Archaeology Exam 2
other food plants of eastern woodlands are __________ plants
C3
Maize is a _______ plant
C4
natchez system for computing rank
If it were a closed system the number of people in the Sun rank would stay the same while the number of Nobles and Honoreds would grow and the number of Stinkards would decline to zero over time. The system depended upon a steady infusion of new Stinkards, often refugees from other nations. people could also rise through the ranks with military accomplishments, sacrificing a child in a major ritual event or some other achievement
Which log was cut in 1240?
Sample Log B
nation
a polity or set of polities united by a common language and customs
travois
a simple framework of poles dragged by dogs or horses to assist western nomads in moving possessions
entrada
a spanish word used to describe an overland exploring and conquering expedition
cairn
a stack of stones built up by humans
clan
a type of social organization where members claim to be related to each other though the actual ancestor may not be known
fathom
a unit of measure equivalent to the arm span of a man
chunky
an eastern woodlands game played with stone disks and javelins on a flat playing field, the object was to determine the landing place of the disk and mark it with one's javelin
secondary burial
an internment of disarticulated, bundles, or cremated human remains
gorget
an ornamental object worn around one's throat
maize being adopted
became adopted as a staple crop and large permanent towns became possible. The period from 400-1000 CE set the stage for major developments yet to come
when did archaic people begin building earthworks?
before the third millennium BCE - some of the earliest were built at such a large scale - Watson Brake, Poverty Point, both Louisiana sites
Native American groups of the Great Plains relied primarily on ___________________ as a food source for thousands of years.
bison
_________________ hunting dominated after 1450 CE, part of the shift was probably due to the arrival of Nadene- speaking immigrants from the north moving southward just east of the rockies on the high plains
bison
The ____________________________ appeared in the Eastern Woodlands around the time that Hopewell culture faded
bow and arrow - might have been associated with increased intertribal conflict, the breakdown of long-distance trade and exchange relationships, and disappearance of friendly competition between large kin groups. The historic descendants of Hopewell culture, if they exist, are unknown
How were the natchez desimated?
by epidemics and caught between french and english colonial powers most of the natchez people took refuge with the Chickasaws and other Southeastern nations and lost their separate identities
After 1300 CE, Ancestral Puebloan communities in the Mesa Verde area:
moved south and east and took up residence in Chaco communities and around the Rio Grande.
rank
ranking involves the definition of the relative statis of individuals in a social organization
Strong leaders provided insurance for all except in the event of widespread catastrophe, such as:
rare extreme flooding
middle mississippian
refers to the mississippian found in the middle segment of the mississippi valley but it is also used as a time period between early mississippian and late mississippian in other regions such as georgia
region west of the continental divide
region thus extends into southeastern California, southern Nevada, and southern Utah
lavish burials are often the means through which clan or family members both signal their respect for a deceased leader and make a statement about the ________________________ of the group as a whole
relative status
steatite
soapstone, soft enough to be easily worked into stone bowls
Chacoan outlier sites
supplied food to the communities in Chaco canyon which otherwise would probably not have been able to sustain themselves
Modest ___________________ allowed large kindreds to gather periodically to collectively build the earthen monuments that were designed as permanent symbols of family success as much as tributes to successful leaders
surpluses
____________________________________ point styles allow archaeologists to distinguish these phases from other similar ones
ceramic and projectile
In some southeastern Mississippian chiefdoms, mounds served as platforms for __________________________, specialized buildings designed to hold the remains of the deceased.
charnel houses
Macon plateau phase
contruction of 8 platform mounds and an earth lodge - left by mississippian people who migrated to central georgia
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of an anthropologically-defined chiefdom?
they are very stable and often last for a very long time
The Ancestral Pueblo tradition is the best dated of the traditions of the Southwest because of _________________________________, or tree-ring dating
dendrochronology
At many Mississippian sites, increased use of __________________ became an important source of protein in the diet.
fish
Middle Missouri villages were typically ____________________.
fortified - large well built semi subterranean rectangular houses covered with earth for insulation
The primary function of medicine wheels among ancient Great Plain cultures was:
largely unknown, as there is no widespread agreement on their purpose.
people would rather __________ _______________ than survive in communities they regarded as too small
leave entirely
How much time will it take 2000 students to finish building the mound?
less than 5 days
Many Adena mound sites have been destroyed and those that survive typically attract ________ attention
little - Story Mound, for example, sits amid residential properties in Chillicothe, Ohio. Others are more noticeable, and a few are worth a special visit
"ho-ho-kahm,"
all used up
kachina cult
alternatively "katstina or Katcina" cult is a ancestral pueblo cult focused on a series of over 200 supernatural beings that are often represented int he art of descendant pueblos
Protein continued to come from _________________________
animal sources - it would be a long time before beans spread into the eastern woodlands from mesoamerica
The preferred Ancestral Pueblo technique for making pottery was _____________, ______________, and _____________.
coiling, scraping, and polishing.
natchez people from the upper ranks were required to marry ____________________
commoners (stinkards)
Grave Creek Mound
downtown Moundville West Virginia
Which of the following is NOT a theme regularly depicted in petroglyphs and rock art produced by Algonquian speakers?
hunting and fishing
sections of living trees that the rings laid down in unusually dry years were always very _____________, and that those that grew in wet years were always ________
narrow, wide
The "Southeastern Ceremonial Complex" refers to:
the loose set of symbolically charged symbols and artifacts found at Mississippian sites.
ethnogenesis
the set of processes by which new human cultures emerge
Numic-speaking peoples succeeded Fremont culture peoples in the Great Basin because:
their hunter-gatherer adaptation was better suited to the Great Basin around the time of the Medieval Maximum.
early ancestral peublo culture
- "Anasazi" is a Navajo word meaning "ancient enemies." - variant of desert archaic with the addition of maize cultivation - well behind Mogollon and Hohokam development - concentrated on maize and squash and then added beans and turkeys - hunter with spear throwers and lived in domed pole and mud stucco houses ----- houses had depressed clay floors - clusters of three or four houses were typical communities - band sizes were no more than 12-20 people but then this number doubled by 600 CE
Wupatki
- "tall House" - multi story pueblo dwelling having more than 100 rooms - first occupied around 500 CE - site and area around it were temporarily abandoned due to sunset volcano - layer of cooled volcanic ash actually improved agricultural production though - general conditions became too hot and too dry - abandoned by 1225 CE
origins of moundbuilder mythology
- 18th and 19th centuries Euroamerican settlers of the eastern woodlands found thousands of artificial earthen mounds - They typically imagined no connection at all between the mounds and the vanishing American Indian nations of the region. The result was the rapid development of a body of mythology about a supposed lost race of moundbuilders who had been exterminated by less advanced American Indians in the centuries before Columbus (Silverberg 1968).
ancestral pueblo to modern pueblos
- 500 CE in the east and 700 in the west - new developments included increased farming, greater permanence of housing, the clustering of houses into hamlets and villages, and the replacement of the spear thrower by the bow and arrow
maize becomes a staple
- 750 maize became more than an occasional food - productive strains were developed or new cooking techniques emerged perhaps people simply recognized the potential of this exotic crop from the tropics, or perhaps it was an obvious solution to rising population pressure - maize was both a carrot and a stick, both an opportunity and a solution. Whatever the reason in any specific case, maize quickly became the dominant staple crop
local stone worked well for Chacoan masons, and perhaps it was something as simple as this that explains why the Chaco phenomenon arose here rather than elsewhere. The stone split easily into tabular slabs. We can observe changes over time as builders got better at their craft and depended less and less on thick mud mortar.
- 828-935 CE: irregular slabs with thick mud mortar - 1040-1080 CE: banded masonry with smaller chinks - 1080-1130 CE: regular slabs with little mortar
Toltec Mounds
- Arkansas - site is an excellent example of a mound building culture that thrived after Hopewell but before the rise of Mississippian cultures - built 600-1050 CE - eventually at least sixteen mounds inside a high curving 1615 m embankment and exterior defensive ditch - northwest of the large D shaped side was protected by a small lake CALLED MOUND POND
What period were adena and hopewell chronology once thought of marking?
- Early Woodland and Late Woodland periods - radiocarbon dating shows that they overlapped considerably in time
Hopewell Earthworks
- Hopewell people built burial mounds but often clustered them in large earthwork enclosures - enclosures were often built as earthen hedgerows --- some were large circles up to 500 m (1640 ft) in diameter. Others were similarly huge squares, octagons, or irregular shapes
James Judge has hypothesized that the roads were designed and built to facilitate pilgrimages to Chaco Canyon. This hypothesis explains several things that are otherwise not easily explained, and it has so far resisted criticisms (Judge 1989). The hypothesis explains:
- How Chacoans acquired and transported timbers. - Why the roads were so well built. - Why there is a surplus of rooms in Chacoan great houses. - Why turquoise was important.
