights movement

Pontiac's War

- 1763 - large group of Indians joined forces and attacked thirteen British posts in the west - hoped to drive settlers back to the east, ending westward expansion

Gaspee Affair

- 1772 - men boarded a ship after dark that was near Providence - wounded captain and burned the ship - as a result, London decided whole communities had to be punished, rather than individuals

First Continental Congress

- 1774 - consisted of delegates from twelve colonies, Georgia didn't participate - met at Philadelphia's Carpenters' Hall - worked together to organize resistance against the Coercive Acts - discussed how to manage nonimportation and non exportation - led to Association - helped enforce nonimportation

Battle of Bunker Hill

- 1775 - first major battle between colonists and British - took place in Massachusetts - despite British winning battle and control of hill, it showed the colonists could defeat Britain

Battle of Yorktown

- 1781 - last major engagement of the Revolutionary War - huge impact on the war: helped determine final outcome - Washington's army, two French armies, and a French fleet trapped Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown and forced his army to surrender in October 1781.

The Great Compromise

- 1787 - between small and large states - helped resolve the representation problem by deciding on population representation for House of Representatives and only two Senators from each state in Senate - combined states' needs and created a resolution to conflicts

The XYZ Affair

- 1797 - American negotiators in France were rebuffed for refusing to pay a substantial bribe - led US into an undeclared war that curtailed American trade with the French West Indies

Andrew Johnson

- 17th president, formally the vice president of Lincoln - was a Democrat from Tennessee, but still remained with the Union - gave a lot of favor to ex-confederates during the reconstruction process

transportation

- 1815 transportation facilities ranged from primitive to nonexistent - farmers floated their produce downriver on jerrybuilt flatboats; spent a full month navigating dangerous rivers

Gibbons v. Ogden

- 1824 - landmark decision in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that the power to regulate interstate commerce, granted to Congress by the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution, encompassed the power to regulate navigation - led by Chief Justice John Marshall, the Court said that the federal commerce clause, in effect, outranked a state law that had granted a monopoly to one group of people

Free-Labor Ideology

- 1840s - belief that all work in a free society is honorable and that manual labor is degraded when it is equated with slavery or bondage - was grounded in the beliefs that Northern free labor was superior to Southern slave labor - the official position of the antislavery movement

Brook Farm

- 1841-1847 - an experimental farm at West Roxbury, Massachusetts based on cooperative living - founded by George Ripley, a Unitarian minister - the farm was initially financed by a joint-stock company with 24 shares of stock at $500 per share - was criticized for its potential to break up the nuclear family because of its focus on working as a larger community

California's Gold Rush

- 1848: workers by the American River near Sacramento discovered flecks of gold in the riverbed at Stutter's Mill - By spring 1849, 100,000 gold-seekers were poised to take off by foot on the overland trail or by ship - people who went to California in hopes of finding gold and becoming rich were called 49ers - San Francisco became a boomtown and a new center of Pacific trade - this led to California joining the Union in 1850 as the 31st state

Uncle Tom's Cabin

- 1853 - written by Harriet Beecher Stowe - novel promoting abolition - highly influenced England's view on the American Deep South and slavery - first published in installments in an antislavery newspaper - Although banned in some parts of the South, Uncle Tom's Cabin found a wide but hostile readership there

"Bleeding Kansas"

- 1854-1861 - a series of violent political confrontations in the Kansas Territory involving anti-slavery - proslavery and antislavery constitutions competed - strained the relations of the North and South - made civil war imminent - about 55 were killed

The first battle of the "ironclads" at Hampton Roads

- 1862 - the battle was one of the most important naval battles of the Civil War - first engagement of ironclad ships - was fought in an attempt to break the Union blockade - the Virginia fought the Monitor to a draw with neither suffering significant damage - blockade remained

Wade-Davis Bill

- 1864 - was a bill proposed for the Reconstruction of the South written by two Radical Republicans - Senator Benjamin Wade and Representative Henry Winter Davis - required that 50 percent of a state's white males take a loyalty oath to be readmitted to the Union - states were required to give blacks the right to vote - Congress passed the bill, but President Lincoln chose not to sign it, instead vetoing it

Cattle Drives

- 1866: cowboys hit the trail with 260,000 cattle in the first of the great drives; only a few thousand head made it to Sedalia - success in the drives resulted in the interlocking institutions of the cattle drive and the Chicago stockyards - the Chisholm Trail was used to get longhorn cattle from Texas to Abilene, Kansas where they were loaded into railcars and shipped to Kansas City or Chicago - clashes with grangers and with a growing army of sheep ranchers on the other led to several "range wars"

President Grant's "Peace Policy"

- 1869 - established a Board of Indian Commissioners and staffed it with humanitarian reformers

Ulysses S. Grant's presidency

- 1869-1877 - Grant acted like a general who needed only to give orders, rather than as a president who must cultivate supporters - the Grant administration had some solid foreign policy achievements

Panic of 1873

- 1873 - 1879 - was a financial crisis that triggered a depression in Europe and North America - marked the end of the long-term expansion in the world economy that had begun in the late 1840s - 18,000 businesses went under Jay Cooke was undone by his attempts to finance Northern Pacific Railroad: ran out of capital in 1873 after selling bonds and mortgaging government property; forced to close his Philadelphia banking house, which triggered the crash of the New York Stock Exchange, which in turn began the Panic of 1873

Hawaii

- 1878: the US secured rights to Pago Pago and Pearl Harbor; both served as fueling stations for the U.S. fleet - President Grover Cleveland declared Hawaii a protectorate in 1893, but he resisted the imperialists in Congress who wanted to annex the islands - tensions between American sugar plantation owners and native Hawaiians upset the islands' economic and political stability

Wabash Case

- 1886 - was a Supreme Court decision that severely limited the rights of states to control interstate commerce since Congress has the power to regulate it - led to the creation of the Interstate Commerce Commission

Dawes Severalty Act

- 1887 legislation that called for the dissolution of Indian tribes as legal entities, offered Indians citizenship, and allotted each head of family 160 acres of farmland or 320 acres of grazing land - combined impulses toward greed and reform of Protestant reformers and land-hungry westerners - April 22, 1889: "Boomers" (white settlers) staked claim to nearly 2 million acres - many Indians who received individual land titles through the act also lost these lands to unscrupulous whites through fraud and misrepresentation; proving the act to be a disaster - the act forbade Indian religions and the telling of Indian myths and legends, as well as the practices of medicine men in attempt to strip Indians of their culture

Plessy vs. Ferguson

- 1896 Supreme Court case that sanctioned Jim Crow laws as long as the separate facilities for black and whites were equal - the U.S. Supreme Court, on May 18, 1896, by a seven-to-one majority (one justice did not participate), advanced the controversial "separate but equal" doctrine for assessing the constitutionality of racial segregation laws - tremendous setback for American equality

Philippine War

- 1899 - 1902 - armed conflict between the First Philippine Republic and the United States - after its defeat in the Spanish-American War of 1898 , Spain ceded its longstanding colony of the Philippines to the United States in the Treaty of Paris - one cause of the war can be found in the U.S. government's quest for an overseas empire and the desire of the Filipino people for freedom - the Filipinos had welcomed the US as allies in their struggle against Spain, but after the Spanish had been almost completely defeated, Emilio Aguinaldo, the leader of the rebellion, declared the Philippines to be an independent country

The Enlightenment

- 18th century - mainly took place in Europe - major influence on the colonies, mainly on political ideas - influenced idea of creating a utopian society in North America (Georgia)

Roosevelt Corollary

- 1904 corollary to the Monroe Doctrine - stated that the United States had the right to intervene in domestic affairs of hemispheric nations to quell disorder and forestall European intervention - formalized a policy that the United States had already deployed against Cuba and Puerto Rico in 1900 and 1901

Hepburn Act

- 1906 United States federal law - gave the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) the power to set maximum railroad rates and extend its jurisdiction - led to the discontinuation of free passes to loyal shippers - supported by Roosevelt - created the federal government's first true regulatory agency

Woodrow Wilson

- 1912 Democratic nominee for president of the United States - Wilson had never run for elective office, nor held an appointed post in a local, state, or federal administration - attracted attention of wealthy conservatives, who saw him as a potential presidential candidate; convinced bosses of the New Jersey Democratic machine to nominate Wilson for governor in 1910

Woodrow Wilson's vision of a settlement that would achieve peace without a victory

- 1917 pledge to work for a peace settlement that did not favor one side over the other but ensured an equality among combatants - Wilson sent a peace note to the belligerent governments, entreating them to consider ending the conflict and state their terms for peace in December 1916

Jimmy Carter's appeal to voters

- ran well among both whites who belonged to fundamentalist and evangelical churches and African Americans - courted former antiwar activists by promising to pardon most Vietnam-era draft resisters - his religion and being a "born-again Christian"

18th Amendement

- ratified in 1919; took effect in 1920 (one year later) - established the prohibition of alcoholic beverages in the United States - declared the production, transport, and sale of alcohol illegal - only amendment of the Constitution to be repealed - repealed with the 21st Amendment

Statements that reflect the African-American experience in the North during the Harlem Renaissance

- 1920s African-American literary & artistic awakening that sought to create works rooted in black culture instead of imitating white styles - most popular jazz nightclubs in Harlem, most which were owned and operated by whites, often refused to admit black customer - many black writers depended for their sustenance on the support of wealthy white patrons

Harlem Renaissance

- 1920s African-American literary and artistic awakening that sought to create works rooted in black culture instead of imitating white styles - begun during the war, when blacks sensed that they might at last be advancing to full equality - symbolized by the image of the "New Negro," a black man or woman who would no longer be deferential to whites but would display independence through talent and determination

The Dawes Plan

- 1924 U.S.-backed agreement to reduce German reparation payments by more than half - called on banks to invest $200 million in the German economy - created as a result of issues with debt repayment and reparations troubled relations between the Allies and Germany

Dust Bowl

- 1930-1936 - with the depression, the rain stopped falling on the plains and the land dried up and turned to dust - dust began to blow, sometimes traveling 1,000 miles across open prairie - it became a fixed feature of daily life on the plains, covering everything and penetrating people's hair and lungs

19th Amendement

- ratified in 1920 - prohibits the states and the federal government from denying the right to vote to citizens of the United States on the basis of sex - allowed women the right to vote - this was a long struggle towards and goal of the women's rights movements

Sit down strike

- 1936-1937 - labor strike strategy used in Flint, Michigan - workers occupied their factory but refused to do any work until the employer agreed to recognize the workers' union - strategy succeeded against General Motors in 1937 - changed the United Automobile Workers (UAW) from a collection of isolated individuals into a major union - ultimately led to the unionization of the United States automobile industry

Court Packing Plan

- 1937 attempt by Roosevelt to appoint one new Supreme Court justice for every sitting justice over the age of 70 and who had sat for at least 10 years - Roosevelt's purpose was to prevent conservative justices from dismantling the New Deal - the plan died in Congress and inflamed opponents of the New Deal - attempt dashed by a sharp recession that struck the country in late 1937 and 1938

Joe McCarthy (McCarthyism)

- 1946 U.S. Senator who unfairly accused numerous people of being Communists - showed little interest in legislative matters, but he emerged as a two-fisted investigator of communist subversion during the height of the Great Fear - became a political celebrity when he claimed, during a 1950 speech, to have compiled a list of 205 communists then working in the State Department - "McCarthyism" was what critics called McCarthy's careless, flamboyant style

Revolution of 1800

- the election of 1800 - candidates were Thomas Jefferson (Democratic-Republican), Aaron Burr (Democratic-Republican), John Adams (Federalist), and Charles C. Pinckney (Federalist) - marked the first time that power in America passed from one party to another; Vice President Thomas Jefferson of the Democratic-Republican Party defeated incumbent President John Adams of the Federalist Party - Jefferson promised to govern as he felt the Founders intended, based on decentralized government and trust in the people to make the right decisions for themselves

During George Bush's presidency

- the federal deficit grew - the Soviet Union collapsed - the United States invaded Iraq - the Persian Gulf War began

J. Edgar Hoover

- the first director of the FBI - secretly authorized by Tom Clark, Truman's attorney general, to compile a list of alleged subversives the government could detain during a national emergency without a legal hearing - ordered illegal surveillance against suspected enemies of the state and political opponents, but remained at the head until his death

Laissez Faire

- the government leaves the people alone regarding all economic activities - it is the separation of economy and state

Brown vs. Board of Education

- 1954 case in which the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously overruled the "separate but equal" doctrine and held that segregation in the public schools violated the principle of equal protection under the law - Chief Justice Warren wrote a unanimous opinion declaring that states couldn't segregate their public schools on the basis of race without violating the constitutional right of African American students to equal protection of the law - part of the Brown Cases, which were several Supreme Court cases that challenged the nation's political, social and cultural institutions by outlawing racial segregation in public schools and public facilities

Space Race

- 1957 - 1975 - a competition of space exploration between the United States and Soviet Union - this investment led to great scientific advances, but also caused friction and insecurities - began on October 4, 1957, when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the first artificial earth satellite - over the following years, the Soviets strung together a series of firsts in the history of space exploration, including first man in space, first spacewalk and first robotic rover - in 1961, President John F. Kennedy began a dramatic expansion of the U.S. space program and committed the nation to the ambitious goal of landing a man on the moon by the end of the decade - the U.S. passed the National Defense Education Act and created NASA

Unsafe at Any Speed

- 1965 - Ralph Nader's exposé about auto safety - brought attention to the lack of safety in American automobiles

Miranda vs. Arizonia

- 1966 - decided under Earl Warren - held that the Constitution required police officers to advise persons suspected of having committed a felony offense of their constitutional right to remain silent and to consult an attorney - political conservatives made Miranda a symbol of the judicial "coddling" of criminals

Detente

- 1967-1979 - an easing of tensions, particularly between the United States and the Soviet Union - was a time of increased trade and cooperation with the Soviet Union and the signing of the SALT treaties

Southern control of government before 1860

- 2/3 of the time from 1789 to 1860, Southerners (all slaveholders) had been president of the US - 2/3 of the Speakers of the House and presidents pro tem of the Senate had been Southerners - Southern justices had been a majority on the Supreme Court since 1791

Oregon Trail

- 2000 mile trail that took about 4-6 months to travel - laid by fur traders/trappers - only passable by foot or horseback - first migrant wagon train was organized in Independence, Missouri; reached Fort Hall, Idaho - from 1843 until 1869 over 500,000 people traveled it

John Scopes

- 24-year-old biology teacher in Dayton, Tennessee - was arrested after confessing that he had taught evolution to his students - violated Tennessee's Butler Act, which prohibited the teaching of evolution in Tennessee schools - Clarence Darrow was his attorney in the case

Gadsden Purchase

- 29,6970 sq. mi region of present-day southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico - US purchased it for $10 million from Mexico, signing a treaty on December 30, 1853 - Southerners wanted this land in order to build southern transcontinental railroad

Liberty Bonds

- 30 year government bonds with an annual interest rate of 3.5 percent sold to fund the war effort - the government offered five bond issues between 1917 and 1920 and all quickly sold out - subscribing to the bonds became a symbol of patriotic duty in the United States and introduced the idea of financial securities to many citizens for the first time

Adena and Hopewell Mound Builders

- 3000 B.C.E. to about 1700 C.E., two distinct cultures of "mound builders" succeeded each other and exerted a powerful influence over the interior of North America - the Adena-Hopewell, emerged between 500 B.C.E. and 400 C.E. in the Ohio River valley - mounds were increasingly elaborate burial sites, indicating belief in an afterlife

Andrew Jackson

- 7th president - founded the Democratic Party on January 8, 1828 - signed the Indian Removal Act - vetoed the Second Bank - signed the Force Bill

Schechter vs. U.S.