Trade and Exchange
- Luxury items, such as marine shell beads, were important markers of high rank, but there is no evidence that they were made by specialists for general redistribution - Crafts were turned out by households, where any specialization would have been within the family - no evidence for markets
Mound City
- Ohio - large square earthwork enclosure containing 5.25 hectares - scattered within the enclosure are 22 mounds - one mound contained large number of mica sheets laid in and around the rim of the large grave - cremated remains of four people were accompanied with beads, teeth, galena cubes, broken pipes, and a copper headdress
south appalachian and mississippian origins
- The South Appalachian tradition was originally defined as a regional tradition beginning with the first use of distinctive ceramics that were finished with decorated wooden paddles three millennia ago - carved decorations on the paddles created decorative impressions on the pottery - appeared in the tenth century as a result of the spread of ideas and people in the northwest region
occurence of wild rice
- Wild rice (Zizania aquatica) is a tall, graceful, aquatic plant that is found from northern Minnesota to New Brunswick - most abundent in minnesota and wisconsin - siouan and algonquian people used wild rice as a staple food
Pecos classification system
- a system to define a series of ceramic phases for the ancestral pueblo tradition - it is a developmental rather than a chronological scheme
Eastern Woodlands biome
- a temperate deciduous forest that lies south of the coniferous forests of central and eastern Canada and east of the great plains - quite variable due to differences in latitude, altitude, soils, river drainages, and proximity to the ocean - environmental boundaries are not sharp and lead archaeologists to treat it as a single piece
Other groups that survive in Northern New England, Quebec, and the Maritime Provinces are:
- abenaki - malecite - passmaquoddy - micmac
rock art in the desert west
- abundant - continue to attract popular attention - difficult to date and unscientific interpretations have tended to be very speculative
Eastern woodlands weather system
- affecting weather systems in NORTHERN eastern woodlands come fro the west and northwest - frigid airs in the winters and fair skies in the summers - affecting weather systems in the SOUTHERN eastern woodlands come from the gulf of mexico --- track northeastward, bring heat, humidity and rain
solon petroglyphs
- along the kennebec river in maine - represent houses, people in canoes, birds, and other animals - many phallic males, squatting females and disembodied phalli and vulvas
Ocmulgee site
- also called macon plateau - located along the ocmulgee river - south appalachian mississippian center around 950 CE - earth lodge is a circular structure 13 m in diameter - very large and its mounds are unusually distant from each other
Cahokia
- american bottom section of the mississippi valley across from st louis -largest of the middle mississippian sites - ideal location with lots of fish - evidence indicates max of 6000 residents
standing cow ruin
- an ancestral pueblo cliff dwelling - later Navajo artists recorded the passing of the Spanish Narbona Expedition (1804-1805) in pictographs above the ruin
pioneer farmers
- appear in the southwestern US by 1000 BCE - current evidence suggests that a combination of population movements, and adoption of maize-based cultivation and farming practices by local foragers, was the path that led to the establishment of later agricultural tradition in the southwest
The coalescent tradition
- appeared along the missouri in south dakota around 1250 CE - - replacing middle missouri communities - villages were clusters of oval or subrectangular earthlodges - houses were like central plains but their fortifications were like middle missouri villagers - ditches and palisades surrounded most villages - warfare was common in this region
first mongollon villages
- appeared around 200 BCE - each had fewer than 20 houses on high grounds, ridges and bluffs - pit houses were circular and east facing - early mongollon were part time farmers - lived in tension zone between Hohokam irrigation farmers and nomadic hunter gatherers
Oshara (Basketmaking) culture
- archaeic peoples that evolved into the peubloe communitites of the ancestral peublo tradtion - defined as the oldest part of the ancestral pueblo tradition - brown ware pottery
Great Depression and archaeology
- archaeology was conducted mainly by universities and museums until the coming of the great depression - Federal work programs like the WPA and the CCC often focused on archaeological excavations, which were often conducted with surprising skill and accuracy. Huge collections and records from these projects are still being analyzed by archaeologists today
Plains Village Cultures
- arose as secondary developments of mississippian culture int he eastern woodlands as early as 900 CE - farmed small plots w maize, squash, sunflower etc - hunted on the prairie, pronghorn and bison
Fremont culture
- arose in various parts of the eastern great basin - earliest sites date to around 400 CE - some were the descendants of migrants from the south, while others were local hunter-gatherers who picked up agriculture and some other Southwestern traits - a few seem to have descended from earlier Plains hunter gatherers
plateau pithouse tradition
- arose sometime after 4500 BCE along the fraser and thompson rivers - salishan speaking people moved upstream into the region and developed the culture - important for people who lived in a region with dramatic season swings in temp - developed through several phases - houses tended to congreate near streams or salmon fishing stations - variation in the sizes of pithouses in some late village clusters has been interpreted by some archaeologists as indicating differentials in wealth and status
numic expansion
- arrived 1250-1450 CE - very good at the high cost exploitation of very small seeds and animals - able to live at higher population densities on less biomass than earlier fremont people - expanding numic peoples encountered rock art left by the previous inhabitants of the great basin - rock art of the region does not relate much to historic indian tribes
why were sheets of mica valued
- as blanks for cutouts that took the shapes of serpents, claws, human hands, human heads, swastikas, and other forms
hopewell decline w pottery
- became simpler in design - simpler clay elbow pipes replaces stone platform pipes
When did adena mounds begin to appear?
- began to appear in Ohio around 1000 BCE and their construction persisted until 100 CE in Kentucky
earliest side notched points
- belong to the mummy cave complex - names for its type site in northwestern wyoming - in middle period people lived in mobile bands that covered large territories - summer houses were simple portable structures probably skin covered teepees - focused on bison - northwestern great plains people built pithouses for winter lodging
pequots
- best known survivors of the native nations - achieved new prominance in connecticut bc of the operation of one of the worlds premier casinos
bison dominated ________________________________
- bone assemblages - bison occidentalis an extinct species that was slightly larger than modern bison - manufactured bone grease by splitting and boiling bison limb bones
Aztec outlier
- built in the early 1100s - grew to 500 rooms and had a great kiva - earl morris uncovered a 40,000 bead necklace
Poverty Point
- built later, around 1600 BCE - six nested arcs of ridges, the outermost being 1.2 km (3900 ft) in diameter - each arc is a portion of a hexagon, the straight ridges of each segment are separated by gaps such that avenues radiate westward from the center - eastern halves of the nested octagons were never built- a bayou and swampy ground lie there - 5 large earthen mounds were built near the ridges --- 1 is conical, 1 is bird effigy and the rest are flat topped platforms (the biggest is 21 meters (70ft) high) - functions of all the ridges remain unclear - hearths and post molds indicate people lived there for at least part of the year - effigies (fired clay) used for stone boiling
mounds are cheap and easy to construct
- burial mounds require only the simplest engineering (just piles of earth) - a hundred people with digging sticks and baskets moving the earth can easily construct a large burial mound in a matter of days - burial mounds do not necessarily imply ranked societies, large dense populations, or the agricultural systems typically required to support them
When did Hopewell mounds begin to appear?
- by 200 BCE and they were being built in southern Ohio as late as 400 CE
salmon ruin
- c shaped pueblo community - 600-750 rooms - great kiva and tower kiva - pottery styles indicate that it was founded by a combined population of local people and migrants from chaco canyon - later on, salmon was taken over by migrants from Mesa Verde
Cascade Landslide
- catastrophic geological event that interrupted salmon runs which were a vital food source
Cahokia Monks Mound
- centerpiece of Cahokia - trappist monks lived there for a short time - adjacent to a large plaza -- large plaza was used for the game of "chunky"
Sinagua Sequence
- central arizona - made up of two culture (1) northern sinagua (2) southern sinagua - sunset volcano erupting altered the ecology of the region --- verde valley was temporarily abandoned
oneota adaptation
- centured upon Wisconsin, minnesota, iowa, and parts of adjacent states - replaced effigy cultures - economy focused on maize agriculture and seasonal bison hunting
Pueblo II
- chaco area had most remarkable developments ---- political organization, impressive architecture, and a regional economic system
cheiftans
- charismatic leader who held lots of allegiance - had to have a formal succession process - earned their keep by managing surpluses of critical resources
chiefdom architecture
- cheiftains signal their rank by living in houses on platform mounds - other mounds served as platforms for council houses, religious or mortuary structures, practices that linked chieftains to public ritual -
powhatan
- chiefdom that was unstable and depended upon a flow of both commodities and luxy goods to elite leaders
Tonto
- cliff dwelling site - overlooks a broad valley that now holds the roosevelt dam reservoir in southeastern arizona - locak population was a mix of Mongollon and immigrants from abandoned Ancestral Pueblo sites
Roadside park near Baraboo
- contains nonhuman effigies - effigy mounds are also found on the campus of Beloit College - shape of a turtle -- been adopted as the symbol of the college - large panther effigy the Wehmhoff Mound near Burlington, Wisconsin
late period (2000 BCE- 1750 CE)
- corner notched projectily points of pelican lake - people lived in very mobile tepee communities - increasing bison populations appear to have brought about much more mass killing
evidence of population replacement
- cultural shift was accompanied by a physical shift in head form that was once thought to be a major discontinuity - but the change was brought about by a swtich from fiber to wooden cradleboards - cradleboards produced adults with rounder heads
climatic stress in the southwest
- cycles of aggregation and dispersal in the southwest tell us much about human behavior
Decline of Hopewell
- declined around 400 CE - reasons remain uncertain and the focus of archaeological debate - Community organization clearly changed such that earthworks were no longer highly valued - maybe villages became more important foci as food production and population density increased and settlements became more nucleated. - people shifted to small family burial mounds on river bluffs
early mongollon pottery
- derived from mexican prototypes - san francisco red (coiled and scraped during manufacture to produce a dimpled surface) - basketry did not decline with the introduction of pottery - tabacco smoking was accomplished using tubular clay pipes or cigarettes made from tobacco packed reeds
Patayan Tradition
- developed among yuman speaking groups along the colorado river - descendants include Cocopa, Quechan, Halchidhoma, Mohave, Maricopa, Yavapai, Walapai and Havasupai peoples of the Colorado basin
Aztalan
- discovered by euroamerican settlers in 1835 - nineteenth century enthusiasts imagines that it was the ancient homeland of the Aztecs of Mexico (aztlan) - it was ACTUALLY a colonial outlier of middle mississippian culture
region to the east of the continental divide
- drained by the Rio Grande, the Pecos River, and their tributaries - region includes southwestern Colorado and most of New Mexico
Western Great PLains environment
- drier than the east - lies in a constant rain shadow cast by the rocky mountains - winters can be severe in the - prarie fires can sweep unchecked across vast desiccated grasslands - circumstances prevent the development of forests in most areas
evolving adaptation
- dynamic environments often produce dramatic environmental changes that force humans to adjust rapidly or perish
Princess Point phase
- earliest northern iroquoian sites in ontario in this phase - northern iroquoians displaced or absorbed inhabitants bc of the adaptive advantage of agriculture and the larger and more permanent villages it made possible
functions of mounds
- earthen mounds were typically built by people living in thin, dispersed, sometimes even nomadic societies in which territorial ownership and boundaries were lacking or weakly present
Loup River Phase
- evolved into the lower loup phase - pawnee tribes - became the historic arikara
ritual gift giving
- exchange of fine objects - families gained status for themselves and for the leaders who spoke for them and interacted with other leaders - facilitated the development of trading partnerships
how do materials reach the core area
- exotic materials reach the core by down-the-line exchanges, moving through many hands before reaching their destinations - Others, like Yellowstone obsidian, had to have been acquired by more direct expeditionary means
Hohokam Irrigation
- fast flowing rivers are fast because their gradients are steep - if one taps into such a river by digging a ditch from its edge inland one can create a more sluggish canal having a less steep gradient - itch can be made to veer farther and farther from the river by controlling its gradient - digging was not difficult because the water softened the soil - digging sticks and baskets would have been enough equipment to do this
Avonlea Culture
- first Plains indians to rely almost exclusively on the bow and arrow - hypothesis: ----Avonlea culture was carried by Athapaskan speakers who moved on to the northern Plains from interior Canada, then later moved on to the Southwest were they became known as the Navajo and Apache nations ----Avonlea evolved into one or another of the historic nomadic cultures of the northern Great Plains -----Avonlea could have evolved into one or another of the village cultures of the Middle Missouri
What were bottle gourds initially used as?
- fishnet floats and containers - Derivative native squash (Cucurbita pepo) was being used in a few places by 3900 BCE, and spread to other parts of the Eastern Woodlands over the following centuries.
pueblo grande
- focus of a city park near papago park and the eastern boundary of phoenix - features a large platform mound retaining walls that were once surmounted by walled structures - also many houses and ball courts - the largest fraction of exotic pottery at Pueblo Grande came from the Kayenta and Tusayan regions, but several other regions of the Southwest were also sources - a destination for California marine shell and obsidian that moved through the Hohokam trade network
swidden agriculture
- forced periodic village relocations and forestalled the development of strong systems of land tenure - had a clear adaptive advantage over the smaller and more mobile hunter gatherer communities - succeeded as long as plenty of uncleared forest suitable for farming was available
Santa Cruz Bend site
- found buried under a meter of river alluvium in tucson arizona - found hundreds of pit houses and storage pits containing maize kernels and other seeds - site in the Cienega phase
mummy cave
- gave way to oxbow points by 4000 BCE - latter differ from the former by having thinned concave bases - set of new types called the McKean series after the site of the name replace Oxbow points - hunters were skilled at stalking and killing solitary animals - manos and matates have been found in these sites - digging implements of wood and antler were probably used to harvest bulbs and roots
Mesa Grande
- gives modern city of Mesa Arizona its name - central feature of the site is a massive ruin of adobe walls and platforms - most likely the capital of a chiefdom
annealing
- involves heating the copper then plunging it into cold water - keeps the copper malleable
Cliff palace
- large central community at Mesa Verde - 200 rooms and 23 kivas - has more clans represented than did other Mesa Verda communities
columbia river
- lifeline between the pacific coast and the interior plateau - salmon runs and indian traders moved up and down this river - Marine shell, candlefish (eulachon) oil, and other coastal goods moved upstream while obsidian, hides, and other interior resources moved downstream (Ames, et al. 1998)
athapaskan migration
- live on the northern plateau and the timing of their arrival has been important archaeological problem - also moved south along the eastern front of the rocky mountains
great sun
- lived in a house on the opposite platform mound - if the great sun died a new house was built for him - he occupied the topmost sun rank - below that were the Nobles, Honoreds, and Stinkards (commoners), in that order - strongly matrilineal society with descent reckoned along female lines, so leadership passed from the Great Sun to his sister's son rather than his own son
settlement and society of mongollong villagers
- lived in round pithouses that then became sqare - shift to smaller living quarters bc of matrilocal residence - gain support from ceremonial kivas - kivas were a mens clubs and were modeled on older pithouses - "great kivas" were very large ceremonial structures to serve lots of males
southern plains village cultures
- located along rivers in central oklahoma and adjacent portions of kansas and texas - depended on cultivation with seasonal forays onto the plains to secure bison and other animals - some villages were large and central and others were more isolated and rural - houses were square or rectangular - houses on a few antelope creek sites on the texas panhandle had common walls built of stone slabs - these villagers abandoned their villages and either dispersed or moved eastward downstream after 1500 CE ---- prompted by their need to find reliable sources in changing climate situations
Mimbres Origins
- mongollon tradiiton - best known for spectacularly decorated pottery bowls that were made late in its history - later phases began decorating pottery with red paint - mimbres pottery reached its peak during the classic mimbres phase
casa malpais
- mongollon village site near springerville arizona - occupied in 1250- 1400 CE - site includes a great kiva - bow and arrow appeared in 1000 CE but the atlatl was reatined for many years
Marietta Mound
- more complex earthwork - surrounded by a berm and a ditch - earthen wall outside the ditch means this was a ceremonial precinct not a fortification - gap in wall and earthen ramp across the ditch give access to the mound - site is now in a historic cemetery - contains the graves of many veterans of the revolutionary war
Pueblo Bonito
- most famous of these sites - D shaped pueblo - 800 rooms, 32 kivas - back side of it once stood five stories high - great house was much larger than necessary - occupied for 150 years but only 50-60 burials have been found associated with it - ritual objects in elite burials included: cylindrical vessels, human effigy vessels, and ceramic incense burners
Middle Mississippian
- most widespread variant - other regional variants include: South Appalachian, Plaquemine, and Caddoan Mississippian
early museums and field work
- museums are a 19th century phenomenon - archaeology flourished in the early museums as the revolution in stratigraphic excavation spread to America from Europe and directors sought to fill exhibit cases - most people assumed that American Indian cultures were destined to die out, so their archaeological remains were typically consigned to natural history museums, along with the remains of dodos, mammoths, stuffed bisons, and other extinct or soon-to-be-extinct creatures. - most people assumed that American Indian cultures were destined to die out, so their archaeological remains were typically consigned to natural history museums, along with the remains of dodos, mammoths, stuffed bisons, and other extinct or soon-to-be-extinct creatures.
what was the term woodland originally proposed for?
- name for a culture type - then adopted to define periods of time - ex. early, late, middle woodland periods -
hopi
- northeastern arizona - descend from the little colorado culture - speak uto-aztecan language
etowah
- northwestern georgia - contains six platform mounds on 21 hectares inside a defensive ditch - best known for artifacts such as: chert swords, embossed copper plates, carved shell gorgets, and a pair of marble statues - good example of chiefdom cycling - after abandonment it was reoccupied and became the regional paramount Mississippian chiefdom - disease and political disruption that followed in the wake of the the desoto entrada ended the glory of etowah
zuni
- northwestern new mexico - derive from the cibola culture of the ancestral pueblo tradition - unique language and unable to be linked to any other language of the southwest
cerro juanaquena
- northwestern part of the state of chihuahua mexico - not far from the mexico border - has 8 km of terraced fields for cultivation - radiocarbon dates on maize kernels show that this farming village occupied around 1000 BCE - maize appeared in bat cave in new mexico at about this time
the great vacant zone
- northwestern side of the central apps and the lowlands just northwest of them in Ohio and Indiana are pretty puzzling - shawnees appear to have come out of this zone - monongahela culture of western PA terminated
town creek
- not large by mississipian standards - completely excavated and restored - built mainly by Pee Dee culture --- was one of several cultures that participated in the South Appalachian Mississippian
wampum shell beads
- not made until the introduction of metal tools - were political currency of the league of the iroquois after 1600 CE
Tusigoot
- occupied 1000-1400 CE - elongated complex of stone masonry rooms
copper nuggets and hopewell artisans
- often beaten into sheets and then embossed with designs or used as coverings for other object such as ear spools - learned how to prevent the beaten copper from becoming brittle and cracking due to repeated pounding
The Seip site
- once a complex hopewell earthwork of two large circles, a square, some other walls, and interior mounds - great central mound and a portion of the larger circle still survive - house structures inside the larger circle at Seip are 10.5-12 m (34-40 ft) long and 9-10.5 m (30-34 ft) wide ----- structures were much more substantial than the houses hopewell people lived in - faunal remains point to feasting
Lizard Mound
- one of 28 effigy mounds now preserved in Lizard Mound County Park north of Milwaukee, Wisconsin - simple hemispherical ("conical") or linear shapes - two are large bird effigy mounds and seven are long tailed animal forms usually referred to as "panther" effigies - latter are typically depicted in profile view - great lizard mound might have been intended to represent the same animal but in a spread-eagle posture that shows all four limbs
Pueblo Alto
- one of a small number of bug villages built above the chaco canyon rim
penobscot nation
- one of several surviving algonquian groups in northern new england, quebec and the maritime provinces of canada - located at strategic points on main rivers - then dispersed to interior hunter sites in the interior during the winter and to coastal fishing stations in the summer
new projectile point around 650 BCE
- outlook point is small, small enough to have been an arrow point - first type of the besant series - appears to have spread in from Eastern Woodlands - brought about much more mass killing - pottery and wattle-and-daub house construction
effigy mounds national monument
- overlooking the Mississippi River valley in northeastern Iowa - there are 196 mounds in the park, 31 of which are effigy mounds - simplest forms of the domes of earth referred to as conical mounds - some of the conical, compound, and elongated linear mounds here are older
effigy mound culture
- people in southern Wisconsin and the adjacent parts of Minnesota, Iowa, and Illinois continued the tradition of building small family burial mounds - many of their mounds were laid out in the shapes of animals - meant to be seen from the air - difficult to take pictures of at ground level - the BEST way to see effigy mounds is to walk around them
Acoma
- perched atop a steep-sided mesa - villagers suffered from spanish repression - village was repaired and missionized by the spanish - smallpox epidemic devastated acoma - modern acoma potters are well known for their delicate and detailed designs
"All American Man"
- pictograph - canyonlands national park, utah - charcoal is one of its pigments
swidden agriculture
- practiced by the northern iroquoians - system rather extensive but not intensive - men did most of the heavy lifting but women were responsible for the agricultural work - women also ran the affairs of the village
"Upper Sonoran Agricultural Complex"
- practices that developed in the southwest - richard ford called it this - includes maize, bottle gourd, three kinds of bean (pinto, navy, and kidney), and squash
Hohokam tradition sites
- previously thought to be the oldest farming communities in the region - practiced irrigation agriculture - known for craftwork on marine shel
The Squire and Davis Map
- recorded many mounds that were later razed to make way for agriculture or destroyed by treasure hunters - maps and notes are sometimes all that remain of these important earthen monuments
adena earthworks and grave offerings
- red ocher, graphite and severed trophy heads - many portable objects made of exotic materials that had to be obtained through a network of trade and exchange
Plateau that lies north of the Great Basin
- region is drained by two rivers (fraser and columbia) - referred to as cascadia - cold in winter and hot in summer and similar to the environment of the high plains
southwest environment continued
- region is generally dry but has never been devoid of edible plants and game - southwestern deserts come in three varieties
Cambria Phase of south central minnesota
- related to the great oasiss and its derivative phases - cambria type site near mankato is unique
Rare Intaglios
- residential yard in Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin mound builders created a negative mound by excavating a pit in the shape of a panther rather than piling the earth - used to be several intaglios in southern Wisconsin but this is the only surviving one