- A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States - decided in 1935 - Supreme Court case that invalidated as unconstitutional a provision of the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) that authorized the President to approve "codes of fair competition" for the poultry industry and other industries - was a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States that invalidated regulations of the poultry industry according to the nondelegation doctrine and as an invalid use of Congress' power under the commerce clause

Black political activity during Reconstruction

- About 80% of Southern Republican voters were black - Of 14 black representatives and 2 black senators elected in the South between 1868 and 1876, all but 3 attended secondary school and 4 attended college - blacks held only 15-20% of public offices

Southern Republican voters

- About 80% of Southern Republican voters were black - a majority were scalawags and carpetbaggers

Martin Luther King Jr.

- African American clergyman who advocated nonviolent social change and shaped the civil-rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s - he and other black ministers followed up the victory in Montgomery by forming the Southern Christian Leadership Conference - led the SCLC's effort to register African American voters throughout the South - believed that nonviolent direct action would dramatize, through both word and deed, the evil of racial discrimination - on August 28, 1963, an integrated group of more than 200,000 people marched through the nation's capital to the Lincoln Memorial, which is where he gave his "I Have a Dream" speech

Frederick Douglass

- African-American abolitionist - born into slavery - escaped and later promoted freedom for all slaves - one of the few men to attend Seneca Falls Convention

AAA

- Agricultural Adjustment Act - was a federal law passed in 1933 as part of U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal - offered farmers subsidies in exchange for limiting their production of certain crops - subsidies were meant to limit overproduction so that crop prices could increase

Presidential Election of 2000

- Al Gore, Clinton's vice president for eight years, reappeared as the Democratic presidential nominee and selected Senator Joseph Lieberman as his running mate - George W. Bush (Republican) chose Richard Cheney to be his vice-presidential running mate - Ralph Nader ran on the Green Party ticket but attracted less than 3% of the popular vote - Bush claimed he could work with Democrats, appeal to African Americans and Hispanics, and pursue a "compassionate conservatism" - the vote highlighted the gender, racial, and ethnic differences between the two parties - only about 1,000 popular votes initially separated the two candidates - after a count of absentee ballots, Republican officials declared Bush the victor in Florida by a margin of 930 votes, which ultimately led to the court case

George Wallace

- Alabama's segregationist governor - ran strongly against the president in several states during the Democratic primaries of 1964 - in the election of 1968, he concentrated his fire on the counterculture and the antiwar movement - ran for president as a third-party candidate on the American Independent ticket, never expecting to win the presidency

united English colonies

- Albany Congress

Hinton Rowan Helper

- American Southern critic of slavery during the 1850s - 1857, he published a book dedicated to the "nonslaveholding whites" of the South - "Impending Crisis of the South" - book was a strong attack on slavery as inefficient and a barrier to the economic advancement of whites - book was banned in the South but copies were distributed as campaign material for Republicans

Harriet Beecher Stowe

- American abolitionist - wrote Uncle Tom's Cabin - her book had a significant role in the movement to abolish slavery

Susan B. Anthony

- American activist who was a pioneer crusader for the woman suffrage movement - worked with Elizabeth Cady Stanton and founded the National American Women Suffrage Association - president of the National Woman Suffrage Association - helped organize the Women's National Loyal League - campaigned to have the 14th Amendment altered to allow for woman as well as African American suffrage

Duke Ellington

- American composer and pianist - rates as one of the most original and important figures in 20th century American music - played a major role in the Harlem Renaissance as the band leader of the Cotton Club - played a large part in the evolution of jazz - career lasted over fifty years

George Kennan

- American diplomat and historian - recommended the policy of containment toward Soviet aggression in a famous article published under the pseudonym "X" - ideas, which became the basis of the Truman administration's foreign policy, first came to public attention in 1947

Benedict Arnold

- American general during Revolutionary War - originally fought on American side, but later helped the British - was caught and declared a traitor

Frederick Jackson Turner

- American historian in the early 20th century - best known for his book "The Significance of the Frontier in American History," in which he presented his Frontier Thesis, which is the argument that American democracy was formed by the American frontier - he stressed the process of the moving frontier line and the impact it had on pioneers going through the process

Brigham Young

- American leader in the Latter Day Saint movement (restorationist movement) - politician - successor to the Mormons after the death of Joseph Smith - responsible for the survival of the sect and its establishment in Utah

Rachel Carson/Silent Spring

- American marine biologist and author best known for Silent Spring (1962) - widely read book that questioned the use of chemical pesticides and helped stimulate the modern environmental movement - raised concerns that the pesticides used in agriculture, especially DDT, threatened bird populations

Jonas Salk

- American medical researcher and virologist - began conducting a research on polio in 1947 as head of the Virus Research Lab at the University of Pittsburgh - about 1.8 million children were given the vaccine during the test phase - discovered and developed one of the first successful polio vaccines - announced in early 1953 the successful testing of an effective anti-polio vaccine after working with Canadian scientists - his efforts were supported and promoted by the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis - he also went on to study other diseases

William Henry Harrison/Tippecanoe

- American military leader and politician - 9th president of the United States - 1st president to die in office; led to brief constitutional crisis - led forces in Battle of Tippecanoe - Harrison invaded Ohio village and found British gunpowder - Warhawks declare War of 1812 - In Battle of Tippecanoe, Indians were defeated

Ernest Hemingway

- American novelist, short story writer, and journalist - economical and understated style had a strong influence on 20th-century fiction, while his life of adventure and his public image influenced later generations - wrote in an understated, laconic prose that somehow drew attention to his characters' rage and vulnerability

Sinclair Lewis

- American novelist, short-story writer, and playwright - won the Nobel Prize in Literature for his satirical and critical, yet often sympathetic views of middle-class American life in the 1920s - ridiculed small-town Americans in Main Street (1920), "sophisticated" city dwellers in Babbitt (1922), physicians in Arrowsmith (1925), and evangelicals in Elmer Gantry (1927)

Jeannette Rankin

- American politician and women's rights advocate - first woman to hold federal office in the United States; elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1916 - successfully fought for a woman's right to vote in Washington State and Montana - helped pass the 19th Amendment - was the only Congress person to vote against both WWI and WWII

James Weaver

- American politician who leaned toward agrarian radicalism - twice ran unsuccessfully for the U.S. presidency, as the Greenback-Labor candidate (1880) and as the Populist candidate (1892) - was a member of the United States House of Representatives

Sam Houston

- American soldier and politician - led Texas army in the battle against Mexico - helped Texas gain independence from Mexico - while Texas was its own republic, he was elected president two times - after Texas was admitted into the Union in 1845 as the 28th state - became Texas' first senator after it entered the Union

Henry David Thoreau

- American transcendentalist (someone who believes that society and its institutions, like religion or political parties, corrupt the purity of the individual) - turned to the environment for inspiration - built a cabin at Walden Pond, lived there alone for 2 years - 1854: published his book "Walden" which was about his time spent in isolation

Edgar Allan Poe

- American writer - best known for his poetry and short stories - faced hunger, poverty, and debt - orphaned as a child - married his 14 year old cousin who later died of tuberculosis

The Maysville Road

- Andrew Jackson vetoed the bill for the road in 1830 - would have allowed the federal government to purchase stock in the Maysville, Washington, Paris, and Lexington Turnpike Road Company - the company was organized to build a road linking Lexington and Maysville

Santa Anna

- Antonio López de Santa Anna - was elected Mexico's president in 1833 - stopped Spain from attempting to recapture Mexico - led a Mexican army to the Alamo to recapture it from Texas, the battle lasted 13 days - tried to stop the Texas revolt - was eventually captured as a prisioner of war and forced to recognized Texas' independence from Mexico - lost battles to Winfield Scott and Zachary Taylor in the Mexican War

Okinawa

- April 1 - June 22, 1945 - last major campaign of the Pacific War - largest amphibious landing in the Pacific theater of World War II - bloodiest battle of the Pacific War; largest casualties with over 100,000 Japanese casualties and 50,000 casualties for the Allies - served as an example of how deadly the invasion of mainland Japan would be

Lexington/Concord

- April 1775 - British troops marched to Concord, but encountered 60-70 minutemen in Lexington - Battle of Lexington resulted in eight deaths and 9 wounded - British then continued to Concord, another battle took place - marked beginning of Revolutionary War

Citizen Genêt

- April 1793, the French sent Citizen Edmond Genêt as minister to the United States - openly commissioned American privateers to harass British shipping and enlisted Americans in intrigues against the Spanish outpost of New Orleans - opened France's Caribbean colonies to American shipping, providing American shippers a choice between French free trade and British mercantilism - mission ended abruptly in summer 1793, when Robespierre and the infamous Terror drove the Girondists from power

Spanish-American War

- April 1898 - August 1898 - Secretary of State John Hay called it "a splendid little war" - main cause was the explosion of the Maine, which resulted in the death of 260 Americans and the belief that the Spanish had something to do with it, thus prompting McKinley to ask Congress for authority to go to war - more than 1 million men volunteered to fight, and fewer than 500 were killed or wounded in combat - American victory over Spain was complete in Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines - main reason for the easy victory was U.S. naval superiority - ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898

Appomattox Court House

- April 9, 1865 - was one of the last battles of the American Civil War - Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia to Union General Ulysses S. Grant - Lee's surrender ended the American Civil War

Bataan Death March

- April 9, 1942 - the forcible transfer by the Imperial Japanese Army of 60,000-80,000 Filipino and American prisoners of war to a prison camp 65 miles away - 10,000 men died during the march - survivors spent the next 40 months in horrific conditions in confinement camps, most were transported to the Japanese main island aboard "death ships"

"Spark" for WWI

- Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated on June 28, 1914 - was meant to protest the Austro-Hungarian imperial presence in the Balkans and to get Balkan peoples to join the Serbs to form independent nations - Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28

A. Mitchell Palmer

- Attorney General who directed "Palmer raids" - his raids were meant to expose the extent of revolutionary activity - his failure to expose a revolutionary plot blunted support for him in official circles

Gulf of Tonkin Incident/Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

- August 1, 1964: U.S. destroyer Maddox, while on an intelligence-gathering mission, exchanged gunfire with North Vietnamese ships, returning three days later and reported what seemed to be signs of a failed torpedo attack - the resolution was a measure passed by Congress in August 1964 that provided authorization for an air war against North Vietnam after U.S. destroyers were allegedly attacked by North Vietnamese torpedoes - it was a tantamount to a declaration of war against North Vietnam - Johnson invoked the resolution as authority for expanding the Vietnam War

V-J day

- August 14, 1945 - Victory over Japan Day - news reports proclaimed Japan's surrender - marked the end of WWII, which was made official on September 2, 1945 when General Douglas MacArthur accepted the Japanese surrender on a signed document from General Yoshijiro Umezu

Berlin Wall

- August 1961 the Soviet Union began to erect a barbed-wire fence and then a concrete barrier to separate East from West Berlin - became a symbol of communist repression - between 1949 and 1961, about 2.5 million East Germans had fled from East to West Germany; in response, East Germany built a barrier to close off East Germans' access to West Berlin and hence West Germany - about 5,000 East Germans managed to cross the Berlin Wall and reach West Berlin safely, while another 5,000 were captured by East German authorities in the attempt and 191 more were killed

The First Gulf War

- August 2, 1990 - February 28, 1991 - was a conflict between Iraq and a coalition force of 34 nations mandated by the United Nations and led by the United States - the lead up to the war began with the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 which was met with immediate economic sanctions by the United Nations against Iraq - Iraq's invasion and the potential threat it then posed to Saudi Arabia, the world's largest oil producer and exporter, prompted the United States and its western European NATO allies to rush troops to Saudi Arabia to deter a possible attack - the terms of the peace were that Iraq recognize Kuwait's sovereignty and that it divest itself of all weapons of mass destruction and all missiles with ranges exceeding 90 miles

Freeport Doctrine

- August 27, 1858, Stephen Douglas formulated the " Freeport Doctrine" during the second Lincoln-Douglas debate - he argued that a territory had the right to exclude slavery despite contrary U.S. Supreme Court decisions - Southern opposition to Douglas intensified - led to his loss in the 1860 presidential election

Gettysburg

- Battle of Gettysburg was fought July 1-3, 1863 - considered the most important engagement of the American Civil War - was the bloodiest and last major battle of the American Civil War - the Gettysburg Address is a speech delivered by Abraham Lincoln on November 19, 1863 - it was given at the end of the ceremonies dedicating the battlefield cemetery at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania - "Fourscore and seven years ago..."

"Boomers" / "Sooners"

- Boomers were settlers in the Southern United States who attempted to enter the Unassigned Lands in what is now the state of Oklahoma in 1879, prior to President Grover Cleveland opening them to settlement by signing the Indian Appropriations Act of 1889 on March 2, 1889 - they also claimed nearly 2 million acres of the Indian Territory on April 22, 1889 - Sooners were settlers who entered the Unassigned Lands in what is now the state of Oklahoma before the official start of the Land Rush of 1889 - President Benjamin Harrison officially proclaimed the Unassigned Lands open to settlement on April 22, 1889

Triple Entente

- Britain, France, and Russia - developed from the Franco-Russian alliance that gradually developed and was formalized in 1894 - when Austria-Hungary attacked Russia, the Triple Entente entered the war

John Maynard Keynes (deficit spending)

- British economist - proposed that governments cut taxes and increase spending in order to stimulate investment and consumption - effect was to increase the deficit because more money was spent than was taken in - advocated Keynesianism, which called for reversal of the conventional wisdom that government should always balance its budget

Factors in the growing U.S. movement toward war

- British navy blockaded German ports, which damaged the US' limited trade with Germany - in 1915, Germany announced its intent to use its U-boats to sink on sight enemy ships en route to the British Isles - March 1916, German submarine sunk the French passenger liner Sussex, causing a heavy loss of life and injuring several Americans - Zimmermann telegram

Election of 1860

- Candidates: Abraham Lincoln (Republican), John C. Breckinridge (Southern Democrat), Stephen A. Douglas (Democrat), and John Bell (Constitutional Union) - the Democratic party was divided over slavery - Abraham Lincoln won the election through the electoral vote - Lincoln's victory of the election led South Carolina to secede from the Union

Sussex Pledge

- Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg issued it on May 4, 1916 - the attack of French passenger steamer Sussex prompted a U.S. threat to sever diplomatic relations - German government agreed to give adequate warning before sinking merchant and passenger ships and to provide for the safety of passengers and crew - upheld until February 1917, when unrestricted submarine warfare was resumed

Al Capone

- Chicago mobster who made a fortune from gambling, prostitution, and bootleg liquor during Prohibition - became crime czar of Chicago, running gambling, prostitution, and bootlegging rackets and expanding his territories by gunning down rivals and rival gangs - most notorious of the bloodlettings was the St. Valentine's Day Massacre, in which seven members of Bugs Moran's gang were machine-gunned in a garage on Chicago's North Side on February 14, 1929 - June 5, 1931, Capone was indicted for 22 counts of federal income-tax evasion for the years 1925 through 1929 - June 12 Capone and others were charged with conspiracy to violate Prohibition laws for the years 1922 to 1931 - October 1931, Capone was tried, found guilty on three of the 23 counts, and sentenced to 11 years in prison and $50,000 in fines and court costs.