fishing
- rising population also led to further intensification of fishing - major rivers and coastal areas provided abundant fish - important source of protein - catfish impounded in the oxbow lakes of major river valleys producing natural holding ponds
Pueblo III
- saw the collapse of the chacoan system and stress from environmental changes
Woodhenges
- secondary plazas and circular rings of posts - able to track the seasonal movements of the sun from the center
Hohokam houses
- shallow pithouses - excavated them only deeply enough to remove loose sand and expose the hard caliche layer that occurs throughout the Phoenix basin - hearths were small clay lined basins near the doorways
politics and shamanism
- shamanism and political clout were linked - generally believed that shamans could transform themselves into animal forms
the horse nomads of the great plains
- short-lived historical phenomenon - some groups began acquiring horses - peublo revolt of 1680 --> led to confiscation of thousands of spanish horses - indians quickly adapted to better and bigger travois - indians learned to tame and ride horses - hunting bison and fighting on horseback came into play - everyone in the great plains adopted horses byt he end of the 18th century
sketch made in 1883
- shows that 47 still survived at that time - flexed burials were placed in burial pits and the mounds were constructed over them - pots, pipes, bone tools, beads, and projectile points
Montezuma Castle
- sinagua cliff dwelling in the verde valley of central arizona - occupation peaked around 1300 CE - popular with tourists today - clearly not a castle in the traditional sense
Pecos
- site located east of sante fe - founded 1250-1300 CE - immigrants from ancestral pueblo sites - marcos de niza visited the town in 1539 and the coronado expedition of 1540-42 passed through well - spanish mission church built here - people at pecos constructed a traditional kiva in front of the church as a symbollic rejection of christianity - pecos population dwindled and the pueblo was abandoned in 1838
spiro mounds site
- site located on the banks of the Arkansas River - originally had 12 mounds - built 850- 1450 CE - looters recovered thousands of artifacts made of copper, shell, stone, basketry, and textile
Mounds after 400 CE
- smaller and accompanied by neither large earthwork enclosures nor fancy artifacts made of exotic materials - population growth continued, but without the Adena-Hopewell trade network regional cultures looked inward once again
Snaketown site
- snaketown site located on the gila river indian reservation - contained 167 houses, a ball court, the bones of macaws and parrots, copper bells, marine shell, and turquoise
Chiefdoms
- socio-political organizations that feature two or more levels of integration - often experience internal conflict - inharently unstable because they were made up of smaller units
the mounds were typically constructed in single building episodes
- sod was stripped first to define the effigy , then one or a few individuals were buried in the head or heart area of the effigy - earth was mounded up over the entire stripped area. Burials were sometimes primary interments, sometimes bundle burials, and sometimes cremations, suggesting that effigy mounds were built during the warm months to contain the remains of family members who had died since the last mound had been built
Fajada Butte
- solidary natural monument in chaco canyon - three large stone slabs near its top enclose a space used by shamans - spiral inside to direct the light - a dagger of light bisects the spiral during the summer solstice
Bird Effigies and Lizards
- some bird effigies have enormous wingspans - effigy mound on the grounds of Mendota State Hospital near Madison has a wingspan of 190 m
salado
- sometimes been treated as a culture but it is actually a set of pottery types that spread rapidly across cultures of the Hohokam and Mongollon - central pottery type is Gila Polychrome - Salado ceramics were particularly dominant in 13th and 14th century phases
Where are adena sites?
- southern Ohio and parts of adjoining states (such as Vermont and New jersey) - adena= red squares
Navajo and Apache
- speakers of an athapaskan language - they and their apache relatives descend from people who drifted southward from canada - not responsible for the contraction and migration of ancestral pueblo communities - hunter gatherer adaptationwas better suited to the conditions that emerged after the 13th century - navajos acquired weaving and sheep and hearding practices and silversmithing
oneota descendants
- speakers of languages belonging to the Chiwere branch of Siouan - include the Winnebago, Oto, Ioway, Missouri, and Osage tribes
Crow nation
- split from the sedentary hidatsas
eastern algonquian expansion
- spread from southern new england along the atlantic coast to north carolina - adopted maize cultures
Remember that beans, maize and squash did NOT come into the Eastern Woodlands as a package
- squash was an early regional domesticate - beans did not arrive until long after the first maize
environment of the southwest
- straddles the continental divide in several physiographic zones - colorado plateau lies over 1500 m above sea level and covers the northern part of the region - mountainous edge of the colorado plateau gives way to lower desert lands to the south - ranges of mountains interrupt the otherwise flat terrain - have lots of localized thunderstorms
classic iroquoian loghouse
- structure of variable length - has a central isle and partitions every 5.5 m - each family had a berth for sleeping and a set of work and storage areas - 5 was the average size of a nuclear family - each compartment contained about 10 people
other important early cultigens?
- sunflower (Helianthus annus) - goosefoot (Chenopodium barlandieri) - acorns - hickory nuts - black walnuts - butternuts - chestnuts - rasberries - other wild foods
Eastern Great Plains environment
- tall grass praries dominated by bluestem grasses from the canadian border to oklahoma - The plains of central Texas are hotter and drier, supporting a mesquite-juniper-oak savanna
hopewell ceremonalism
- terrific show - demand for fancy new artifacts was ensured by their ostentatious burial or even destruction by competing groups - most desirable materials were in short supply lower cost materials were sometimes substituted - clay beads and mica were cheap imitations of pearls and hard cannel coal mimiked obsidian
Little Bear Mound Group
- the Little Bear Mound has been outlined with light-colored stone to make it more visible to the visitor. Little Bear lies left side up, while Great Bear lies right side up. A line of 19 conical (actually dome-shaped) mounds extends from Little Bear eastward to Fire Point, which overlooks the Mississippi
communal hunting
- the hunter gathers of the great plains depending on ugulates, particularly bison - gathered under temporary leadership to plan and carry out drives of bison off cliffs like this one at Head-Smashed-In, Alberta, or into traps, then cooperated in the huge butchering task that resulted - hunters had to chase bison to their fate before the very late arrival of horses, required the effort of everyone but small children - used jumps or traps with long converging rows of stone cairns, which served as stations for people to guide the herd to the kill site - communal hunts required leadership and organization - dried meat and other products were distributed the need for leadership dissapeared
lanceolate and stemmed points
- these were getting replaced with smaller side notches - many people believe that the change was the result of their adoption of smaller atlatl darts than had been used previously
O'Odham
- tohono O'odham and akimel o'otham are descendants of the hohokam tradition who still live in reservation communities scattered across southern arizona - some people know them better as papgo and pima
maize's metabolic pathway
- tropical grasses and temperate plants - maize takes up the isotopes of carbon in slightly different proportions than other food plants used in the Eastern Woodlands - this isotopic signature is reflected in the bone chemistry of people having lots of maize in their diets
explaining desert farming
- uto aztecan languages spread north with the maize - appearance of early cultivation in Chihuahua was accompanied by the migration of Uto-Aztecan speakers northwestward through the Chihuahuan desert - 500 CE agriculture was fairly widespread in the SW - use of irrigation was a strategy
Caddoan
- variant of Mississippian developed on the southeastern Great Plains - Spiro site in eastern Oklahoma is its centerpiece - culture was borne by speakers of Caddoan languages, whose historic descendants include the Wichita and the Caddo Indians - exhibits trappings of the southeastern ceremonial complex
Plaquemine Substinence
- villagers depended upon maize, beans, and squash for subsistence - Squash was an older regional domesticate, maize was probably used previously mainly by elites or for ritual purposes, and beans were a recent arrival from Mesoamerica
Apishapa phase
- villages of southeastern colorado - derive from the central plains tradition - less emphasis on farming and stone architecture - did well enough in a period of higher rainfall after 1000 CE but had to abandon bc of drought int he fiteenth century
in situ hypothesis
- wanted to explain local culture change over time by migration - James B Griffin rejected untestable speculation and urged his students to begin with the assumption that migration was rare and had to be supported by strong evidence before it could be inferred
Decline and abandonment of the chaco
- warmer and drier conditions - local droughts - outliers ceased sedning food to chaco - population began to fall - chaco phenomenon collapsed but some outliers survived
line of 120 frost free days
- was farther north during the Medieval Maximum, farther south during the Little Ice Age. In any climatic period it is often defined as a thirty-year average. If growing season lengths varied only slightly from year to year people could risk farming close to the line. If growing season lengths varied considerably from year to year the risk of catastrophic crop failures was greater and farming did not spread as far north
linear mounds
- were given shapes that archaeologists speculate might have been birds, bears, panthers, turtles, or lizards - rare effigies are also known
high plains
- western- hot and dry in the summer - southern- grama and buffalo grasses are - northern- short grass species (wheatgrass, grama, needlegrass)
why did the fremont tradition end?
- when droughts forced fremont people to abandon their settlements - fremont tradition persisted four centuries longer
fremont people
- wore moccasins rather than sandals - part time farmers - lived in semi sedentary farmsteads and small villages - made pottery, built homes, and food storage facilities - raised maize
crow creek site
- yielded clear evidence that at least 500 Coalescent villagers were killed and mutilated by unknown assailants during the Initial years of the tradition (1300-1600 CE).
climatic trends affecting north america
-ice and sea cores have revealed the general climatic trends affecting North America over the last 10,000 years - after the Pleistocene there were episodes of very hot and dry conditions separated by cooler and wetter ones as compared to recent centuries
Ironquois confederacy (league of the iroquois)
-included the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca nations - a total of 50 chiefs appointed by clan matrons from these five nations conducted league affairs - structured around clans and funerary ritual - weak political alliance that existed primarily for mutual defense, occasional military offense and for coping with european colonial expansion - didnt survive the american revolution - still exists but in attenuated form
Serpent Mound
-winds for 411 m (1348 ft) along a hilltop in southern Ohio - the head of the effigy looks to many people like a snake swallowing an egg - some think it looks like a solar eclipse or a comet - Frederick Ward Putnam of Harvard University worked on this great effigy mound from 1886 until 1889 - state of Ohio owned it in 1900 from harvard
How many compartments appear to have been unoccupied because they are missing a hearth?
1
There were eventually five regional variants of Fremont as favorable environmental conditions prompted people following the regional Archaic life way to take up horticulture and more settled life. These are:
1. Great Salt Lake (Bear River and Levee phases) 2. Sevier 3. Parowan (Summit and Paragonah phases) 4. Uinta 5. San Rafael
Lesson 26 Main Points
1.) Archaic adaptations persisted until around 400 CE in the Great Basin. 2.) Fremont culture developed under favorable climatic conditions and the importation of domesticates from the Southwest. 3.) Climatic change forced the demise of Fremont culture around 1000 CE. 4.) Numic-speaking hunter-gatherers expanded into the vacuum left by the collapse of Fremont. 5.) The Shoshone people are the best known among the historic peoples of the Great Basin. 6.) The band societies of the Great Basin have provided anthropologists with an important laboratory for understanding cultural systems.
Lesson 20 Main Points
1.) Cahokia, near St. Louis, was the largest Middle Mississippian town and the center of an important chiefdom 2.) A loose set of standard symbolic artifacts are often referred to as the "Southeastern Ceremonial Complex." 3.) Moundville, Alabama, was a major chiefdom site near the southern limits of Middle Mississippian sites. 4.) Aztalan, Wisconsin, is an inappropriately named Middle Mississippian outlier that was founded near the northern limit of maize agriculture. 5.) The Dickson Mounds site in Illinois contains both Middle Mississippian and earlier burials in both burial mounds and cemeteries. 6.) The Angel Mounds site in southern Indiana was a Middle Mississippian center of a chiefdom that dominated the lower Ohio River valley. 7.) Abandonment of many centers in the fifteenth century left a vacant quarter.
Lesson 17 Main Points
1.) Hopewell culture sprang from Adena origins but lasted longer, overlapping it in both time and space. 2.) Hopewell people built elaborate earthwork complexes that often contained many individual mounds. 3.) Hopewell culture expanded through mechanisms of trade and exchange. 4.) Major surviving Hopewell sites include spectacular earthworks in southern Ohio. 5.) Hopewell culture declined around 400 CE, probably as the consequence of societal changes and interrupted trade connections. 6.) Adena and Hopewell artisans acquired exotic raw materials from outside their home territories, sometimes from great distances. 7.) Artisans shaped raw materials into a wide range of portable artifacts, most of which ended up as burial offerings. 8.) Exotic raw materials were brought to southern Ohio from as far away as the upper Great Lakes, the Rocky Mountains, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Atlantic Ocean. 9.) The mechanisms that brought raw materials to the core area included both long treks and down-the-line exchange that was couched in terms of ritual gift giving. 10.) Clans probably developed across the Eastern Woodlands to provide a network of fictive kinship ties, which in turn facilitated exchange.
Other large villages in the canyon include:
1.) Hungo Pavi 2.) Chetro Ketl 3.) Pueblo del Arroyo
Lesson 24 Main Points
1.) Northern Iroquoian expansion into the Northeast was prompted by the attraction of good soils and warm weather. 2.) Swidden agriculture promoted migratory expansion. 3.) Permanent compact villages were made possible by maize agriculture and held together by strong matrilineal organization. 4.) The formation of weak confederacies of independent nations was a political innovation amongst Northern Iroquoians. 5.) The League of the Iroquois came to dominate the native Northeast in the colonial period. 6.) Modern Northern Iroquoian nations survive on reservations in the U. S. and on reserves in Canada. 7.) The In Situ hypothesis of Iroquois origins has been modified to give it a starting point around 650 CE.
Lesson 29 Main Points
1.) Oshara culture was the Archaic foundation of the Ancestral Pueblo tradition. 2.) Dendrochronology (tree-ring dating) has provided a precise chronology for the Ancestral Pueblo tradition. 3.) Villages with surface rooms gradually replaced pithouse villages, but the pithouse form was preserved in the form of subterranean kivas. 4.) Mesa Verde was a northern branch of Ancestral Pueblo that is best known for its dramatic cliff dwellings. 5.) The Chaco Phenomenon was a network of exchange between Ancestral Pueblo communities that arose around 860 CE. 6.) Major Chacoan villages were large D-shaped pueblos. 7.) Straight roads connected Chaco Canyon pueblos to distant outlier pueblos. 8.) The Chaco Phenomenon was ended by drought around 1130 CE.
Lesson 19 Main Points
1.) Plant foods, including maize that originated in Mexico, came to dominate diets. 2.) As a logical extension of gathering, the burden of cultivation fell mainly on women. 3.) Maize was first used sparingly, but it became a staple after 800 CE. 4.) Maize takes up carbon isotopes differently from most other North American food plants, allowing archaeologists to detect a predominantly maize diet from human bone. 5.) The new diet of maize, squash, and other plant foods would not be balanced until the arrival of beans. 6.) The bow and arrow spread to most of the region by 800 CE, changing both hunting and warfare. 7.) Fishing was intensified as a source of animal protein. 8.) The rising importance of cultivation can be seen in the spread of stone hoes. 9.) The scale of larger communities leads to more complex political structures. 10.) Chiefdoms are more complex than tribes, but they are unstable in the long term. 11.) Chieftains often signaled their rank through mound architecture and monuments to revered ancestors. 12.) Chieftains were often strong enough to enforce displays of rank differential, including human sacrifice. 13.) Luxury goods obtained by leaders through networks of trade and exchange signaled high rank to subordinates.
Lesson 23 Main Points
1.) Proto-Algonquian was spoken around the lower Great Lakes. 2.) The Point Peninsula archaeological culture documents early Algonquian expansion. 3.) Politics, personal charisma, and shamanism were closely associated in traditional Algonquian culture. 4.) Petroglyphs document strong sexual and shamanistic themes in Algonquian culture. 5.) The Penobscots are one of the best known surviving 6.) Eastern Algonquian nations. Eastern Algonquians from southern New England south adopted maize cultivation. 7.) A chiefdom polity arose among the Algonquian Powhatans of Virginia. 8.) Epidemics did not occur as early here as in regions of Spanish colonization.
Lesson 30 Main Points
1.) Sinagua culture developed in the wake of a volcanic eruption. 2.) Montezuma Castle is a Sinagua cliff dwelling that is not a castle and has nothing to do with the Aztec emperor Montezuma. 3.) Fremont, another marginal Southwestern tradition developed in the Great Basin. 4.) Many Ancestral Pueblo migrants moved to the upper Rio Grande region of New Mexico. 5.) Ancestral Pueblo immigrants to the southern part of the Southwest stimulated the production of Salado pottery. 6.) The Zunis descend from the Ancestral Pueblo tradition but speak a unique language. 7.) The Hopi persist as a vibrant Pueblo culture surrounded by Navajo communities. 8.) Navajo and Apache migrants spread across the Southwest after 1500.
Lesson 16 Main Points
1.) The Eastern Woodlands are a vast and varied biome. 2.) The westward expansion of Euroamericans was accompanied by popular myths about a supposedly superior race of vanished moundbuilders. 3.) Amongst his other talents Thomas Jefferson was an archaeologist. 4.) Squier, Davis, and other early archaeologists carried out surveys under very difficult conditions that yielded our only records of some important sites. 5.) Institutional competition led to the founding of many museums and the beginnings of American archaeology. 6.) Burial mounds are a nearly world-wide phenomenon that arose independently in several regions. 7.) Earthen mounds are surprisingly quick and easy to construct. 8.) Mounds are often built by people more conscious of territorial cores than boundaries. 9.) The most elaborate burial mounds are built by strong leaders rather than for them. 10.) Watson Brake and Poverty Point are two large and early earthwork complexes. 11.) Most Adena sites are in southern Ohio and nearby Kentucky, but a few outliers have been found to the northeast. 12.) Adena adaptation was based on cultigens native to the Eastern Woodlands. 13.) Adena earthworks were burial mounds that sometimes contained elaborate log tombs. 14.) Adena trade and exchange brought exotic materials to their sites, where they were crafted into finished products.
Lesson 25 Main Points
1.) The Great Plains is a grassland with forests only on a few mountains and along rivers. 2.) The primary food source for thousands of years was the bison. 3.) Archaic adaptations persisted on the northern Plains from the demise of the Paleoindians to the late arrival of horticultural cultures. 4.) Archaic populations of the southern Plains were thin compared to more successful ones in the adjacent Southeast and Southwest regions. 5.) Plains Woodland cultures spread upstream along rivers into the Great Plains. 6.) Later Plains Village cultures evolved along major rivers, either influenced by Mississippian cultures or as extensions of them. 7.) Lower and Middle Missouri cultures developed after 900 CE from Mississippian roots downstream. 8.) Coalescent cultures became established along the Missouri in South Dakota when Plains Villagers were forced out of the central Plains by climatic changes. 9.) Southern Plains villagers were dispersed due to changing climatic conditions by 1500 CE. 10.) The mounted nomads of the Great Plains were short-lived cultures that emerged after the introduction of horses.
Lesson 27 Main Points
1.) The Plateau lies in the interior of the Northwest region between the Cascades and the Rockies. 2.) Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides have caused abrupt changes in human adaptations in this dynamic region. 3.) Plateau pithouses were developed to shelter seasonally sedentary people from harsh weather extremes. 4.) Athapaskan-speaking peoples reached the Plateau only within recent centuries. 5.) The Columbia River was an important water route connecting the Plateau to the Northwest Coast as well as a migratory route for salmon.