John Marshall

- Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court from 1801 to 1835 - appointed by Federalist President John Adams - shaped the American legal tradition more than anyone else - early decisions limited the US Constitution and the authority of the federal and state governments - McCulloch v. Maryland: stated that states couldn't tax any federal agency -Cherokee v. Georgia: stated that natives were reliant on the federal government, thus couldn't claim they were sovereign nations - Marshall's decisions tended to favor the federal government over the states and to clear legal blocks to private business

CCC

- Civilian Conservation Corps - April 5, 1933 - primarily designed to put thousands of unemployed young men to work on useful public projects - assembled more than 2 million single young men to plant trees, halt erosion, and otherwise improve the environment - one of the most successful New Deal programs of the Great Depression

The Supreme Court confirmation hearings for Clarence Thomas

- Clarence Thomas, an African American nominee for the U.S. Supreme Court, was accused by Anita Hill of having sexually harassed her when both worked for the federal government - feminists denounced the all-male Senate Judiciary Committee, which was responsible for considering Thomas's nomination, for failing even to understand, let alone investigate seriously, the issue of sexual harassmentl

CORE

- Committee (later, Congress) on Racial Equality - founded in 1942 - interracial group that devised new ways of opposing discrimination - activists staged sit-ins to integrate restaurants, theaters, and other public facilities, especially in Washington, D.C.

CIO

- Committee for Industrial Organization - later renamed the Congress of Industrial Organizations - founded in 1935 by John Lewis, Sidney Hillman, and leaders of other unions - aspired to organize millions of unskilled and semiskilled workers whom the AFL had largely ignored - reinvigorated the labor movement

Jonathan Edwards

- Congregationalist and preacher - important role in Great Awakening - helped begin a revival in 1734 and 1735

Immigration Restriction Act

- Congress passed the act over Wilson's veto - declared that all adult immigrants who failed a reading test would be denied admission to the United States - banned the immigration of laborers from India, Indochina, Afghanistan, Arabia, the East Indies, and several other countries within an "Asiatic Barred Zone"

Prohibition

- Constitutional ban on the manufacture and sale of alcohol in the United States which took place from 1920-1933 - the 18th Amendment, which caused prohibition, went into effect in January 1920 - drew support from a large and varied group of people that included farmers, middle-class city dwellers, feminists, and progressive reformers - the government could not police the drinking habits of 110 million people - violence spawned by liquor trafficking as rival mobs fought each other to enlarge their share of the market

Earl Warren

- Court Justice of controversial court decisions such as Miranda vs. Arizona (1966) - led a liberal majority that used judicial power in dramatic fashion, to the consternation of conservative opponents - the Warren Court expanded civil rights and civil liberties in important ways and decided to end legal segregation and helped set the Civil Rights Movement in motion

Boston Tea Party

- December 16, 1773 - Sons of Liberty disguised themselves as Indians and dumped 342 chests of tea into Boston Harbor - alternative of letting the tea land and having to pay the duty

Korematsu v. U.S.

- December 1944 - landmark United States Supreme Court case concerning the constitutionality of Executive Order 9066, which ordered Japanese Americans into internment camps during World War II regardless of citizenship - convicted of having violated military order and received a sentence of five years' probation - Korematsu appealed his conviction to the U.S. Court of Appeals, which upheld the conviction and the exclusion order - U.S. Supreme Court upheld the conviction of Fred Korematsu—a son of Japanese immigrants—for having violated an exclusion order requiring him to submit to forced relocation during World War II

The end of the Cold War and the fall of Eastern European communism

- December 1987, Reagan and Gorbachev signed a major arms treaty that reduced each nation's supply of intermediate-range missiles & allowed for on-site verification - both West and East Germans hacked down Berlin Wall and began difficult process of reunifying Germany as a single nation after the pro-Moscow government in East Germany fell in November 1989 - December 1991, Yeltsin brokered a plan to abolish the Soviet Union and replace it with 11 separate republics, loosely joined in a commonwealth arrangement

Battle of Trenton

- December 26, 1776 - Washington and his army crossed the Delaware and surprise attacked the Hessian troops in Trenton - Washington's army won the victory

Wounded Knee

- December 29, 1890 - site of a shootout between Indians and Army troops at the Pine Ridge Indian reservation in southwestern South Dakota - battle between U.S. military troops and Lakota Sioux Indians at Wounded Knee Creek - the last major battle of the Indian Wars of the late 19th century - resulted in the deaths of perhaps 300 Sioux men, women, and children - for many, the massacre symbolized the death of 19th-century Plains Indian culture

Montgomery Bus Boycott

- December 5, 1955 - December 20, 1956 - political protest campaign mounted in 1955 to oppose the city's policy of racial segregation on its public transit system - the Supreme Court soon declared segregation on public transit unconstitutional

Pearl Harbor

- December 7, 1941 - Japan's attack on a U.S. base in Hawaii that brought the United States into the Second World War - 19 ships were sunk or severely damaged; nearly 200 aircraft were destroyed or disabled; and 2,200 Americans were killed - December 8, 1941, Congress declared war against Japan, Japan's allies declared war on the U.S. three days later

Huey Long

- Democratic senator and former governor of Louisiana who used the radio to attack the New Deal as too conservative - FDR regarded him as a major rival - called for a redistribution of wealth that would guarantee each American family a $5,000 estate - inspired hundreds of thousands of Americans to join the Share the Wealth clubs his supporters organized

Whig Party vs. Democratic Party

- Democrats were in favor of states' rights and did not like the Federal Government involvement in social and economic affairs - Whigs favored a strong federal government through the power of the congress

Dred Scott Case

- Dred Scott was a Missouri slave who sued for freedom on grounds of prolonged residence in a free state and free territory - in 1857, the Supreme Court found against his case - Supreme Court decision: --- blacks were not citizens and couldn't sue in federal courts --- a slave is property, can be taken into any territory and held there in slavery --- Congress had no power to ban slavery from the territories

Salutary Neglect

- England's policy of ignoring American colonists when they violated the Navigation Acts - used to keep their allegiance so England could focus on other matters

EPA

- Environmental Protection Agency - organization established in 1970 that brought under a single institutional umbrella the enforcement of laws intended to protect environmental quality - supported by President Richard Nixon - created for the purpose of protecting human health and the environment by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress

ERA

- Equal Rights Amendment - proposed amendment to the Constitution providing that equal rights could not be abridged on account of sex - won congressional approval in 1972 but failed to gain ratification by the states - women's groups abandoned the ERA effort in favor of using the courts to adjudicate equal rights claims on a case-by-case, issue-by-issue basis

Atlantic Slave Trade

- European commerce, started by the Portuguese, that brought slave to European colonies in the Americas - caused millions to be enslaved, many Africans enslaved by other Africans - Many came from the local leaders waging war

President Truman's loyalty program

- Executive Order 9835 authorized system of government loyalty boards empowered to gather evidence in order to determine if there were reasonable grounds for concluding that a federal employee might endanger national security - partly intended to show that Truman's administration considered communism a serious domestic threat - suggested that containing communist activities at home would require the type of aggressive measures being adopted overseas

New Deal

- FDR's domestic administration between 1933-1935 - major pieces of legislation were passed to save the financial system, provide economic relief, and bring agricultural and industrial reform - the West benefited the most from the New Deal - critics of the program include Huey Long, Father Charles Coughlin, and Francis E. Townsend

Ralph W. Emerson

- Father of Transcendentalism - led transcendentalist movement in the 19th century; arose to protest against the general state of intellectualism and spirituality at the time - wrote several essays and poems - took over as director of his brother's school for girls in 1821

Horace Mann

- Father of the Common School - Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education - significant figure during the reform of the school system - advocated and helped create new, centralized state school systems (common schools)

Greensboro Sit-Ins

- February 1 - July 25, 1960 - series of nonviolent protests in Greensboro, North Carolina - African American students at North Carolina A & T College in Greensboro sat down at a drugstore lunch counter and politely asked to be served in the same manner as white customers - marked the beginning of the sit-in movement , a new phase of civil rights activism

The impeachment of Andrew Johnson

- February 1868, Johnson removed Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton - By a vote of 126 to 47 along party lines, the House impeached Johnson on February 24 - he had violated the Tenure of Office Act

Iwo Jima

- February 19 - March 26, 1945 - major battle in which the United States Marine Corps landed on and eventually captured the island of Iwo Jima from the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II - first major battle of World War II to take place on Japanese homeland - strategic location because the US needed a place for fighter planes and bombers to land and take off when attacking Japan

Wounded Knee Occupation

- February 27 - May 5, 1973 - began when approximately 200 Oglala Lakota and followers of the American Indian Movement (AIM) seized and occupied the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation - they insisted that the government honor treaty obligations of the past - armed members of the American Indian Movement (AIM) eventually surrendered to federal authorities, ending their 71-day siege of Wounded Knee, site of the infamous massacre of 300 Sioux by the U.S. 7th Cavalry in 1890

Yalta Conference

- February 4 - February 11, 1945 - held in Yalta, Ukraine - the three Allied powers agreed to divide Germany into four zones of occupation (with France as the fourth occupying force) - how to deal with the defeated or liberated countries of eastern Europe was the main problem addressed at the conference, as Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt discussed Europe's postwar reorganization - future of Poland was discussed, the Soviets agreed to permit free elections in postwar Poland and to create a government "responsible to the will of the people"

FDIC

- Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation - June 16, 1933 - assured depositors that the government would protect up to $5,000 of their savings - independent U.S. government corporation created under authority of the Banking Act of 1933 (the Glass-Steagall Act) - purpose was to provide stability to the economy and the failing banking system - modeled after the deposit insurance program initially enacted in Massachusetts

Results of Florence Kelley's investigations

- Florence Kelley was appointed as Illinois's state Chief Factory Inspector by the governor in 1893 - investigations resulted in the prohibition of child labor, authorization to have inspectors enforce the law, and limit the hours of women to eight per day

Colonial-French Alliance

- France joined American Revolutionary War to help colonists - French joined after Battle of Saratoga

Harry Truman

- Franklin Roosevelt's Vice President who became president when Roosevelt died on April 13, 1945 - served in France during the First World War, became a U.S. Senator in 1934, and was tabbed as Roosevelt's running mate in 1944 - first months in office he dropped the atomic bomb on Japan, ending World War II

Four Freedoms

- Freedom of Speech, Freedom of Worship, Freedom from Want, and Freedom from Fear - goals articulated by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt on Monday, January 6, 1941 - Norman Rockwell produced a set of paintings that visually represented the "Four Freedoms" - Rockwell depicted these values as rooted in small town America - originally published in the Saturday Evening Post magazine in early 1943, the "Four Freedoms " came to adorn posters in millions of post offices and other buildings throughout the country

Presidential Election of 1988

- George H. W. Bush, who was Reagan's vice president, ran as the Republican candidate - Bush pledged "no new taxes" and chose Senator J. Danforth (Dan) Quayle as a running mate - Governor Michael Dukakis emerged as the Democratic presidential candidate - Dukakis avoided talk of new domestic programs and higher taxes; pledged to bring competence and honesty to the White House - turnout was the lowest for any national election since 1924; polls suggested that many voters remained unimpressed with either Bush or Dukakis - Bush won the presidential election

Babe Ruth

- George Herman "Babe" Ruth - overcame the hardships of a poor and orphaned youth in Baltimore to become the star of the New York Yankees - he hit more home runs in the 1920s than baseball experts had thought humanly possible - had a record of 60 that lasted for 34 years - nickname was the "Sultan of Swat"

Presidential Election of 1976

- Gerald R. Ford nearly lost the GOP's 1976 presidential nomination - Conservative Republicans rallied behind Ronald Reagan, who campaigned as a "true conservative" - Democratic party supported Jimmy Carter, who campaigned by stressing personal character - Carter won a narrow victory over Ford, carrying every southern state except Virginia, running well among both whites and African Americans - voter turnout hit its lowest mark (54%) since the end of WWII

Adolf Hitler

- German fascist dictator whose aggressive policies touched off the Second World War - his National Socialist (Nazi) Party came to power in Germany in 1933 - denounced the Versailles peace settlement of 1919 - blamed Germany's problems on a Jewish conspiracy - claimed a genetic superiority for the "Aryan race" of German-speaking peoples - promised a new Germanic empire the Third Reich, a new empire that would bring glory and unity to the nation

Blitzkrieg

- German term for "lightning war" - a coordinated and massive military strike by German army and air forces - Germany quickly overran much of Europe and was victorious for more than two years by relying on the new military tactic - began in April 1940 when German forces began moving swiftly, overrunning Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and France

The nation that took responsibility for the war

- Germany - was stripped of virtually its entire navy and air force, and forbidden to place soldiers or fortifications in western Germany along the Rhine - the Allies gave portions of northern Germany to Denmark and portions of eastern Germany to Poland and Czechoslovakia

Triple Alliance

- Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy - promised to come to each other's aid if attacked - Italy opted out and was replaced by the Ottoman Empire

The Greenback and "free silver" movements

- Greenback Party called for the issuance of more U.S. Treasury notes - "free silver" movements advocated that 16 oz of silver equals 1 oz of gold

Federal Highway Act

- Highway Act of 1956 - act that appropriated $25 billion for the construction of more than 40,000 miles of interstate highways over a 10-year period - financed largely by a national tax on gasoline, the act funded a nationwide system of limited-access expressways - touted as the largest public works project in world history, this program delighted the oil, concrete, and tire industries - provided steady work for construction firms and labor unions; and boosted the interstate trucking business

HUAC

- House Un-American Activities Committee - founded in 1938 by Martin Dies Jr. and lasted until 1975 - congressional committee that zealously investigated suspected Nazi and Communist sympathizers - in 1947, the HUAC opened hearings into communist influences in Hollywood

Sitting Bull

- Hunkapapa Lakota (Sioux) chief and holy man who led warriors against the U.S. Army in Montana Territory in 1876, culminating in the Battle of Little Big Horn - following the discovery of gold in the Black Hills of South Dakota in 1874, the Sioux came into increased conflict with U.S. authorities; he led his people during years of resistance to United States government policies - was one of the prime attractions in the entertainment extravaganza known as Buffalo Bill Cody's Wild West Show; using the press interviews while on tour to ask the U.S. government to live up to its promises to Indians - was killed by Indian agency police on a reservation during an attempt to support the Ghost Dance movement

Louisiana Purchase

- In 1803, the US bought Louisiana territory from France for $15 million - it secured American control of the Mississippi River and doubled the size of the nation

The "Ghost Dance"

- Indian ritual involving days of worship expressed in part through dance - new visionary religious movement swept through Indian peoples in 1890, offering a different kind of resistance to white domination

I.W.W.