Lesson 28 Main Points
1.) The Southwest straddles the continental divide and has both upland and desert environments. 2.) The first farmers pushed into the Southwest from Mexico around 1000 BCE. 3.) Linguistic evidence indicates that immigrant farmers spoke Proto-Uto-Aztecan. 4.) Cave stalagmites show that Southwest climate was favorable for farmers between 1000 BCE and 1150 CE. 5.) Tree rings show that a series of severe droughts followed 1150 CE. 6.) Hohokam communities with irrigation systems appeared by 1 CE. I7.) rrigation ditch engineering is not as difficult as it may appear to be. 8.) Irrigation systems tend to collapse in the absence of centralized control like that reflected in the Pueblo Grande site. 9.) Collapse of the Hohokam irrigation systems was brought on by climatic change and widespread erosion. 10.) Early Mogollon villages were small sets of pit houses situated on high ground. 11.) Mogollon pottery developed from Mexican prototypes but differed from Hohokam pottery. 12.) Mogollon villagers gradually moved into above-ground dwellings and adopted kivas, including community great kivas. 13.) Paquimé was an important Southwestern population center that was not isolated from other developments. 14.) Mimbres pottery is very popular with modern collectors because of its colors and abstract decorative motifs.
So why did agriculture spread into this hostile environment?
1.) The simple traditional view is that demographic pressure forced people into this marginal area and they used agriculture to meet subsistence demands. 2.) A more nuanced ecological view is that while population pressure might be a good explanation in stable environments, in unstable ones it is more likely that cultivation was initially taken up to buffer periodic shortfalls, then adopted more generally when its long-term benefits became apparent.
Lesson 22 Main Points
1.) Tribal cultures north of the Mississippians took farming to its ecological limits. 2.) The farming cultures of the northern parts of the Eastern Woodlands vary in important details but share a similar adaptation. 3.) The central Appalachians and a vast area between them and the Great Lakes were largely vacant when first explored by Euroamerican settlers. 4.) Swidden agriculture involves shifting cultivation and frequent village relocations that put its practitioners at an adaptive disadvantage to Euroamerican farmers. 5.) Northern farms typically lived in bark houses, in some cases large multifamily longhouses. 6.) The Little Ice Age put an end to the expansion of farming and led to conflict as societies competed for the best locations and resources. 7.) The late arrival of beans completed the list of primary staples: maize beans and squash. 8.) Wild rice grows naturally throughout the Great Lakes region and is abundant around Lake Superior. 9.) Wild rice is easily harvested in birchbark canoes. 10.) Wild rice can be prepared for eating in several ways. 11.) Some wild rice gatherers converted easily to cultivating domesticated plants. 12.) Oneota was a northwestern derivative of Mississippian culture. 13.) Norris Farm is an important site because it reveals the extent of violence and warfare during Oneota times. 12.) Oneota pottery was made in a distinctive globular form. 15.) Speakers of one branch of Siouan languages are the modern descendants of Oneota.
southwestern deserts three varieties
1.) mojave desert- includes death valley (one of the hottest and driest places on earth but it can winter freeze) 2.) sonoran desert- hottest and driest overall, rare brief freezes eliminate delicate cacti but allow the huge saguaro cactus to prosper 3. chihuahuan desert- high, generally above 1000 m and its dominant plant is lechuguilla (century plant)
When did Sample Log B start growing?
1225
What is the volume of the flat-topped pyramid mound?
16,333
What is the volume of the large pyramid? (rounded to the nearest cubic meter)
20,833
But as community sizes approached __________ or so, the geometric growth in the number of face-to-face interactions made hierarchical leadership necessary
2000
When did the population of the Eastern Woodlands begin rising steadily again?
2000 BCE -- development of dependable native cultigens -- tropical cultigens, anmely maize and tropical squash had not yet spread into the Eastern Woodlands so the native cultigens that spurred this growth were the home grown ones
Middle Woodland ends around ____________ in the Midwest, it persists until ______________ in the Northeast. The terms have thus outlived their usefulness and will be used only sparingly here.
400 CE, 1000 CE
Given the known average number of people per hearth in an Iroquoian village, what was the total population of the village of Onyeteh?
440
How many compartments were there in the seven houses at Onyeteh?
45
earliest Fremont sites are ____ centuries older than Ancestral Pueblo
5 - Fremont basketry is continuous from earlier local Archaic forms, so most archaeologists conclude that the culture arose mainly as the result of Mogollon influence on Great Basin hunter-gatherers. The Fremont theme has several variations, but there are common traits, including ceramics, clay figurines, petroglyphs styles, and settlement styles.
The largest earthen structure in North America, outside of Mexico, is found at the site of __________________.
Cahokia
new diet led to All but the youngest people were plagued with caries, lost teeth, and severe abscesses:
Clearing and burning of fields, which had been going on for centuries at a smaller scale, now began to transform the whole region into a mosaic of cleared fields, recently abandoned patches having new growth, and stands of mature forests. Abandoned fields were attractive to both animals, especially deer, and edible plants.
Adena and Hopewell culture hallmarks
Copper nuggets came from the Keweenaw Peninsula of Upper Michigan. Silver nuggets probably came from Ontario. Meteoric iron came from wherever it landed. Mica came from quarries in the southern Appalachians. Quartz crystal came from the Mohawk Valley of New York. Aventurine and chlorite came from the southern Appalachians. Galena cubes came from Illinois or Missouri. Nodular flint came from deposits in Indiana and Illinois. Chalcedony came from the Knife River region of North Dakota Obsidian and grizzly bear canines came from the Yellowstone region of the Rocky Mountains. Catlinite came from Minnesota and possibly Wisconsin. Cannel coal came from any of many coal deposits in Pennsylvania and elsewhere. Cassis shell came from the Florida east coast. Busycon, marginella, oliva, and olivella shells came from the Gulf Coast. Alligator teeth, shark teeth, marine turtle shells and barracuda jaws came from the Gulf Coast.
mounds provide ______________________________ for a dispersed societies that do not have strong concepts of land tenure
Cultural Centers - the existence of mounds that contain elaborate burials were probably clan leaders (Big Men) - exotic grave offerings implies a system of trade and exchange through which such objects could move
panthers and human figures
Man Mound is preserved in a small park northeast of Baraboo - used to be 65 meters long but the mounds feet were long ago cut off by road construcion
In the _____________, Siouan-speaking cultures (pink in map above) with connections to Mississippian centers pushed northward as well. The cluster of tribes known archaeologically as Oneota eventually gave rise to historic Siouan societies of the upper Midwest.
Midwest,
Which of the following was NOT a reason why Northern Iroquoian villages relocated frequently?
Migratory herds of caribou periodically shifted their annual routes, so the villages were relocated with these shifts.
chipped stone hoes were made from?
Mill Creek Chert
Which mound showsclear evidence of human sacrifice
Mound 72
The native people encountered by the first Europeans to enter the Great Basin were _________ direct descendants of Fremont culture.
NOT
The native language families of the Southwest include Hokan, Keresan, Kiowa-Tanoan, Uto-Aztecan, Na-Dene, and Zuni, an isolated language with no known relatives
Na-Dene was a late arrival about five centuries ago. Uto-Aztecan was probably carried north from Mexico by early farmers.
Kuaua
Navajo hunter-gatherers arrived in the valley by 1500-1550CE. The Coronado expedition of 1540-42 visited the pueblo in the same period. Pressures from both caused the people of Kuaua to abandon their pueblo soon after 1600 CE.
The principal known phases of this Central Plains tradition are:
Nebraska, 100-1250 CE Upper Republican, 1000-1350 CE Solomon River, 1000-1200 CE Smoky Hill, 1000-1350 CE St. Helena, 1350-1450 CE Loup River (Itskari), 1100-1350 CE Pomona, 950-1350 CE Steed-Kisker, 1000-1250 CE
Outlier Adena sites have been found in __________________________________________________________________. These were originally thought to indicate migration(s) of Adena people outward from Ohio. However, the Adena burial complex appears to have been grafted on to local cultures in these instances, and there is no need to invoke migration. These were probably local cultures benefiting from their connections to the Adena exchange network (Grayson 1970).
New York, Vermont, and New Jersey
the largest surviving earthwork complex is in and around the city of ____________________, Ohio
Newark - The site was begun around 250 CE. It's Great Circle is 321 m (1054 ft) in diameter, and it features a large flat central field with an eagle effigy mound at its center. Ringing this is a large ditch and an exterior earthen embankment, both cut by an opening for level access. A gap in the exterior wall is matched by an unexcavated earthen ramp across the ditch.
Hopewell origins
- developed out of Adena in southern ohio around 200 BCE - in southern ohio and illinois - adena was not replaced by hopewell in some parts of ohio and it continued there and in kentucky overlapping hopewell in time for three centuries
new diseases and population decline
- disease spread through powhatan villages and sudden depopulation caused the chiefdom to fall part politically
A E Douglass
- doing more with tree rings - university of arizona researcher interested in past climatic cycles - hit upon the idea of using variations in tree ring widths to assess past variations in the climate of the American Southwest - dating was an accidental byproduct
Watson Brake
- eleven mounds connected around a huge oval by a lot meter high (3.5 feet) earthwork ridge - oval is about 280 meters (919 ft) in diameter and the highest mound stands 7.5 meters (25 ft) high - other mounds are shorter but the complex is imposing because it dates to 3400 BCE
northern plains
- followed by a long plains archaic - might date to as early as 9000 BCE - middle period - good evidence for use of the northern plains by some archaeologists
platform smoking pipes
- made in simple monitor forms or more often to depict effigies of human head, frogs, toads, water birds, raptors, ravens bears and the like
Casa Grande
- one of the "great house" communities of the lake Hohokam - central feature is a large adobe dwelling - great house and lower structures were all contained within a large walled rectangular compound - also has a platform mound
ancestors of the Navajo and Apache nations
- other nadene speakers - pressed into the southwest and became established there by 1525 CE - many of the dismal river apacheans left hte great plains and joined the jicarilla apaches and other joined kiowa
Long distance exchange
- picked up again after 1000 CE - down the line exchange between cheiftans and clan leaders
Mimbres demise
- population was much reduced in the black mountain phase - After 1450 CE the Mimbres people disappeared from the area altogether, and the landscape became home to Apache newcomer
Hopewell artifacts made from Yellowstone obsidian.
- potters made elaborate "zoned" vessels with incised panel designs. They also made figurines in both clay and fossil mammoth ivory that tell us much about their hair styles and clothing
petroglyphs
- preserve a record of algonquian shamanism -
swidden vs euroamerican farms
- swidden at a serious disadvantage - European colonists adopted many American crops, but they also brought with them domesticated animals that provided fertilizer, traction, and transportation. Fenced fields and permanent housing led to permanent land tenure that inexorably out-competed and displaced impermanent swidden farmers.
How did plains woodland cultivators solve the resource problem?
- taking cultivation with them when they penetrated the great plains - could either hunt for themselves or trade with hunter gatherers who wanted to have plant foods
Plaquemine Mississippian Sites
- towns were refurbished communities previously inhabited by Coles Creek cultural groups - Existing platform mounds were expanded with thick new mantels of earth and new secondary mounds were constructed around them. Most people lived in small surrounding communities. Major sites were occupied by noble families and their retainers. The sites were heavily populated only during major ritual events
evidence from tree rings
- tree rings can be used to date wood found in archaeological sites, a technique known as dendrochronology - can also be used to reveal local and regional climate year by year
Square Tower House
- unusual tower that gives its dwelling name
Plains Environment
- vast grassland interrupted in only a few places by forest - either pine forested mountainous areas like the Black Hills of South Dakota or fingers of forest up river valleys from the eastern woodlands - not many plant foods for humans on the great plains - there was herds of grazing animals that can digest tough grasses - faunal is a large fraction of the total biomass - tilts a little eastward from the bases of the rocky mountains on the western edge toward the mississippi in the woodlands to the east - rivers from eastward
Peñasco Blanco
- went through subsequent enlargements
julian steward proposed that there were four microenvironments used by the shoshones that lived near the reese river in central nevada:
1. riverine zone 2. arid sagebrush flats 3. pinon juniper belt 4. upper sagebrush grass zone - he thinks shoshones used each microenvironment for a specific set of extractive purposes
Three D shaped houses were built at key stream junctions in Chaco Canyon during the 900s. These are known now as:
1.) Peñasco Blanco 2.) Una Vida 3.) Pueblo Bonito
Maximum geographic expansion in the west was reached around _____ CE, after which environmental conditions forced the western Ancestral Pueblo to contract.
1150 - entire virgin culture area was abandoned
hopewell subsistence and settlement were very similar to those of ___________________
Adena
Northern Mexico and the American Southwest are both arid, desert environments with low annual rainfall that often falls in sporadic, localized storms - hardly ideal condition for agriculture. How do archaeologists explain why agriculture was initially adopted in this region?
Agriculture initially buffered the risk of poor hunting and gathering returns in unstable environments.
richard MacNeish
His model hypothesized that the Northern Iroquoians had evolved culturally in situ (in place), and he interpreted ceramic sequences accordingly. The model became the standard working hypothesis in Iroquoian archaeology for the next half century (Snow 1984). - focused entirely on ceramic evidence
hopewell artisans and what they crafted
Hopewell artisans crafted a wide range of finished products from the exotic materials they obtained, sometimes from great distances. Other exotic objects, such as galena cubes and grizzly bear canines, were only slightly modified treasures
In many cases the individuals found in the central tombs of ______________________ clearly enjoyed higher social standing that those buried in simple interments around the edges
Hopewell mounds - sometimes male burials dominated in the central tombs - at other times both males and females found in central tombs were taller than average suggesting that either the high status individuals were better fed or that those simply lucky enough to be tall were accorded higher status
While certain individuals were accorded more lavish burials than others, there is nothing to indicate that they lived differently than their contemporaries before they died. In the chiefdoms of later centuries we see evidence of the inheritance of wealth and relatively lavish lifestyles for a select few, but none of that applies in the _______________ or _______________________________.
Hopewell, earlier Adena cases.
All of the following are true regarding the environmental characteristics of the North American Great Plains EXCEPT:
It spans from the Mississippi River to the Pacific coast.
Which of the following statements about the role of marriages in the Natchez system of sociopolitical ranking?
Marraiges allowed for the slow upward social mobility of commoners over the course of generations.
the bow and arrow became generally available in the __________________ region around 600-800 CE
Mississippian - innovation was marked by a sudden increase in small projectile points used to tip arrows - allowed hunters range widely from their homes and to hunt smaller animals that competed with them for crops in the fields - bow and arrow was also effective against other people
The San Dieguito, Pinto, Cochise, Chihuahua, and Oshara cultures all gave way to cultures that were the foundations of the major traditions of the prehistoric ___________________
Southwest
____________________ was a non-domesticated staple food used heavily by groups in the Great Lakes region.
Wild rice
charnel house
a building designed to hold the remains of the deceased
wattle and daub
a construction technique involving wood pole frames and adobe mud applied to smaller sticks women into uprights
palisade
a defensive wall of large posts, also called a stockade
catlinite
a dense red stone, found in minnesota and wisconsin, that was quarried and traded widley in the hopewell and later exchange systems
wigwam
a dome shaped house having framework of bent saplings and a covering of bark or mats
bundle burial
a form of secondary burial in which disarticulated remains are gathered up and bundled before internment
moieties
a fundamental division of a community into two sections. each moiety is usually made up of a grouping of lineages or clans
metate
a grinding stone, used with a mano to convert seeds into flour
mano
a hand stone used on metate to produce flour. a term borrowed from spanish
Other stuff about Newark
a huge earthwork circle is linked to an octagon of about the same size by an avenue flanked by two long earthen walls. The octagon is actually a square with its sides pushed out such that there are two sets of angles rather than equal angles at all eight corners. Each corner has a gap in the wall and a mound just inside. The octagon covers 18 hectares (44 acres) of what is now a golf course. Careful surveying revealed no solar alignments
oxbow lake
a lake formed from a segment of a river left isolated when the river changes course. it typically takes the form of a crescent
post mold
a lone or circle of vertical cylinders of dark soil left behind by the frameworks of wigwams and longhouses
teosinte
a nahuatl word for a wild grass from which maize developed
shaman
a part time religious practitioner who is perceived by others to have the power to contract the supernatural realm on a client's behalf
gouge
a pecked and ground stone tool similar to a adze but having a concave face allowing the user to hollow out wood being worked
adze
a pecked and ground stone tool similar to a celt but halfed with the cutting edge perpendicular to the handle
celt
a pecked and ground stone tool similar to an ax head
chaco phenonomenon
a special case of one branch of the ancestral pueblo tradition, centered in chaco canyon, new mexico but with widespread outliers
wickiup
a temporary shelter used by mobile hunter gatherers
palette
a thin slab of stone, wood, shell, or some other material that i decorated
The League of the Iroquois (or Haudenosaunee) was:
a weak political alliance that existed primarily for mutual defense, occasional military offense, and coping with European colonial expansion
northern plains archaeological complexes
Old Women's culture southern Alberta, 800-1850 CE. Blackduck culture in Minnesota and southern Manitoba, 650-1100 CE. Rainy River culture, a composite of three regional complexes derived from Blackduck in Minnesota, 1100-1700 CE. Selkirk culture, a composite of four related complexes in and around the southern Canadian Plains, 1200-1700 CE. Devils Lake-Sourisford complex, a burial-mound complex in North Dakota and adjacent Canada, 1000-1150 CE. Wanikan complex, northern Minnesota, 1100-1750 CE. Mortlach culture, central and western northern Plains, 1500-1800 CE.
inhabitants of the northeastern forests
The tribal societies of the northern woodlands were mainly speakers of Algonquian (yellow in map above) languages, many of whom adopted pottery and maize farming after 900 CE. Speakers of Iroquoian languages (green in map above) pushed into the Northeast along the Appalachian chain around the same time, taking agriculture with them as an adaptive advantage and displacing thinner populations of Algonquian-speaking hunter-gatherers.
vocabulary items that are common to Northern Iroquoian and can be reconstructed for Proto-Northern-Iroquoian include terms for bow and arrow, elm, hickory, and hemlock trees, maize, and tobacco.
These and other key terms point to a homeland in the central Appalachians, not the lower Great Lakes. The linguistic evidence is supported by recent genetic evidence (Malhi, et al. 2001).
esker
a long sinuous ridge of gravel, once a river bed inside a glacier deposited as a landscape feature when the glacier melted
big man
a male leader who emerges as a dominant figure through some combination of achievement and heredity and typically represents a large supportive kin group
patayan
a minor tradition of western arizona and adjacent cali, ancestral to modern cultures whose members speak languages of the cochimi yuman fam
tepee
a mobile house form consisting of a conical pole frame and a hide or mat covering
sipapu
a symbolic hole found in the floor of an ancestral pueblo kiva
natchez
an excellent example of a Mississippian chiefdom in action. They were visited by the French explorer Du Pratz and others in the early eighteenth century. The Grand Village of the Natchez Indians was located in what is now Natchez, Mississippi. Excavations there at various times in the twentieth century have yielded evidence that supplements what is known from documentary history to provide an unusually complete picture of this Mississippian society
primary burial
an internment of an intact individual
There are many ________________________________ in this region, most of which lead one way or another to historic tribes, but the details of these lines are still being worked out by archaeologists. A few probably dwindled to extinction without issue and dynamic recombinations of groups over time has often obscured connections.
archaeological phases
As in adena mounds...
archaeologists find a wide range of individuals in hopewell mounds - main mound at the Seip site contained males and females in equal numbers - only infants were conspicuous for their absence - infants were often excluded from ancient mortuary practices - poor preservation often combines with inadequate excavation techniques to thwart the recovery of those few that do exist
One of the primary functions of Northwest Plateau pithouses was:
as a way to stay cool during the hot summer months and warm during the harsh winters
What primary weapon did the bow and arrow replace?
atlatl
The soil and terrain of the deserts of American Southwest are formidably tough and difficult to alter, especially when limited to simple hand tools. Despite these difficulties, digging irrigation canals might not have been as tough as we might imagine. Why is this?
canals can be dug from fast-flowing rivers using only baskets and digging sticks with gravity as a guide
in addition to mounds, _______________________________ could also encompass large buildings, the foundations of which can still be traced using the stains left by large wall posts sunk into the subsoil
ceremonial earthworks - size and complexity of one of these sites was probably determined more by the number of people taking part in the ceremonies conducted within it and the frequency of those events than the importance of the people buried in them
Some platform mounds supported ________________________. These contained the remains of distinguished ancestors. The charnel houses were cleaned periodically and the accumulated human remains were buried elsewhere. Such a structure could only hold a small fraction of all the people living in the community, so it is clear that the most ostentatious practices were reserved for high-ranking families.
charnel houses
In the absence of much evidence archaeologists once hypothesized that Hopewell societies were characterized by ________________________ and ________________________________________
chiefdom organization, dominant elite classes - extensive research has shown no evidence for the inhertiance of wealth or an agricultural system capable of supporting those institutions - the hopewell interaction sphere (orange) and the extent of burial mound cultures in the eastern woodlands (light yellow)
Human sacrifice
chieftains family's were sometimes prestigious enough that a human sacrifice happened in their burial ritual -- ex. Cahokia, Dickson, and some other major sites
A key factor in the development of Mississippian chiefdom societies was _____________________________, which limited how easily factions within a society could move to new, unoccupied territory when disagreements arose.
circumscription
vacant quarter
collapse of the middle mississippian cheifdoms and the abandonment of many of their towns in the fifteenth century left a vacant quarter centered at the american bottom portion of the mississippi valley
curcumscription
constaint on population expansion imposed by surrounding populations of similar type or geographic/ environmental barriers
Hopewell items that were clearly intended to be worn by shamans as parts of costumes:
deer antlers, either real or made of copper, and masks made from the facial portions of human skulls. One buried individual, who had years before his death lost his front incisors, was equipped with the upper jaw of a wolf, carved to fit in the gap in his mouth.