- Industrial Workers of the World - international labor union that was founded in 1905 in Chicago - William "Big Bill" Haywood was a founding member and leader - militant labor union which found a home in the Socialist Party from 1905 to 1913 - refused to sign collective bargaining agreements with employers, arguing that such agreements only trapped workers in capitalist property relations - got national reputation by organizing the poorest and most isolated workers and leading them in strikes against employers who weren't used to having their authority challenged

Coercive Acts

- Intolerable Acts - series of four statues passed by Parliament in 1774 as a response to Boston Tea Party - one stated Boston Port was to remain closed until the tea was payed for - another modified the Massachusetts Charter of 1691 (Massachusetts Government Act); made Massachusetts like other royal colonies - another reinforced the Quartering Act, this time allowing soldiers to stay in homes, rather than public places

The CIA helped to influence political developments in all of the following places during the 1950s

- Iran - the Philippines - Guatemala - Lebanon

Al Smith

- Irish American, Democratic governor of New York who became in 1928 the first Catholic ever nominated for the presidency by a major party - Herbert Hoover crushed Smith in the general election, as nativists stirred up anti-Catholic prejudice - Smith beat Hoover in the nation's 12 largest cities

Alfred E. Smith

- Irish American, Democratic governor of New York who became in 1928 the first Catholic ever nominated for the presidency by a major party - opposed prohibition, city commissions, voter registration laws, and other reforms whose intent seemed anti-immigrant or anti-Catholic - agitated for a minimum wage, factory safety, workmen's compensation, the right of workers to join unions, and the regulation of excessively powerful corporations

Iranian Revolution

- Islamic fundamentalists overthrew Iranian dictator Shah Reza Pahlavi - the rebellion led to 66 Americans taken hostage when Carter allowed the shah into the U.S. for medical assistance - the shah's overthrow signaled a massive repudiation of U.S. influence

Election of 1960

- JFK pledged to separate his Catholic religion from his politics; defused the religious issue that had doomed the candidacy of Al Smith in 1928 - Eisenhower's Vice President Richard Nixon, running for the Republicans - Nixon spent much of the 1960 presidential campaign on the defensive - Eisenhower would likely have run for a third term were it not for the 22nd Amendment - Kennedy's 1960 campaign highlighted issues from the 1950s that, taken together, became the agenda for his New Frontier - brought JFK the narrowest of victories; defeated Nixon by only about 100,000 popular votes, and his victory in the Electoral College rested on razor-thin margins in several states

Marcus Garvey

- Jamaican-born black nationalist who attracted millions of African Americans in the early 1920s to a movement calling for black separatism and self-sufficiency. - called on blacks to give up their hopes for integration and to set about forging a separate black nation - founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) - most visible economic venture was the Black Star Line, a shipping company with three ships flying the UNIA flag from their masts

Secretary of State Madison

- James Madison was appointed Secretary of State by President Thomas Jefferson on March 5, 1801 - entered duty on May 2, 1801, and served until March 3, 1809 - already made invaluable contributions to the establishment of the federal government before starting a long career in diplomacy

Battle of New Orleans

- January 1815 - large British invasion force was repelled by Andrew Jackson's troops at New Orleans - neither side knew that the Treaty of Ghent had ended the War of 1812 two weeks before the battle - victory inspired American nationalism

"40 acres and a mule"

- January 1865 - largely unfulfilled hope of many former slaves that they would receive free land from the confiscated property of ex-Confederates - General Sherman issued a military order to set aside abandoned land in Georgia and South Carolina for the freed slaves - failed due to President Johnson's Amnesty Proclamation and his wholesale issuance of pardons which restored most of the property to pardoned ex-Confederates

Hiroshima

- Japanese city destroyed by an atomic bomb on August 6, 1945 - location of the first U.S. atomic bomb dropping

Taiwan (Formosa)

- Jiang Jieshi and the nationalists were forced to flee China by Mao Zedong and his forces - Formosa, later named Taiwan is a large island off the southern coast of China - throughout the 1950's, the U.S. continued to recognize and support Chiang's government in Formosa as the legitimate government of China

Bill of Rights

- ratified on December 15, 1791 - First ten amendments to the Constitution - protects the rights of individuals from abuses by the federal government - 1st: guaranteed the freedoms of speech, press, and religion against federal interference - 2nd and 3rd: guaranteed the continuation of a militia of armed citizens and stated the specific conditions under which soldiers could be quartered in citizens' households - 4th - 8th: defined a citizen's rights in court and when under arrest - 9th: stated the enumeration of specific rights in the first eight amendments didn't imply a denial of other rights - 10th: stated powers not assigned to the national government by the Constitution remained with the states and the citizenry

15th Amendment

- ratified on February 3, 1870 - enfranchised African American men, while denying that right to women of all colors - prohibited states from denying the right to vote on grounds of race, color, or previous condition of servitude - extended equal suffrage to the border states and to the North

14th Amendment

- ratified on July 28, 1868 - Section 1 defined all native-born or naturalized persons, including blacks, as American citizens - Section 2 gave states option of either enfranchising black males or losing a proportionate number of congressional seats and electoral votes - Section 3 disqualified a significant number of ex-Confederates from holding federal or state office - Section 4 guaranteed national debt and repudiated Confederate debt - Section 5 empowered Congress to enforce the 14th Amendment by "appropriate legislation."

26th Amendment

- ratified the year before the 1972 Presidential Election - lowered the voting age to 18 - lowering the national voting age became a controversial topic surrounding the Vietnam War - there was the debate that if one is old enough to fight in war, than they are old enough to vote - during the election of 1972, very few of the newly enfranchised voters cast ballots

Flappers

- rebellious middle-class young, single women - signaled their desire for independence and equality through style and personality rather than through politics - donned short dresses, rolled their stockings down, wore red lipstick, and smoked in public - aimed to create a new female personality endowed with self-reliance, outspokenness, and a new appreciation for the pleasures of life

"Speak softly and carry a big stick"

- refers to U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt's foreign policy - Roosevelt resorted to big-stick diplomacy most conspicuously in 1903, when he helped Panama to secede from Colombia and gave the United States a Canal Zone - the Great White Fleet, naval ships sent on a 45,000-mile world tour by President Roosevelt (1907-1909) to showcase American military power, is an example of big stick diplomacy

Wisconsin Idea

- refers to Wisconsin's decision to bring together employers, trade unionists, and professionals and give them power to control relations between industry and labor; many states followed this model - was created by the state's progressives to do away with monopolies, trusts, high cost of living, and predatory wealth - quickly adopted in Ohio, Indiana, New York, and Colorado

"Housing Bubble"

- refers to people who became home owners but lacked the incomes to handle a conventional mortgage - as more buyers entered the housing market, prices for new and existing homes moved upward and then skyrocketed toward the stratosphere - the home lending industry responded by devising an array of "non-conventional" mortgages for people whose incomes or credit histories disqualified them from obtaining a fixed rate loan - people at the commanding heights of the financial system worked overtime to boost the residential housing market

The "Roberts Court" - John Roberts

- refers to the Supreme Court after John Roberts became Chief Justice in 2005 - limited women's access to abortion without accepting Justice Clarence Thomas' invitation to overrule Roe v. Wade - rebuffed traditional civil rights groups with a similarly restrictive view of the ability of local school districts to use racial identification when assigning students to particular schools in pursuit of a desegregation strategy - ruled that the right to bear arms included that of individual citizens to possess firearms and struck down an ordinance regulating gun ownership in the nation's capital

Oregon Fever

- refers to the mass migration of thousands of farm families to the Northwest via the Oregon Trail - many went west for various reasons (religious: convert Indians, sanctuary; cheap land; new opportunities)

initiative

- reform that gave voters the right to propose and pass a law independently of their state legislature - allowed reformers to put legislative proposals before voters in general elections without having to wait for state legislatures to act - first proposed by Populists in the 1890s - adopted first by Oregon in 1902 - 18 other states between 1902 and 1925 adopted it

recall

- reform that gave voters the right to remove from office a public servant who had betrayed their trust - has been most frequently used at the local level - less widely adopted than the referendum and the initiative

The First Great Awakening

- religious revival - took place in colonies between 1730s and 1740s - increase of people in colonies, overall more women than men - the unity of New England's Congregational Church was shattered: New Side (evangelical) and Old Side (anti-revival) - message: conversion experience was important

Social Gospel

- religious social-reform movement prominent in the United States from about 1870 to 1920 - led by a group of liberal Protestant progressives in response to the social problems raised by the rapid industrialization, urbanization, and increasing immigration of the Gilded Age - emerged to improve the economic, moral and social conditions of the urban working class

American settlers who migrated to Texas defied Mexican law by

- remaining Protestants and Americans at heart (pledged to become Roman Catholic and Mexican citizens) - brought slaves against agreements

The National Security Act of 1947

- reorganized the U.S. military forces within a new Department of Defense - established the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency

Connecticut Compromise

- representation by population in one house - equal representation in the other house - compromise between large states and small states

Quartering Act of 1765

- requested by Sir Thomas Gage - required the army to board soldiers in public buildings only and colonial assemblies, despite refusal, to pay for their housing and food - reinforced by Intolerable Acts, then allowing soldiers to board in private homes

John Quincy Adam's ambitious program for national development

- required a high tariff to cover the costs - planned to build roads, canals, and a national university - program received very few votes

Title IX Or Patsy Mink Equal Opportunity In Education Act

- required colleges and universities to improve the financing and promotion of women's sports in 1972

Organization of the Nebraska territory

- required to be able to build a railroad through the area - in 1853, the House passed a bill creating the Nebraska Territory

Motivating factors in U.S. foreign policy from 1898 to 1971

- responsibility to help inferior races become civilized - wanted to open up to new markets - extend U.S. influence, strengthening the Navy and sending it off for a tour to "show" it to the Japanese

1916 Election

- revealed the breadth of peace sentiment - Charles Evans Hughes (Republican) was pro-war, had close ties with Theodore Roosevelt - Wilson's fight for peace and pledge to push ahead with progressive reform carried him to victory

Stephen Douglas

- reversed Clay's tactics with Compromise of 1850 - built a majority for each part of the compromise by submitting it separately and adding its supporters to his core - passed the Compromise of 1850

rights demanded for women

- right to vote - equality between them and men before law, education, and employment - allow them to get a divorce

Revolution in Print

- rise of a reading public was accompanied by a print revolution - 1st Amendment guaranteed freedom of the press, and the U.S. government didn't interfere with newspapers - newspapers were the most widely distributed form of print in the new republic - newspapers were men's reading, but the religious tracts tended to find their way into the hands of women, who also read novels, which were seen as dangerous

Middle Passage

- route the slaves took from Africa to Caribbean - part of the Caribbean

Election of 1824

- running presidential candidates were Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and William H. Crawford - 16 states chose the president electors by popular vote - Jackson had the highest popular vote, followed by Adams, then Clay and Crawford - House of Representatives chose president; John Quincy Adams won

American business owners and manufacturers

- saw that they could make great fortunes in foreign lands - began to invest in foreign markets

Credit Mobilier

- scandal of 1872-1873 - damaged the careers of several Gilded Age politicians - major stockholders in the Union Pacific Railroad formed a company, the Credit Mobilier of America, and gave it contracts to build the railroad - gave shares of stock to some congressmen in return for favors

Fort Sumter

- sea fort in Charleston, South Carolina - built following the War of 1812 - location of where the first shots of the Civil War were fired (Battle of Fort Sumter; April 12, 1861 - April 14, 1861) - the battle was led by Confederates

Lecompton Constitution

- second constitution drafted for Kansas Territory, written by proslavery supporters - was written in response to the anti-slavery position of the 1855 Topeka Constitution of James H. Lane and other free-state advocates - the territorial legislature, consisting mostly of slave-owners, met at the designated capital of Lecompton in September 1857 to produce a rival document - permitted slavery, excluded free blacks from living in Kansas, and allowed only male citizens of the U.S. to vote - was rejected and Kansas became a free state in 1861

The Australian Ballot

- secret ballot - practice that required citizens to vote in private rather than in public and required the government to supervise the voting process

Lewis and Clark

- sent on an expedition to explore the Louisiana Purchase - were to find a water route connecting the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean - expedition went from May 1804 to September 1806

The Federalist Papers

- series of 85 articles/essays written by John Jay, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton in the late 1780s - published first in New York papers then in others - supported ratification of the Constitution

The Great Society

- series of domestic initiatives announced in 1964 by President Lyndon Johnson to "end poverty and racial injustice" - included the Voting Rights Act of 1965; establishment of the Department of Housing and Urban Development, Head Start, and job-training programs; Medicare and Medicaid expansion; and various community action programs - many of its new proposals rested on the midcentury "affluence" that the Johnson administration expected to continue for years to come - LBJ insisted that its service-based approach would give people a "hand up" rather than a "handout" - its programs gave low-income families access to social services and slightly narrowed the disparity between rich and poor - from the perspective of political viability, the Great Society proved a failure

Trail of Tears

- series of forced removals of Native Americans living in southeastern United States - got moved to land west of the Mississippi River, determined as Indian territory - 4,000 died due to disease, starvation, and white depredation (attacks)

Compromise of 1850

- series of laws enacted in 1850 intended to settle all outstanding slavery issues - allowed the admission of California as a free state - organization of the rest of the Mexican cession into the two territories of Mexico and Utah without restrictions against slavery - settlement of the Texas-New Mexico border dispute in favor of New Mexico and the compensation Texas with $10 million - abolition of the slave trade in DC and the guarantee of slavery there - passage of a new fugitive slave law

Lincoln-Douglas Debates

- series of seven debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas in their contest for election to the U.S. Senate in 1858 - first debates between US senate candidates in American history - argued popular sovereignty, the Lecompton Constitution, and the Dred Scott decision - Douglas won the Senate seat - foreshadowed the Civil War

Panic of 1893

- serious economic depression in the United States that began in 1893 and ended in 1897 - was marked by the collapse of railroad overbuilding and shaky railroad financing which set off a series of bank failures - bankruptcy of the Reading Railroad and the National Cordage Company in early 1893 set off a process that by the end of the year had caused 491 banks and 15,000 other businesses to fail - ultimately triggered the Pullman Strike

Robert La Follette

- served as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives, the Governor of Wisconsin and a U.S. Senator from Wisconsin - assumed leadership of Wisconsin progressivism in 1897 - secured for Wisconsin a direct primary and a tax law that stripped the railroad corporations of tax exemptions they had long enjoyed

John L. Lewis

- served as president of the United Mine Workers of America - seceded from the American Federation of Labor (AFL) in 1935 along with leaders from other unions - created the Committee for Industrial Organization - in 1936, he created another organization, Labor's NonPartisan League (LNPL), to channel labor's money, energy, and talent into Roosevelt's re-election campaign

Characteristics of the post-Civil War southern labor system

- sharecropping became dominant because many former slaves could not afford land - this ultimately led to more problems

Declaration of Sentiments

- signed by 68 women and 32 men in 1848 - drafted by Elizabeth Cady Stanton at the Seneca Falls Convention - based on Declaration of Independence - demanded equality with men before the law, education, and employment

Treaty of Versailles

- signed by Great Britain, France, the United States, Germany, and other European nations on June 28, 1919 - Germany sole responsibility of the war ("War Guilt Clause") - Germany must pay for the war (reparations) - limited Germany to 100,000 troops - Germany cannot have a navy or airforce - Germany and Austria cannot have political unions

Treaty of Paris 1783

- signed in Paris by representatives of Great Britain and the United States of America on September 3, 1783 - ended the American Revolutionary War - Britain recognized independence of the US, generously fixed its western boundary at the Mississippi River - US agreed to terminate reprisals against loyalists and to return their property

Pacific Railroad Act

- signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln on July 1, 1862 - provided Federal government support for the construction of the first transcontinental railroad - series of acts of Congress that promoted the construction of a railroad through authorizing the issuance of government bonds and the grants of land to railroad companies

Morrill Land Grant College Act

- signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln on July 2, 1862 - provided each state with 30,000 acres of Federal land for each member in their Congressional delegation - grants of land to be used by states to finance the establishment of colleges specializing in "agriculture and the mechanic arts"

Homestead Act

- signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln on May 20, 1862 - encouraged Western migration - provided settlers with 160 acres of public land in exchange for a small filing fee and requirement to complete five years of continuous residence before receiving ownership of the land - was one of the most significant and enduring events in the westward expansion of the United States - by the end of the Civil War, 15,000 homestead claims had been established

Webster-Ashburton Treaty

- signed on August 9, 1842 between the United States and British - helped resolve several boarder issues between US and British colonies (which became Canada) in North America - ended slave trade on high sea and agreed on terms for shared use of the Great Lakes

Treaty of Ghent

- signed on Christmas Eve 1814 - simply ended War of 1812 - border between Canada and the United States - Indians south of border were left to the mercy of the United States - British maritime violations were not mentioned

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

- signed on February 2, 1848 - ended the Mexican-American War - authorized the US purchase of California, New Mexico, and a Texas border on the Rio Grande from Mexico for 15 million dollars

5 Power Treaty

- signed on February 6, 1922, by the US, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy - agreed to scrap more than 2 million tons of warships - halted the post-World War I race in building warships and even reversed the trend - remained in force until the mid-1930s

Pinckney's Treaty

- signed on October 27, 1795 - Spain recognized American neutrality and set the border between the United States and Spanish Florida on American terms - ended Spanish claims to territory in the Southwest and gave Americans the unrestricted right to navigate the Mississippi River and to trans-ship produce at the Spanish port of New Orleans

Harpers Ferry

- site of 1859 raid on a U.S. armory and arsenal for the manufacture and storage of military rifles - effort led by armed abolitionist John Brown to initiate an armed slave revolt in 1859 - raid was defeated by a detachment of U.S. Marines led by Col. Robert E. Lee

Bay of Pigs

- site of an ill-fated 1961 invasion of Cuba by a U.S.-trained force that attempted to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro - U.S.-trained forces landed on April 17, 1961 - forces loyal to the Cuban revolution quickly surrounded and captured members of the mission - the CIA's role quickly became public knowledge and anti-U.S. sentiment swept across Latin America

The Restoration Colonies

- six colonies founded during Restoration Era (1660-1688) - includes: Carolina (split), New York, New Jersey (split), and Pennsylvania

Hurricane Katrina

- slammed into the U.S. Gulf Coast region in late August 2005 - prompted an intense, if temporary, debate over national security on the home front - Department of Homeland Security seemed unprepared to assist people battered by the storm or caught in its aftermath - the White House claimed no one had "anticipated the breach of levees" intended to protect New Orleans from flood waters, but videotapes later showed the president receiving precisely such a warning - the hurricane exacted an especially heavy toll on the Gulf Coast's oldest, poorest, and African American residents

The Border States

- slave states that did not secede from the Union nor join the Confederacy - four were Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, and Missouri - West Virginia was also a border state, separating from Virginia - remained with the Union because Northern politics and economics had more influence on these states than the South - Lincoln considered Kentucky's loyalty to the Union as an important factor in the Union winning the Civil War

Phillis Wheatley

- slave to John and Susannah Wheatley, who taught her how to read and write - published first poem in Boston in 1767 - went to London in 1773, becoming a transatlantic sensation - emancipated when she returned to Boston

Enemy of free labor society

- slavery - pro-slavery views

Slavery in years following the American Revolution

- slavery was abolished in all northern states - slave trade to end in 1807, 20 years after ratification of the Constitution

slave families

- slaves were members of a plantation household over which the owner exercised absolute authority as owner, paternal protector, and lawgiver - learned they weren't members of families or communities but property, and could be bought and sold - most Chesapeake slaves lived in units consisting of a mother, a father, and their small children - most common exceptions were fathers who had married away from their own plantations and who visited "broad wives" and children during their off hours

"Fifty-four Forty or Fight!"

- slogan adopted by expansionists during the Oregon boundary dispute - Polk called for US expansion, which was to include the Oregon territory, whose northern boundary line was at latitude line of 54˚40' - British claimed land north of the 42nd parallel, causing a dispute - Polk accepted a treaty that split the territory at the 49th parallel

Sodbusters

- small farmers in parts of the West who adapted to the treeless plains and prairies - had to break through sod, thick soil, in order to farm - built soddies, which were houses made from prairie sod that was cut into blocks and stacked to form walls

Margaret Sanger

- social activist - insisted in her lectures on birth control that women should be free to enjoy sexual relations without having to worry about unwanted motherhood - advocated for birth control - established organizations that led to the creation of Planned Parenthood

Anti-Imperialists

- some believed that subjugating the Filipinos would violate the nation's most precious principle: the right of all people to independence and self-government - feared that the military and diplomatic establishment needed to administer the colony would threaten political liberties at home - other anti-imperialists were motivated more by self-interest than by democratic ideals (feared competition from Filipino producers, depress wage rates) - other anti-imperialists feared the contaminating effects of contact with "inferior" Asian races

JFK

- John F. Kennedy - president from 1961 to 1963 - noted for his youthful charm and vigor and his "New Frontier" vision for America - pledged to separate his Catholic religion from his politics; defused the religious issue that had doomed the candidacy of Al Smith in 1928 - election of 1960 brought JFK the narrowest of victories; defeated Nixon by only about 100,000 popular votes, and his victory in the Electoral College rested on razor-thin margins in several states - in 1961, President John F. Kennedy began a dramatic expansion of the U.S. space program and committed the nation to the ambitious goal of landing a man on the moon by the end of the decade - the Kennedy administration declared it would never allow the Soviet Union to place nuclear warheads so close to U.S. soil - during the Cuban Missile Crisis, Kennedy rejected a military strike against Cuba; instead, he ordered the Navy to "quarantine" Cuba - Flexible Response was his approach to the Cold War that aimed to provide a wide variety of military and nonmilitary methods to confront communist movements - was assassinated on November 22, 1963 in Dallas, Texas

information revolution

Acceleration of the speed and availability of information resulting from use of computer and satellite systems

The Soviet Union invaded which country in 1979?

Afghanistan, a move primarily sparked by Soviet fear of the growing influence of Islamic fundamentalists along its borders

Federal assumption of state debt

Alexander Hamilton's plan for a National Bank to assume the debt of the States from the Revolutionary War so federal government would have control over it instead of state government.

Amerigo Vespucci

America was named in his honor

Nat Turner

Baptist lay preacher whose religious visions encouraged him to lead a slave revolt in southern Virginia in 1831 in which 55 whites were killed—more than any other American slave revolt

World War II, eastern front, turning point

Battle of Stalingrad

In 1972, President Richard Nixon escalated the war in Indochina by invading ________, a supposedly neutral nation.

Cambodia

In 1972, President Richard Nixon broke with the past with his dramatic and historic visit to

China

America's first illegal aliens were

Chinese immigrant laborers in 1882 because of the Chinese Exclusion Act

Foreign policy/President Bill Clinton

Clinton assigned top priority to devising guidelines for military intervention, improving relations with the UN, promoting free-market policies that supported globalization, addressing environmental concerns that were both global and local in nature, and reducing threats from nuclear materials

Taxation without Representation

Colonists believed that because they did not have a representative in Parliament, they were getting taxed.

The organization founded during the war years devoted to nonviolent resistance to segregation was the

Congress on Racial Equality (CORE)

Eli Whitney

Connecticut-born tutor who invented the cotton gin

French involvement in Vietnam ended with their defeat at

Dien Bien Phu

World War II, western front, turning point

El Alamein

Post American Revolution tension between US and England

England's occupation of forts in the US owned territory bordering the Great Lakes

coureurs de bois

French colonists

Problems faced by Union armies during the campaigns of 1862

George B. McClellan refused to advance as he was not willing to take riskes

Britain and France declared war on Germany when

Germany attacked Poland on September 1, 1939, but the Allied powers couldn't mobilize in time to help Poland

Contrasting views of Hamilton and Jefferson

Hamilton: -- National Bank -- more federal power -- US led by well educated elites -- loose interpretation of Constitution (some gray areas) -- economy based on shipping/manufacturing Jefferson: -- against National Bank -- limited national government, more power in state -- US led by farmers -- strict interpretation of Constitution -- economy based on farming

Virtual Representation

Idea that the British Parliament members virtually represented British colonists by speaking for all instead of just the district they were from

Britain's new imperial policy after 1763

It increased control over the colonies.

The first player to break Major League Baseball's policy of racial discrimination was

Jackie Robinson

President Bush replace William Rehnquist on the Supreme Court with

John Roberts in 2005

"City Upon a Hill"

John Winthrop envisioned the colony, centered in present-day Boston, as a "city upon a hill" from which Puritans would spread religious righteousness throughout the world

The person accused of assassinating President John F. Kennedy was

Lee Harvey Oswald

In China, the United States supported Jiang Jieshi instead of Mao Zedong because

Mao Zedong was leading a growing communist movement which fought more effectively against the Japanese invaders, but the U.S. did not believe in communism

circuit-riding preachers

Methodist ministers who traveled from church to church, usually in rural areas

Anglo settlers in Texas declared their independence when

Mexican government attempted to consolidate authority over their settlements

Post American Revolution War boundaries

Mississippi River was the western boundary for the United States, excluding New Orleans

In the late 19th century, the railroads (characteristics/pros/cons)

Pros: -- established time zones -- employed more workers than any other industry -- major transportation - shortening time over long distances Cons: -- unfair pricing especially what competition

Radical Republicans Reconstruction plan v. Lincoln's Reconstruction Plan

Radical Republicans: wanted to punish the South and ex-confederates by limiting their rights Lincoln: wanted to offer some amenity or pardon to ex-confederates, wanting them to rejoin the Union

narrowcasting

Tactic used by TV programmers to target specific audiences with corresponding shows

Clinton Impeachment

The impeachment of Bill Clinton was initiated in December 1998 by the House of Representatives and led to a trial in the Senate for the impeachment of Bill Clinton, the 42nd President of the United States, on two charges, one of perjury and one of obstruction of justice

Lochner v. New York

U.S. Supreme Court declared unconstitutional a seemingly innocent New York state law that limited bakery employees to a 10-hour day

The purpose of the War Board

U.S. government agency that brought together representatives of labor, industry, and the public to resolve labor disputes

Sioux (non-horse culture)

a broad alliance of North American Indian peoples who spoke three related languages within the Siouan language family

During the 1980's, conservative Reaganites redefined the word "liberalism" to mean

a code word for wasteful social programs devised by a bloated federal government that gouged hardworking people and squandered their tax dollars

In the late 1890s, farmers experienced

a new area of prosperity as they formed alliances and gained ground

national road

a road that attempted to link west and east through the Chesapeake by connecting the Potomac River with the Ohio River at Wheeling, Virginia in 1818

Waltham

a town in Massachusetts that was the site of the first mill built by the Boston Manufacturing Company in 1813

President Clinton pulled U.S. troops out of Somalia

after a battle in Mogadishu took the lives of 18 U.S. service personnel in the fall of 1993

J. P. Morgan/U.S. Steel

along with Andrew Carnegie, J. P. Morgan created the U.S. Steel Corporation in 1901 through the largest merger in steel and iron companies

U.S. foreign policy in the Western Hemisphere after 1900

although changing theories and approaches with the presidents, the foreign policy all had a similar goal: expand U.S. influence

Opponents of the Mexican War

argued that Americans only wanted the land to expand slavery into new territories

The goal of the Indian schools

assimilation to white culture

Southern cotton mills competitive advantage over northern mills

because of the cheap labor that was available

The prisoner-of-war issue

began after the Union began organizing regiments of former slaves

Premillennialism

belief (held mostly by middle-class evangelists) that Christ's Second Coming would occur when missionary conversion of the world brought about a thousand years of social perfection

Restorationism

belief that all theological and institutional changes since the end of biblical times were manmade mistakes and that religious organizations must restore themselves to the purity and simplicity of the apostolic church

On the issue of secession, most Northerners

believe it was treasonable and unconstitutional

anxious bench

bench at or near the front of a religious revival meeting where the most likely converts were seated

The Johnson administration evaluated the success of the U.S. effort in Vietnam on the basis of

body count: kill ration of 10 to 1

How did the worldwide economic instability of the 1920s and 1930s lead to the beginning of World War II?

brought super nationalistic military government to power in Europe and Asia

Colonial government

by 1720s, most colonial governments included an appointed governor, a council, and an elected assembly

How did ethnic communities respond to Americanization campaigns?

by strengthening their customs and traditions

Northern women contributed to the war effort

by taking jobs on factories, hospitals and offices

Erie Canal

canal linking the Hudson River at Albany with the Great Lakes at Buffalo that helped commercialize the farms of the Great Lakes watershed and channel that commerce into New York City

Gabriel's Rebellion

carefully planned but unsuccessful rebellion of slaves in Richmond, Virginia, and the surrounding area in 1800

Dowry

cash or goods a woman received from her father when she got married

Social Security Administration

centerpiece of the welfare state (1935) that instituted the first federal pension system and set up funds to take care of groups that were unable to support themselves

military service

colonists viewed it as a way to get land ownership and earlier marriage

"Blueprint for modern America"

created by the Homestead Act

Immigration Reform And Control Act Of 1986 (Simpson-Mazzoli Act)

created stricter penalties for employing undocumented workers and provided residency for people that had lived in the U.S. since 1982

The Federal Reserve board intensified the severity of the stock market crash by

curtailing amount of money in circulation and raised interest rates, making credit more difficult for the public to secure

In 2005, an official U.S. government report concluded that, in 2003, Iraq...

did have biological/nuclear WMD at the time of the invasion, showing that intelligence had been distorted to bolster the justification for war

When Hungarian rebels led by Imre Nagy rebelled against the Stalinist regime in 1956, the U.S.

did not help because military strategists at the Pentagon recognized the danger of mounting any military operation so close to Soviet territory

household deficit

difference between what U.S. households earned and what they spent

In the 2000 presidential campaign, George W Bush criticized past Democratic efforts in

economic growth, the federal budget surplus, health care, tax relief, and reform of social insurance and welfare programs

The Ku Klux Klan Act

empowered the President to suspend the writ of habeas corpus to combat the Ku Klux Klan

task system

encouraged slaves to work hard without supervision, and slaves turned the system to their own uses

Maryland

established as a Catholic refuge

private fields

farms of up to five acres on which slaves working under the task system were permitted to produce items for their own use and sale in a nearby market

Community Reinvestment Act of 1977

forced banks to finance home buying in low-income neighborhoods to stimulate economic activity

Secretary of State John Hay's Open Door Note of 1900

foreign policy tactic in which the U.S. asked European powers to respect China's independence and to open their spheres of influence to merchants from other nations

Samuel Gompers

formed one of the first labor unions: American Labor Union to fight for better hours and wages

The major mineral being mined in the 1870's

gold and silver

Representative governments

government of most of the English colonies in North America by the mid-1700s

Economically, the 1920s was a period of

growth, prosperity, and unprecedented productivity

The Senate Committee headed by Gerald Nye in the 1930s, as related to WWI

held well-publicized hearings and concluded that the United States had been maneuvered into the First World War to preserve the profits of bankers and munitions makers

The most environmentally destructive type of mining

hydraulic

Scots-Irish

immigrants who came to the colonies and lived in the backcountry of South Carolina

In 1939 and 1940, Franklin Roosevelt tried to halt Japanese aggression in China and Indochina by

imposing economic sanctions to limit Japanese access to raw materials

During the 1950s and Dwight D. Eisenhower's presidency, the state of the American economy was

in a period of steady economic growth

Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus

in order to prosecute those who had committed treason and went against the Union in destructive ways

James B. Duke

industrialized tobacco

Longhorn cattle

introduce by Spaniards in 18th century

Thomas Edison

inventor of the 1800s who developed an array of devices including the phonograph, incandescent light bulb, and movie camera

General William T. Sherman's tactics

involved using total war - destroying military and non-military facilities in order to discourage civilians

Refugee Act of 1980

law allowing refugees fleeing political persecution entry into the United States

Denmark Vese

leader of a slave conspiracy in and around Charleston, South Carolina, in 1822

Union draft of 1863

led to riot races

Accomplished by the Union victory at Antietam

led to the elevation of Robert E. Lee as commander of Confederate forces

life expectancy

longest in New England colonies

In the post-Civil War period, the Spanish speaking peoples of the Southwest and California

lost much of their political influence

Steel Cargo Containers

made shipping goods and raw materials long distances easier and less expensive

In the aftermath of Vietnam and Watergate, the mood of the public was

major distrust toward the president

Postmillennialists

middle-class evangelicals that believed that Christ's Second Coming would occur at the end of 1,000 years of social perfection brought about by the missionary conversion of the world

The term "bayonet rule" refers to

military rule and the use of federal troops in the South by the government during Reconstruction

itinerant preachers

ministers who lacked their own parishes and who traveled from place to place

The first immigration restriction legislation

mostly affected Chinese immigrants

President Eisenhower supported the Highway Act of 1956 base on

national security considerations

Women's impact during the war

occurred mostly in the fields of medicine

Molasses Act of 1733

passed by Parliament to place a prohibitive duty an all foreign molasses

deists

people who believed that God made the universe but did not intervene in its affairs

Age of Reagan

periodization of recent American history used by historians and political observers to emphasize that the conservative "Reagan Revolution" led by President Ronald Reagan in domestic and foreign policy had a lasting impact

storekeepers

played a role in local networks of debt, turning the storekeeper into a broker within the complicated web of neighborhood obligations

minstrel show

popular form of theater among working men of the northern cities in which white men in blackface portrayed African Americans in song and dance

Downsizing

process of cutting back in labor pools and management staffs by businesses usually due to declining profits

Uncle Tom's Cabin

published by Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852, this sentimental novel told the story of the Christian slave Uncle Tom and became a best seller and the most powerful antislavery tract of the antebellum years

The First Congress's first action

put tariffs on imports

The Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act of 1930

raised import duties to protect American businesses and farmers, adding considerable strain to the international economic climate of the Great Depression

William McKinley's treatment of the Philippines

reflected his fear that without a strong US government another power would invade

In the years following the Civil War, the southern agricultural economy

relied on the crop lien system because of overproduction, causing prices to drop and farmers to fall into deeper debt

Richard Ballinger, Secretary of Interior under President Taft

reopened 1 million acres of land for commercial use, which created a lot of controversy

On August 9, 1974, President Richard Nixon became the only president in U.S. history to

resign from his presidency

The landmark decision of Munn v. Illinois (1877)

ruled that states could regulate businesses clothed with a "public interest"

domestic fiction

sentimental literature that centered on household and domestic themes that emphasized the toil and travails of women and children who overcame adversity through religious faith and strength of character

Most African Americans were working as

sharecroppers and tenant farmers, vulnerable to exploitation

middle class

social group that developed in the early 19th century comprised of merchants, master craftsmen who had turned themselves into manufacturers, and market-oriented farmers—small-scale entrepreneurs who rose within market society

blood sports

sporting activities emphasizing bloodiness that were favored by working-class men of the cities. The most popular in the early 19th century were cockfighting, ratting, dogfights, and various types of violence between animals

US banking system of 1830s and 1840s

states chartered and state owned banks were the ones who controlled the amount of money in circulation

The power of organized labor during the Second World War

strengthened substantially through the scarcity of labor that was present

The Tet Offensive

surprise National Liberation Front (NLF) attack during the lunar new year holiday in early 1968 that brought high casualties to the NLF but fueled pessimism about the war's outcome in the United States

Task System

system of slave labor that required slaves to complete specific assignments each day; afterwards they would have their own time

tenancy

system under which farmers worked land that they did not own

Missionaries were committed to

teaching the Gospel to the "ignorant" Asian masses in order to save their souls and enabling them to become "civilized"

backcountry

term used in the 18th and early 19th centuries to refer to the western settlements and the supposed misfits who lived in them

Herbert Hoover's position on the question of relief was

that helping and giving money to the poor would destroy their desire to work and undermine their sense of self-worth

The most conservative faction of the Republican Party are known as

the "Tea Party"

On the issue of slavery in the territories, John C. Calhoun asserted that

the Constitution protected the right of citizens to move from place to place and to take their property with them

Woodrow Wilson's hopes for a negotiated settlement with Germany were dashed by...

the Republican victories in the congressional elections

In the Persian Gulf War, President George H. W. Bush did not oust Saddam Hussein from power because

the UN had never approved the goal and the U.S. military planners considered it to be too costly and risky

Harry Truman's policy in regard to the Soviet Union

the United States had to take a firm stand in opposition to Soviet territorial and ideological expansion

In 1933, a bomb ripped through ________ in New York City, evidence that terrorism had reached the United States.

the World Trade Center

Rolling Thunder

the campaign of sustained bombing launched by Lyndon Johnson against North Vietnam in 1964

Popular novels celebrated

the decency, honesty, and patriotism of ordinary Americans

The modern civil rights movement began with

the end of WW2

Gerald R. Ford

the first person to become both president and vice president, without having been elected to either position

In 1890, the Bureau of Census announced that

the frontier which had separated the settled and unsettled areas of the continent no longer existed

Conservatives believed that the U.S. "lost" the Vietnam War because

the media, student protesters, and a weak-willed Congress undermined the war effort

Predestination

the theory states that before God created the world, he decreed who will be saved and who will be damned

Enfranchise

to grant the right to vote

When the United States entered World War I (state of the war)

total war

crisis conversion

understood in evangelical churches as a personal transformation that resulted from directly experiencing the Holy Spirit

competence

understood in the early republic as the ability to live up to neighborhood economic standards while protecting the long-term independence of the household

Policies pursued by William Howard Taft's administration in Asia

used dollar diplomacy, believing this would offer more peace and be a less coercive way of maintaining stability and order

journeymen

wage-earning craftsman

Progressive views on voting

wanted to limit the power of conservatives and political machines and to improve the principle of democracy - benefiting the people not the corporation

The 1992 Democratic nominee for presidency

was Bill Clinton

The Treaty of Paris of 1898

was an agreement made in 1898 that involved Spain relinquishing nearly all of the remaining Spanish Empire, especially Cuba, and ceding Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States

Harvard University

was established in 1636 by vote of Massachusetts Bay Colony and is the oldest institution of higher learning in the US and it was created in order to train Puritan ministers

In the Gilded Age the most important advertising medium

was magazines - especially with catalog ordering

The postwar boom in the range cattle industry

was the cattle frontier

The issue the caused the Populist Party to be absorbed by the Democratic Party

was the coinage of silver-wanting a fair amount and ratio

Reason most Americans took arms in 1775

was to restore the empire to what it had been before 1763

The Confederate strategy for winning the war in 1864

was to wear down the women, would take a long time and be very costly

inheriting property for women

women had the best chance to inherit property in the Chesapeake colonies (Virginia and Maryland)

seaport cities

- the overseas demand for American foodstuffs increased - economic growth 1790 to 1815 was most concentrated in New York City, Philadelphia, Boston, and Baltimore

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg

- the parents of two young children and members of the Communist Party - became the central characters in a controversy over atomic espionage - trial, guilty verdicts, death sentences, numerous legal appeals, worldwide protests, and their 1953 executions for having committed espionage, captured media attention - documents released after the fall of the Soviet Union in 1989 clearly confirm Julius Rosenberg's spying activities; Ethel apparently knew about his work - to their supporters, they fell victim to anticommunist hysteria

The Bush administration chose to ignore the FISA of 1978 in regards to the issue of

- the post-September 11 congressional resolution on fighting terrorism - the White House insisted that the president's inherent powers as commander-in-chief allowed him to forgo FISA's provisions in order to save lives

Results of the Civil War

- the ratification of the 13th Amendment - a Union victory - the emancipation of slaves

New Democracy

- the term for the Jacksonian change from a system based on property qualifications to one based on manhood suffrage - things were done for the people and democracy was more appealing to the masses - beginning in the 1820s, a powerful movement celebrating the common person and promoting "New Democracy" transformed the earlier elitist character of American Politics

Relief, Recovery, Reform

- the three R's of the New Deal - relief programs included: Civil Works Administration, Farm Security Administration, Federal Emergency Relief Administration, National Youth Administration, and Public Works Administration - recovery programs included: National Recovery Administration, Agricultural Adjustment Administration, and Public Works Administration - reform programs included: Securities And Exchange Commission, Tennessee Valley Authority, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, and the National Labor Relations Act

Russo-Japanese War Settlement

- the war was a territorial conflict between imperial Japan and Russia mediated by Theodore Roosevelt at Portsmouth, New Hampshire - the peace agreement gave Korea and other territories to Japan, ensured Russia's continuing control over Siberia, and protected China's territorial integrity - Roosevelt's success in ending the war won him the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1906; he was the first American to earn that award

Social Darwinism

- theory that human groups and races are subject to the same laws of natural selection as Charles Darwin had perceived in plants and animals in nature - popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries - popular among both white intellectuals and a wider middle-class reading public to explain existing racial and class hierarchies in society - the weak were diminished and their cultures delimited while the strong grew in power and in cultural influence - theory explaining human history as an ongoing evolutionary struggle between different groups of people for survival and supremacy that was used to justify inequalities between races, classes, and nations

1968 Presidential Election

- there had been a three-way nomination for the Democratic Party between Robert Kennedy, Eugene McCarthy, and Hubert H. Humphrey after LBJ stepped out of the race - Hubert Humphrey won the nomination - Richard Nixon was the Republican Party nominee - George Wallace ran for president as a third-party candidate on the American Independent ticket - Nixon won 56% of the electoral vote and outpolled Humphrey in the popular vote by less than 1%

Barbary Pirates

- they demanded for tribute from American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean Sea. If ships of a given country failed to pay, pirates would attack the ship and take their goods, and often enslave crew members or hold them for ransom - When the thirteen colonies were part of the British empire their ships could operate in the Mediterranean without fear of attack because the British were paying an annual tribute to the Barbary states, but without British protection, American ships that entered the Mediterranean risked capture by Barbary pirates and the enslavement of their crews - when Thomas Jefferson became US President, he refused to pay the tributes demanded, thus provoking the First Barbary War, which was the first war the US fought that was overseas

Imperialists

- those who wanted to expand their nation's world power through military prowess, economic strength, and control of foreign territory - politicians, intellectuals, and military strategists viewed expansion as essential to the pursuit of world power - believed that the US should build a strong navy, solidify a sphere of influence in the Caribbean, and extend markets into Asia - Alfred Thayer Mahan was a big supporter of imperialism

Triangular Trade

- three-way trading system between Africa, America and Europe - slaves from Africa were shipped to the Caribbean in exchange for rum, iron, gunpowder, etc. - slaves were then traded for sugar and molasses and went to the colonies - colonies sent fish, lumber, and tobacco to Europe in exchange for teas, spices, cloth, and tools

Era of Good Feelings

- time in the United States' political history which reflected a sense of national purpose and a desire for unity - began after War of 1812; James Monroe's presidential term - one-party politics and economic prosperity, which political optimism

President Polk provoked a war with Mexico

- to acquire New Mexico and California - sent 4,000 soldiers to patrol Rio Grande under Zachary Taylor - encouraged California settlers to want U.S. annexation

Reagan deregulation

- to reduce or remove government rules or policies - Reagan's deregulation agenda focused on the financial system - economic advisers insisted that financial markets were largely self-regulating and self-correcting - minimal governmental interference in the marketplace would bring greater economic efficiencies and therefore greater prosperity - during Reagan's 2nd term, corruption and mismanagement in financial industry increasingly appeared as toxic byproducts of deregulation

important southern cash crops

- tobacco - rice - indigo

John Smith

- took charge of Jamestown - focused on their survival - with help from Pocahontas, he was able to avoid war with the Indians

Ben Franklin

- took charge of the "Pennsylvania Gazette" in 1729 - worked to improve society - devised a plan for colonial union: called for a "President General" who would serve as commander-in-chief and administer laws; Albany Congress adopted similar plan

Nullification Crisis

- took place during Jackson's presidency from 1832-1837 - political crisis involving the federal government and South Carolina - began when South Carolina began to nullify tariff acts, claiming they were unconstitutional, beginning with opposition to the tariff of 1828 - other southern states joined the opposition, favoring freedom of trade and believing in the authority of states rather than the federal government

Worcester v. Georgia

- took place in 1832 - during the case, the US Supreme Court considered its powers to enforce the rights of Native American nations against the states - Supreme Court ruled that Georgia didn't have the right to enforce state laws in Cherokee Nation territory

Pueblo Revolt

- took place in present-day New Mexico, 1680 - led by Popé, a medicine man - Pueblos abandoned Christianity and returned to old forms of worship - attacked Spaniards, killing 200 people and destroyed buildings - most successful Indian revolt

Pentagon Papers

- top-secret, highly critical history of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War - Daniel Ellsberg, an antiwar activist, leaked the papers to the press in the summer of 1971 - revealed that the Harry S. Truman administration gave military aid to France in its colonial war against the communist-led Viet Minh, thus directly involving the United States in Vietnam

Alexis de Tocqueville

- traveled to the United States in 1831 - studied its prisons - returned with a wealth of broader observations; codified in "Democracy in America" (1835), one of the most influential books of the 19th century

Rush-Bagot Treaty

- treaty between the United States and the United Kingdom - signed in 1817 - purpose was to limit naval armaments (weapons) on the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain

Herbert Hoover's response to the Great Depression was to

- turn to associational principles he followed as secretary of commerce - urged farmers to restrict output, industrialists to hold wages at pre-depression levels, and bankers to help each other remain solvent - was reluctant to engage the government in providing relief to unemployed and homeless Americans

Fascists

- type of highly centralized government that used terror and violence to suppress opposition - rigid social and economic controls often incorporated strong nationalism and racism - fascist governments were dominated by strong authority figures or dictators - examples include Adolf Hitler (Germany), Benito Mussolini (Italy), and Francisco Franco (Spain)

Quebec Act

- unrelated but passed around the time of the Coercive Acts - established French civil law and the Roman Catholic Church in the Providence of Quebec - provided for trial by jury in criminal cases and legislative power to appointive governor and council - extended administrative boundaries

Fireside Chats

- used the radio to reach out to ordinary Americans - second Sunday after his inauguration, Roosevelt launched a series of radio addresses known as fireside chats - spoke in a plain, friendly, and direct voice to the forlorn and discouraged - estimated 20 million Americans listened

George Washington (before being president)

- veteran from the French and Indian War - named commander-in-chief of the Continental Army by the Second Continental Congress in 1755 - won several victories at Boston, Trenton, Princeton, and Yorkshire

Causes of U.S. expansionism

- wanted to expand political power - create spheres of influence, trying to oust European powers in Asia - missionaries' belief that it was their duty to spread the Christian message

French and Indian War

- war for North America - alliance of France and Indians against the British - fought over control of North America - war merged with Europe's Seven Year War (1754-1763) that pitted Britain and Prussia against France, Austria, and Russia - British victory in the French and Indian War had a great impact on the British Empire: allowed great expansion of British territorial claims in the New World, but the cost of the war had greatly enlarged Britain's debt, which effected the American colonies

George Marshall

- was Chief of Staff of the United States Army under presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman, and served as Secretary of State and Secretary of Defense under Truman - proposed the Marshall Plan, which, formally known as the European Recovery Program, it was a plan of U.S. aid to Europe that aimed to contain communism by fostering postwar economic recovery - was hailed as the "organizer of victory" by Winston Churchill for his leadership of the Allied victory in World War II

Jefferson Davis

- was President of the Confederacy from 1861 to 1865 shortly after their succession from the Union - was in charge of the Confederate war plans, but was unable to stop the Union - supported a well-knit government, but it was opposed by states' rights supporters - was captured by Union forces on May 10, 1865, in Georgia and was charged with treason

Sacajawea

- was a Lemhi Shoshone woman who is known for her help to the Lewis and Clark Expedition in achieving their chartered mission objectives by exploring the Louisiana Territory - was an indispensable guide, interpreter, and diplomat - helped Lewis and Clark navigate the upper Missouri, cross the Rockies to the Snake River, and follow that stream to the Columbia River

Lincoln Steffens

- was a New York reporter who launched a series of articles in McClure's, called Tweed Days in St. Louis, that would later be published together in a book titled "The Shame of the Cities" - "The Shame of the Cities" reports on the workings of corrupt political machines in several major U.S. cities - unraveled the webs of bribery and corruption that were strangling local governments in the nation's cities

Second Great Awakening

- was a Protestant religious revival during the early 19th century in the United States - the movement began around 1790, gained momentum by 1800 - after 1820, membership rose rapidly among Baptist and Methodist congregations whose preachers led the movement

Nikita Khrushchev

- was a Soviet statesman who led the Soviet Union during part of the Cold War as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 - fall of 1959, he toured the United States, hoping to heal a rift over the future of divided Berlin - June 1961, met with Kennedy in Vienna, Austria, where the Soviets proposed ending the Western presence in Berlin and reuniting the city as part of East Germany - October 28, 1962, he ordered the Soviet missiles in Cuba dismantled and the supply ships brought home

William T. Sherman

- was a U.S. Civil War Union Army leader - led Union forces in campaigns through the South - known for his "March to the Sea" - served as a divisional commander under General Ulysses S. Grant - Grant and Sherman fought together to capture Vicksburg, Mississippi

George Custer

- was a United States Army officer and cavalry commander in the American Civil War and the American Indian Wars - Civil War hero and postwar Indian fighter who was killed at Little Big Horn in 1876 - best known for leading more than 200 of his men to their deaths in the notorious Battle of the Little Bighorn in June 1876 by dividing his forces

Munn v. Illinois

- was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court upheld the power of government to regulate private industries - developed as a result of the Illinois legislature's responding in 1871 to pressure from the National Grange by setting maximum rates that private companies could charge for the storage and transport of agricultural products - the Chicago grain warehouse firm of Munn and Scott was found guilty of violating the law but appealed the conviction on the grounds that the Illinois regulation represented an unconstitutional deprivation of property without due process of law

Neutrality Act

- was a formal announcement issued by U.S. President George Washington on April 22, 1793 that declared the nation neutral in the conflict between France and Great Britain - threatened legal proceedings against any American providing assistance to any country at war

Donner Party

- was a group of American pioneers who set out for California in a wagon train in May 1846 - were delayed by a series of mishaps and mistakes, and spent the winter of 1846-47 snowbound in the Sierra Nevada - after eating the family dogs and other animal meat, some members ate bones, hides, twigs and string; also believed that some resorted to cannibalism - 48 of 87 members survived to reach Sacramento

Free Speech Movement

- was a massive, long-lasting student protest which took place during the 1964-1965 academic year on the campus of the University of California, Berkeley - college campus phenomenon inspired first by the struggle for civil rights and later fueled by opposition to the Vietnam War - began in 1964, when students protested a ban on on-campus political activities

Sagebrush Rebellion

- was a movement during the 1970s and 1980s that sought major changes to federal land control, use and disposal policy in the American West where, in 13 western states, federal land holdings include between 20% and 85% of a state's area - western entrepreneurs associated with the Sagebrush Rebellion advocated transferring to state and private hands some of the vast amount of land held by the federal government for recreational parks and environmental purposes

Clayton Antitrust Act

- was a part of United States antitrust law with the goal of adding further substance to the U.S. antitrust law regime - sought to prevent anticompetitive practices in their incipiency - provided further clarification and substance to the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 on topics such as price discrimination, price fixing and unfair business practices

Characteristics of the suburbs

- was a part of the "American Dream" - often contained many smaller sized houses - government programs made it easier for citizens to afford living in the suburbs - with houses occupying only about 15% of new suburban lots, large lawns served as private playgrounds - many African Americans and Latinos were prevented from buying houses in the suburbs, as they became a place for white to avoid living in racially integrated neighborhoods

Clara Barton

- was a pioneering nurse - founded the American Red Cross - was a hospital nurse in the American Civil War - independently organized relief for the wounded, often bringing her own supplies to front lines

Albany Plan

- was a plan to create a unified government for the Thirteen Colonies, suggested by Benjamin Franklin, a delegate from Pennsylvania, at the Albany Congress on July 10, 1754 in Albany, New York - the plan was sent back to the British and to the individual American colonies; the British government thought the proposed colonial government was unnecessary and rejected it, as did the American colonies - the colonies feared that the president general might become too powerful

Emancipation Proclamation

- was a presidential proclamation and executive order issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863 - granted freedom to the slaves in the Confederate States - freedom would only come to the slaves if the Union won the war - led the way to total abolition of slavery in the United States - the aim of the Civil War changed to include the freeing of slaves in addition to preserving the Union

Moral Majority

- was a prominent American political organization associated with the Christian right and Republican Party - was founded in 1979 by Baptist minister Jerry Falwell and associates, and dissolved in the late 1980s

The Compromise of 1877

- was a purported informal, unwritten deal that settled the intensely disputed 1876 U.S. presidential election - Hayes was awarded presidency instead of Tiden - resulted in the US federal government pulling the last troops out of the South permanentely - formally ended the Reconstruction Era

The slaughter of millions of buffalo

- was a result of railroad companies hiring professional hunters in order to feed workers - devastated Indians; it was their livelihood

Northern Securities Company

- was a short-lived American railroad trust formed in 1901 by E. H. Harriman, James J. Hill, J.P. Morgan and their associates - first victim of Theodore Roosevelt's "trust busting" in which he broke up large monopolies to restore competition - Roosevelt acted without warning and Morgan tried to negotiate but Roosevelt did not get involved in that

Boxer Rebellion

- was a violent anti-foreign, anti-colonial, and anti-Christian uprising that took place in China between 1899 and 1901 - first challenge to Hay's policy came from the Chinese - the Boxers was a Chinese nationalist organization that instigated an uprising in 1900 to rid China of all foreign influence - China was greatly weakened and controlled to an even greater extent by the western imperial powers despite the rebellion against it - European powers decided that the Chinese government should pay them reparations for their property and personnel losses during the Boxer Rebellion, Hay convinced them to accept payment in cash rather than in territory

Jacob Coxey

- was a well-to-do Ohio businessman - distressed by the economic depression of the 1890s and impelled by the era's reform ideas, led a march of unemployed workers to Washington, D.C., in 1894 - Coxey's Army marched on Washington D.C. in 1894, the second year of a four-year economic depression that was the worst in United States history to that time

The 1893 Columbian Exposition

- was a world's fair held in Chicago in 1893 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the New World in 1492 - was the most successful fair in American history - could not erase the question of race

Elijah Lovejoy

- was an American Presbyterian minister, journalist, newspaper editor and abolitionist - was murdered by a pro-slavery mob in Alton, Illinois, during their attack on Godfrey and Gillman's warehouse to destroy his press and abolitionist materials on November 7, 1837

Josiah Strong

- was an American Protestant clergyman, organizer, editor, and author - a leader of the Social Gospel movement, which was a movement led by a group of liberal Protestant progressives in response to the social problems raised by the rapid industrialization, urbanization, and increasing immigration of the Gilded Age - called for social justice and combating social evils - preached of the saving power of Protestant religious values

Robert E. Lee

- was an American and Confederate soldier - commander of the Confederate States Army - commanded the Army of Northern Virginia in the American Civil War from 1862 until his surrender in 1865 - after the Seven Days' Battles, which was the first major victory for the Confederacy since Bull Run Lee emerged as the people's hero

John Steinbeck

- was an American author - won the 1962 Nobel Prize in Literature - wrote the "The Grapes of Wrath," which was the best-selling novel of 1939 - in it, he told a story of an Oklahoma family's fortitude in surviving eviction from their land, migrating westward, and suffering exploitation in the "promised land" of California

Henry Ford

- was an American automobile manufacturer who created the Ford Model T car in 1908 - founded the Ford Motor Company in 1903 - sponsor of the development of the assembly line technique of mass production, which revolutionized the industry

Andrew Mellon

- was an American banker, businessman, industrialist, philanthropist, art collector, and politician - was appointed Secretary of the Treasury by President Warren G. Harding in 1921; served for almost 11 years - the Mellon Plan was economic legislation passed by Congress in 1924 reducing taxes on the wealthy and businesses, advocating high tariffs and cuts in government spending and corporate taxes

Kit Carson

- was an American explorer, guide, fur trapper, Indian agent, rancher, and soldier - traveled through southwestern and western USA - grew up on the Missouri frontier on lands bought from the sons of frontiersman Daniel Boone - served as a guide to Frémont's government-financed explorations of the West in 1842 and 1843-44 - he oversaw the widespread destruction of the tribe's homes, crops, and livestock

John C. Frémont

- was an American explorer, politician, and soldier who, in 1856, became the first candidate of the Republican Party for the office of President of the United States - for the 1856 presidential election, the Republicans turned to Frémont, who had few political enemies, and his antislavery credentials were satisfactory - Republican "Wide Awake" clubs marched in torchlight parades chanting "Free Soil, Free Speech, Free Men, Frémont!" while southerners threatened to secede if he won

Terence Powderly

- was an American labor union leader, politician and attorney - best known as head of the Knights of Labor in the late 1880s -elected mayor of Scranton, Pennsylvania for three 2-year terms, starting in 1878 - wanted equal pay for equal work, an 8 hr work day and to end child labor

Frederick W. Taylor

- was an American mechanical engineer who sought to improve industrial efficiency - Chief engineer at Philadelphia's Midvale Steel Company whose goal was to make human labor mimic the efficiency of a piece of machinery - published his work, The Principles of Scientific Management, in 1911 in which he described how the application of the scientific method to the management of workers greatly could improve productivity

John D. Rockefeller

- was an American oil industry business magnate, industrialist, and philanthropist who founded the Standard Oil Company - aggressive practices drove many competitors out of business and made him one of the richest men in America - 1881: Rockefeller and his associates placed the stock of Standard of Ohio and its affiliates in other states under the control of a board of nine trustees, with Rockefeller at the head, establishing the first major U.S. "trust" and set a pattern of organization for other monopolies - 1882: Standard Oil had a near monopoly on the oil business in the United States

Standard Oil

- was an American oil producing, transporting, refining, and marketing company - established in 1870 by John D. Rockefeller and Henry Flagler as a corporation in Ohio, it was the largest oil refinery in the world of its time - In the wake of journalist Ida Tarbell's stinging 1904 exposé of Standard Oil's business practices, and of the federal government's subsequent prosecution of Standard Oil for monopolistic practices in 1906, Rockefeller transformed himself into a public-spirited philanthropist

Helen Hunt Jackson

- was an American poet and writer who became an activist on behalf of improved treatment of Native Americans by the United States government - the most prominent Eastern reformer - wrote "A Century of Dishonor" - as sympathetic as Jackson was to the Indians' plight, she was not sympathetic to Indian culture - believed that Indians must be stripped of their culture in order to assimilate to American society

Robert Kennedy

- was an American politician and lawyer who served as a United States Senator for New York from January 1965 until his assassination in June 1968 - was brother to JFK - learning on May 20, 1961, that a hostile mob threatened the civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr., and about 1,200 of his supporters in Montgomery, Alabama, Kennedy sent 400 federal marshals to protect them - March 16, 1968, he announced his candidacy for the presidency. By June 4 he had won five out of six presidential primaries, including one that day in California - became an anti-war, pro-civil rights presidential candidate in 1968, launching a popular challenge to incumbent President Lyndon B. Johnson - was assassinated on June 5, 1968

Boss Tweed

- was an American politician most notable for being the "boss" of Tammany Hall, the Democratic Party political machine - in 1870, the Tweed ring began to financially drain the city of New York through fake leases, false vouchers, extravagantly padded bills and various other schemes set up and controlled by the ring - the New York Times published editorials raising questions about how Tweed and those associated with him were able to acquire such a vast amount of wealth - most excessive overcharging came in the form of the famous Tweed Courthouse, which cost the city $13 million to construct; actual cost was about three million - was given a 12 year prison sentence, which was reduced by a higher court and he served one year - 1875: Tweed escaped and fled to Cuba; later died in 1878

John W. Booth

- was an American stage actor - part of a conspiracy plot - assassinated President Abraham Lincoln at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C. on April 14, 1865 - he fled but was found 12 days later in Virginia and was shot by Boston Corbett

Alexander Hamilton

- was an American statesman and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States - was an influential interpreter and promoter of the U.S. Constitution, as well as the founder of the nation's financial system, the Federalist Party, the United States Coast Guard, and The New York Post newspaper - In collaboration with James Madison and John Jay, Hamilton wrote 51 of 85 essays under the collective title The Federalist - first secretary of the treasury

Ida Tarbell

- was an American teacher, author and journalist - was one of the leading "muckrakers" of the progressive era of the late 19th and early 20th centuries - is thought to have pioneered investigative journalism - the daughter of a small oilman driven to the wall by the Rockefeller oil monopoly - revealed the shady practices by which John D. Rockefeller had transformed his Standard Oil Company into a monopoly

J. Robert Oppenheimer

- was an American theoretical physicist and professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley - became officially involved in the atomic bomb project known as the Manhattan Project in October 1941 - November 1942, he was appointed director of what was to become the Los Alamos Laboratory, which would design and construct the atomic bomb - known as "the father of the atomic bomb"

Eugene V. Debs

- was an American union leader, one of the founding members of the Industrial Workers of the World, and five times the candidate of the Socialist Party of America for President of the United States - founded the American Railway Union to include all railroad workers in one union - with 150,000 members, the union won a strike against the Great Northern Railroad in spring 1894 - when George Pullman refused the ARU's offer to arbitrate the strike of Pullman workers, Debs launched a boycott by which ARU members would refuse to run any trains that included Pullman cars - was the leader of the Socialist Party - presidential nominee for the Sociailst party five times; received almost a million votes in the election of 1912 - he and his followers saw themselves as the saviors of the American republic and wanted to end capitalism - received a 10-year jail term for making an antiwar speech in Canton, Ohio the summer of 1918 - one of the founding members of the Industrial Workers of the World

Upton Sinclair

- was an American writer who wrote nearly 100 books and other works in several genres - wrote "The Jungle" to portray the harsh conditions and exploited lives of immigrants in the United States in Chicago and similar industrialized cities - Julius Wayland published "The Jungle" in 1905 - in the book, he had depicted the scandalous working conditions in Chicago's meatpacking industry - when it was later published in book form in 1906, "The Jungle" created such an outcry that the federal government was forced to regulate the meat industry

F. Scott Fitzgerald

- was an American writer, whose works illustrate the Jazz Age - coined the term Jazz Age, a period of wild economic prosperity, cultural flowering, and a shaking up of social customs - first successful novel, "This Side of Paradise" (1920), made him an instant celebrity - most famous novel is "The Great Gatsby" (1925)

Atlanta Compromise

- was an agreement struck in 1895 between Booker T. Washington, other African-American leaders, and Southern white leaders - was first supported and later opposed by W. E. B. Du Bois and other African-American leaders - Washington urged racial cooperation and the acceptance of social segregation as the price for acquiring education and economic security

Teller Amendment

- was an amendment to a joint resolution of the United States Congress, enacted on April 20, 1898, in reply to President William McKinley's War Message - placed a condition on the United States military's presence in Cuba - proclaimed that the United States would not establish permanent control over Cuba - created by Henry Teller

Angel Island

- was an immigration station located in San Francisco Bay which operated from January 21, 1910 to November 5, 1940 - immigrants, often from Asia, entering the United States were detained and interrogated - most were detained on Angel Island for as little as two weeks or as much as six months - counterpart of Ellis Island in New York harbor

54th Massachusetts Infantry

- was an infantry regiment that saw extensive service in the Union Army during the American Civil War - was the first military unit consisting of black soldiers to be raised in the North during the Civil War - assault on Fort Wagner played a key role in bringing about an end to slavery

Rosa Parks

- was arrested on December 1, 1955, for defying a segregation ordinance that required segregated seating on municipal buses - her arresting sparked a boycott against public transportation by Montgomery's black community - became known as the "mother of the civil rights movement"

The Supreme Court case "Prigg v. Pennsylvania" (1842)

- was based around the topic of kidnapping fugitive slaves; declared anti-kidnapping law as unconstitutional - Supreme Court decision reinforced state officials of obligation to enforce the return of fugitive slaves who had escaped into free states

Presidential Election of 2008

- was dominated by differences over how to respond to the Great Recession - Senator John McCain was the Republican candidate, admirably rejected conducting a smear campaign that falsely claimed Obama had not been born in the United States (and therefore was ineligible for the presidency) or secretly practiced Islam - McCain chose Governor Sarah Palin as a running mate - Barack Obama, first major-party presidential candidate of African descent, energized many of the movements, such as those opposing immigration restriction and favoring gay rights - Obama's campaign featured two words: hope and change - Obama won the election

The National Labor Union

- was founded in 1866 by leaders of several craft unions - advocated for an eight-hour day at a time - withered away in depression of 1870s

Leadville

- was founded in 1877 by mine owners Horace Tabor and August Meyer at the start of the Colorado Silver Boom - the town was built on desolate flat land below the tree line - the first miners lived in a rough tented camp near the silver deposits in California Gulch - the discovery of silver made this place the richest city in the country

During the Clinton years, the chairman of the Federal Reserve Board

- was headed by Alan Greenspan - Greenspan was hailed for keeping down inflation, adroitly managing interest rates, and encouraging rising productivity

Iron Act

- was passed by Parliament in 1750 - prohibited the erection of certain types of new iron mills

16th Amendment

- was passed in 1909 and ratified in 1913 - allows the Congress to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states or basing it on the United States Census - reduce the power and privileges of wealthy Americans by requiring them to pay taxes on a greater percentage of their income than the poor - income tax allows for the federal government to keep an army, build roads and bridges, enforce laws and carry out other important duties

Haymarket Riot

- was the aftermath of a bombing that took place at a labor demonstration on Tuesday, May 4, 1886, at Haymarket Square in Chicago - led by Knights of Labor in Chicago in attempt to get eight hour work days - 12 killed and major setbacks faced after the riot - the bombing took place at an Anarchist protest meeting, resulting in 10 deaths, 6 of them policemen

Progressive reformer Jane Addams

- was the founder of the Women's Peace Party - actively opposed the war - known as the "mother" of social work - along with Ellen Gates, she established the nation's first settlement house in Chicago in 1889, known as Hull House - played a critical role in fashioning the progressive agenda and in drafting pieces of progressive legislation - named a co-winner of the 1931 Nobel Peace Prize

The National American Women Suffrage Association/League of Women Voters

- was the successor to the National American Woman Suffrage Association - it promoted women's role in politics and dedicated itself to educating voters

Women in the migration westward

- were a little more reluctant to leave - fulfilled the same roles as homemakers and caregivers as they did in the East

Scottsboro Boys

- were nine African American teenagers, ages 13 to 19, accused in Alabama of raping two White American women on a train in 1931 - Charlie Weems, Ozie Powell, Clarence Norris, Andrew and Leroy Wright, Olen Montgomery, Willie Roberson, Haywood Patterson and Eugene Williams - the landmark set of legal cases from this incident dealt with racism and the right to a fair trial - as news spread of the alleged rape, an angry white mob surrounded the jail, leading the local sheriff to call in the Alabama National Guard to prevent a lynching - November 1932, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Powell v. Alabama that the Scottsboro defendants had been denied the right to counsel, which violated their right to due process under the 14th Amendment - trials of the Scottboro Boys, the two Supreme Court verdicts they produced and the international uproar over their treatment helped fuel the rise of the civil rights movement later in the 20th century - 2013: the Alabama Board of Pardons and Paroles voted unanimously to issue posthumous pardons to Patterson, Weems and Andy Wright, bringing a long-overdue end to one of the most notorious cases of racial injustice in U.S. history

Native-born Americans view of the "new immigrants"

- were often regarded as racially inferior, culturally impoverished, and incapable of assimilating American values and traditions - fear of their alien languages, religions, and economic backgrounds

The minority group that suffered the most during World War II on the American home front

- were the Japanese Americans - after the Pearl Harbor attack, the fear of sabotage by pro-Japanese residents engulfed West Coast communities - many Japanese Americans were forced into camps

Alphabet Soup

- were the U.S. federal government agencies created as part of the New Deal of President Franklin D. Roosevelt - earliest agencies were created to combat the Great Depression in the United States - were established during Roosevelt's first 100 days in office in 1933 - included Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA), National Recovery Administration (NRA), Public Works Administration (PWA), Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), and Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)

War of 1812 - War Hawks

- western settlers who advocated war against Britain - hoped to acquire Britain's Northwest posts and Florida or even Canada - felt like the British were aiding the Indians and encouraging attacks on Americans

Theory of secession

- when each state ratified the Constitution and joined the Union, it authorized the national government to act as its agent in the exercise of certain functions of sovereignty, but the states had never given away their fundamental underlying sovereignty - any state, then, by the act of its own convention, could withdraw from its "compact" with the other states and reassert its individual sovereignty

Theodore Roosevelt/"trust buster"/Northern Securities Company

- while president, Theodore Roosevelt became known as a trust buster, breaking up large monopolies to restore competition - first victim was the Northern Securities Company, which was headed by J.P. Morgan - Roosevelt acted without warning and Morgan tried to negotiate but Roosevelt did not get involved in that

Beginnings of Modern Racism

- whites in the early 19th century began refusing to work alongside blacks - African Americans disappeared from the skilled trades - white servants refused to wear livery, which became the uniform of black servants of the rich - 1790s, whites had disrupted African American church meetings, frequently attacked black celebrations, neighborhoods and institutions - white populists pronounced blacks unfit to be citizens of the republic

Red Scare

- widespread fear in 1919-1920 that radicals had coalesced to establish a communist government on American soil - Americans saw the nation's immigrant communities as breeding grounds for Bolshevism - reached its climax on New Year's Day 1920, when federal agents broke into the homes and meeting places of thousands of suspected revolutionaries in 33 cities - in response, U.S. government and private citizens undertook a campaign to identify, silence, and, in some cases, imprison radicals

Bill Clinton's assets as president

- worked towards decreasing the federal deficit and lowering rates to stimulate economic growth, as well as expand the Earned Income Tax Credit - helped establish AmeriCorps, a program that allowed students to repay college loans through community service - secured passage of the Brady Bill, which instituted restrictions on handgun purchases that the Supreme Court subsequently declared unconstitutional - supported nonproliferation of nuclear weapons; dismantled some of the U.S. nuclear arsenal and increased economic aid to Ukraine

Characteristics of the postwar period in the United States

- world's leading creditor nation - economic growth rested on consumer goods - agricultural economy grew rapidly (mainly in Southern California) - many people able to participate in the new markets

Railroad Strike of 1877

- worst labor violence in U.S. history up to that time; underscored the deep discontent of workers nationwide - started on July 14 in Martinsburg, West Virginia in response to the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad (B&O) cutting wages of workers by 10% for the third time in a year - spread rapidly: within a few days traveled to Baltimore, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, New York, Louisville, Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City, and San Francisco - striking workers would not allow any of the trains to roll until this third wage cut was revoked - strikers and militia in a number of cities fired on each other, and workers set fire to railroad cars and depots - President Hayes called in the army and it finally ended in early August

Washington's Farewell Address

- written in 1796 by George Washington when he retired from office - printed in newspapers - mostly devoted to domestic problems - stressed we should stay away from permanent alliances with foreign countries

Ostend Manifesto

- written in 1854 - a document in which the US threatened to seize control of Cuba - implied that the US should declare war if Spain refused - group of southerners met with Spanish officials in Belgium to attempt to get more slave territory - Spain refused to sell Cuba, so southerners wanted to take it by force and northerners were outraged by this

Economist John Kenneth Galbraith

- wrote "The Affluent Society," which saw a dangerous tilt in the "social balance" away from "public goods" - argued that greater government expenditures would generate even faster growth - coined the term "countervailing power" when claiming that groups could check the desires of giant corporations

Stokely Chamichael

- young black activist who organized a third-party movement for the 1965 election in Lowndes County, Alabama - Carmichael joined other activists in hastily organizing an enlarged March against Fear that would complete James Meredith's walk - delivered an emotional speech that secured his celebrity status-questioned an unwavering commitment to nonviolence

Rock n' Roll

- youthful exponents of Fifties rock, including Elvis Presley, reshaped older musical forms, especially African American rhythm and blues and the "hillbilly" music of southern whites, into new sounds - claimed to sing about the hopes and fears of the millions of their young fans - guardians of more genteel cultural forms recoiled at the sounds and sights; denounced it as an assault on the very idea of music - greatly criticized by many as it was seen as dangerous

Sand Creek Massacre

-November 29, 1864 - 675-man force attacked and destroyed a village of Cheyenne, led by Colonel John Chivington, that returned in peace to their Colorado reservation - 200 Cheyenne Indians were killed - the causes were rooted in the long conflict for control of the Great Plains of eastern Colorado

The Berlin Wall came down in which year?

1989, following the fall of the pro-Moscow government in East Germany

Samuel de Champlain

- "the Father of France" - 11 voyages to Canada - established Huguenot settlement in Acadia, 1604-1606 (present-day Nova Scotia) - founded Quebec, first French colony - established trading network with allies - explored throughout Canada and Great Lakes region

Columbian Exchange

- 1492-1850 - exchanges of plants, animals, diseases, and people between American and European continents

English Civil War

- 1642-1651 - between Parliamentarians and Royalists over the government - 1649: Parliament executed Charles I and abolished the House of Lords - monarchy replaced with the Commonwealth of England (republic)

Royal Colonies

- England had direct control; the Crown selected the governor and council, not the settlers - ex. New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, Carolina, Georgia

John Calvin

- French Protestant during the Reformation - followers called Calvinists - many churches adopted his principles - rejected many important principles of the Catholic faith, finding importance in predestination

Dominion of New England

- Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Plymouth, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, and the Jerseys - put in place by King James in 1686 - not much support from settlers: religious toleration was imposed on the Puritans and Navigation Acts were enforced - Sir Edmund Andros put in charge of the new government

Proprietor Colonies

- an individual, proprietor, owned the colony and had vast powers over it - ex. Maryland, Pennsylvania, Delaware

Christopher Columbus

- began his expedition west to reach east Asia in 1492 - supplied by Isabella of Castile - never reached east Asia, but instead arrived to the New Word (Americas)

Glorious Revolution

- began in 1688 after the son of King James II was born - wanted to keep England with Protestant rulers, not Catholic - results: Parliament declared James left the throne; Mary (daughter) and William (her husband) named as joint rulers - colonists assumed that their governments would be representative governments

Henry VIII

- broke away from the pope to divorce and remarry - claimed himself as the head of the Church of England

Charter Colonies

- colony was established based on a charter from a corporation in England - colonists got to elect leaders who controlled the government - ex. Connecticut, Massachusetts Bay, and Rhode Island

Henry Hudson

- explored northeastern parts of North America - claimed area around the North River (later renamed to the Hudson) for Netherlands

"slash and burn"

- farming technique used by early civilizations of the Americas - chop down trees and burn away the underbrush, fertilizing the soil

Beringia

- land bridge between Asia and North America that encouraged the three waves of migration of Asian people - disappeared underwater

Incas

- located in the Andes Mountains in Peru - emerged as imperial power in 1400 - did not have a written language - built network of roads and bridges - invaded by Francisco Pizarro in 1532

Vinland

- located on the northern coast of Newfoundland - founded by Leif on his last voyage to North America from Greenland - destroyed by the Norse in 1014

Calvinism

- major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice of John Calvin and other Reformation-era theologians - Calvinists broke from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th century - is unique in its rejection of consubstantiation, the Eucharist and in its doctrine of predestination, the belief that no actions taken during a persons life would effect their salvation - the Puritan colonies were based on Calvinist doctrine

Eastern Woodland Tribes

- majority of Eastern Woodlands tribes spoke Iroquoian or Algonquian - the Iroquois speakers included the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Huron - the Iroquoian tribes were primarily deer hunters but they also grew corn, squash, and beans, they gathered nuts and berries, and they fished

John Rolfe

- married Pocahontas - helped the Jamestown colony by planting tobacco, which became a cash crop

sugar

- most important crop of the West Indies - primary crop of Barbados in 1645

Marco Polo

- one of the first Europeans to travel to Asia - served emperor Kublai Khan for 20 years - wrote "The Travels of Marco Polo"

Martin Luther

- posted his 95 Theses on the church doors of Wittenburg in 1517 - started the Protestant Reformation - believed salvation came through faith alone

Restoration Colonies

- the 6 colonies founded during the Restoration Era (1660-1688) - ex. Carolina, New York, New Jersey

Plains Tribes

- the most widespread Indian groups in the West - were made up of many different tribal and language groups - some lived more or less sedentary lives as farmers, but many subsisted largely through hunting buffalo - moved through grasslands following the herds, on small but powerful horses and constructed tepees as temporary dwellings - buffalo created the economic basis for them - after Spanish colonists brought horses to the region in the 18th century, the peoples of the Great Plains became much more nomadic - groups like the Crow, Blackfeet, Cheyenne, Comanche and Arapaho used horses to pursue great herds of buffalo across the prairie - most common dwelling for these hunters was the cone-shaped teepee, a bison-skin tent that could be folded up and carried anywhere - known for their elaborately feathered war bonnets

Sir Walter Raleigh

- tried twice to establish a colony in America, specifically Roanoke Island - first expedition in 1585; settlers sailed back to England - second expedition in 1585, settlers vanished by the time he arrived in 1590

Conquistadores

conquerors from Spain who took over Mexico, Peru and other places by establishing themselves as the imperial rulers

Bartolome de Las Casas

converted Indians to Christianity as well as becoming an advocate for them

The Crusades

influenced European expansion by taking over plantations and using a combination of free and slave labor to produce staple crops

Jacob Leisler

leader of the 1676 Virginia rebellion

Indentured Servants

many were young men who agreed to work for so many years in exchange for room and board along with the cost of passage to America

England's "mixed and balanced" constitution

meant that the government has monarchy, aristocracy, and commonality all within its structure

Saint Domingue

most important French colony by mid-18th century

cavavel

oceangoing vessel created by the Portuguese in the 15th century

Black Legend

propaganda used to criticize the Spanish Empire in the 16th century

rice

staple export of South Carolina after 1690