The dietary change can also be seen more easily in a precipitous decline in _________________________
dental health - High carbohydrate diets combined with the lack of modern dental hygiene lead to rapid tooth decay - use of stone grinding tools produces grit in flour that abrades the cusps off the molars of even young people - All but the youngest people were plagued with caries, lost teeth, and severe abscesses
Obsidian found in Ohio
deposited sometime in the century 100-200 CE, and more than half of it was found as unfinished raw material in a single grave. This was most likely the remaining stock of someone who managed to bring a single large shipment from Yellowstone's Obsidian Cliff, 4000 km (2500 mi) away
southwestern connections
eads also turn up at Spiro and in other Mississippian sites. These have long been assumed to have come from the Gulf of Mexico, and indeed many do. However, specimens of Olivella dama, which could only have come from the Gulf of California, have also been found at Spiro. That means that in the years around 1400 CE the people at Spiro were acquiring at least some of their shells by way of the Puebloans of the Southwest (Kozuch 2002)
The traits that are traditionally used to identify Adena sites are largely _________________________________________
finely-made portable artifacts - made from exotic materials obtained through a large regional exchange network - barrel shaped, effigy and straight cylinder tubular pipes made from fine grained stone indicate that tabacco had already spread to the Eastern woodlands from mesoamerica and south america ---Nicotiana Rustica (stuff found in their tabacco)
While surviving Hopewell sites are today typically __________________________ that blend into the landscape, it is likely that periodic clearing and refurbishing kept them bare and more visible while they were in use. A purpose of monuments, after all, is to be seen
grassy knolls
grand village and natchez
had a large open plaza with temple mounds at each end. A temple built of thick cypress logs stood atop the bigger mound, its door facing the plaza. Its ridged thatch roof was surmounted by three large wooden bird effigies. A perpetual fire burned in the outer room and the inner room of the temple contained a stone statue of the first chieftain (Great Sun).
Early excavators believed that Adena mounds typically contained the remains of___________________________
high status adult men - detailed analysis of skeletons has revealed that both men and women and a wide range of ages were buried in the Adena mounds - same is true for later hopewell interments
The Ancestral Pueblo practiced a flexible form of dry __________________.
horticulture - raising maize and other crops opportunistically where rainfall and springs made productive cultivation possible. They were eventually able to support themselves on the southern Colorado Plateau, the southern Great Basin, and the upper Rio Grande Valley, regions that were variable but uniformly challenging for farmers.
effigy mound culture were primarily __________________________________ who probably cultivated only a few plants
hunter-gatherers - made pottery but probably lived at a population density lower than that of the earlier Hopewell
The biggest mounds and the most lavish burials typically go not to the most powerful or respected in a succession of leaders but rather to that person's________________________________________________
immediate predecessor
black drink
important ritual concoction made from a species of holly. The drink is a strong purgative, which induces immediate vomiting. The Indians used it for ritual purification, often before battle.
The site of Gatecliff Shelter in Nevada is important because it provides evidence of
it shows evidence of being occupied and abandoned over successive periods of regional climate change.
Although it was increasing, the population density of the Eastern Woodlands was still _______ compared to historic levels. There were probably fewer than 40 people per 100 km2 in Ohio 3000 years ago, more than the 12/100 km 2 of historic hunter-gatherers in northern New England, yet much lower than the 77/100 km2 known for the agricultural Mohawks
low
The Upper Sonoran Agricultural Complex includes all of the following domesticated plants EXCEPT:
manioc
wampum
marine shell beads specifically small cylindrical white and purple beads often combines as strings or belts
An interest in a wide variety of _______________ probably led a few adventurous individuals from one source to another
materials - example: travel to the galena quarries of Illinois would have put them in range of the catlinite source in southern Minnesota, which in turn could have led them to the Knife River chert quarries of North Dakota and ultimately the obsidian quarry in Yellowstone - people were traveling freely and easily in the Eastern woodlands
Eastern Woodlands continued mound construction featured steady additions of the recently deceased and new layers of earth. In some parts of the ________________________ they included large numbers of boulders, particularly where earth was difficult to scrape up.
mid-continent
Archaeologists like James B. Griffin argued that Northern Iroquoian cultures had developed in situ (in place), and idea that relied on which of the following as a primary assumption?
migration is rare and has to be supported by strong evidence before it can be inferred
Native Americas were able to adapt to and flourish in the Northwest Plateau region of the United States as a result of the presence of large game animals, edible roots, and ________________.
migratory fish
"she who watches"
most prominent of many pictographs that adorn the jagged basalt cliffs at the upper end of the narrows of the Columbia River
cultures derived from the _______________________ peoples of the eastern woodlands crept up the wooded valleys of the great Plains
mound building - These were cultivators who made pottery but who lacked the tropical crops that would later flourish in the Eastern Woodlands. They lived in dispersed villages of permanent circular or oval houses scattered along the courses of permanent streams (Johnson 2001; Johnson and Johnson 1998) - hunter gatherers has more meat than they could consume at the great plains - critical resources were fat and carbs
Chaco culture developed in ______________________________________.
northeastern new mexico - its location is hard to explain - chaco phenomenon arose quickly and lasted for over two centuries - maximum population was 5500 people around 1050 CE - no evidence of centralized gov.
It is __________________________ that farmers spread into the Southwest with the onset of attractive cooler and wetter conditions. It is also not surprising that they ran into trouble when conditions deteriorated for them around 1150 CE
not surprising
Unlike the early spread in many other areas, lethal epidemic disease spread was delayed in the American Northeast and Midwest because
of the absence of European children with early settlers who carried the germs that Native Americans lacked immunity towards
mogollon
one of three major traditions of the southwest, the tradition emerged from the archaic cultures in the mountains of arizona and new mexico
"frenzied proportions"
oof beams were imported from great distances, many more rooms were built than were needed by the resident population, and turquoise was an important currency.
mississippian
originally defined as a culture type in the 1930s to distinguish the platform-mound-building chiefdoms of the Southwest and Midwest from the "Woodland" tribes of the Eastern Woodlands. Both terms have since been adopted as names for time periods, usually subdivided into early, middle, and late subperiod
winterville
originally had at least 23 platform mounds. Twelve survive, including a typically dominant central mound standing 17 m (55 ft) high. There is no evidence that there was a large residential population at this and similar sites
Dendrochronological evidence suggests that ______________________ began to affect the livelihoods of farming communities in the American Southwest after 1150 CE?
periodic droughts
game of chunky
played with a pill-shaped chunky stone that was rolled across the plaza. Young men competed by throwing spears to mark the spot where the chunky stone would come to rest
matrilocal
postmarital residence in which men move in with their wive's families
pemmican
pounded dried meat, and sometimes dried fruits mized with equal amounts of melted fat normally stored for future use
The Spiro site in eastern Oklahoma was an important Caddoan Mississippian site that:
served as a strategic entry port for trade goods and ideas coming northward out of Mesoamerica.
Winnebago Indians and Aztalan
siouan speaking - occupied southern wisconsin - lies along the crawfish river between madison and milwaukee - settlers got in trouble with the onset of the little ice age - cold spell found them at the northern edge of productive farming where crop failures were frequent - the aztalan broke up and its people reverted to tribal organization
there was _________ evolution of technology associated witht he harvesting of migratory fish at narrows
slow - Weirs, dip nets, barbed spears, and toggling harpoons all became increasingly sophisticated - Indian fishermen were keenly aware that salmon do not take bait while migrating and will bite only in anger, so their fishing techniques did not include much use of hooks and lures
What are the areas with the most impressive mounds?
southern Ohio and the American Bottom portion of the Mississippi Valley - two of the most depopulated areas of the Eastern woodlands - these lands had no living native claimants due to demographic events (fueled moundbuilder mythology)
The organization and character of the Iroquoian longhouse was most influenced by which of the following?
strong matrilineal organization and matrilocal postmarital residence
Southeastern Ceremonial Complex
symbolic themes - warfare and the importance of ancestors are primary themes - embossed copper plates and disks carved from large marine conches often illustrate warriors - wooden, ceramic, or stone statues probably represented ancestors - pots made in the shapes of fish, ducks, beavers, turtles and other wetland animals were also parts of funeral rituals - human and animal effigies were frequently supplied with forked eye designs to mimic the eye pattern of some bird or prey
The Medieval Maximum refers to the period in Eastern Woodlands prehistory when:
the boundary at which 120 frost free days occur annually shifted further north.
no evidence for military expansion or colonization so....
the expansion of hopewell culture must have been through trade and exchange - characterized by conspicuous consumption of valuable objects by giving them as gifts and ultimately burying them
For some Eastern Algonquian peoples along the Atlantic coast, maize was never adopted as a staple food crop. What explanation has been proposed to explain this?
the harvesting of fish, shellfish, and other wild resources were highly productive enough to make maize cultivation unnecessary
Which key development spurred the development of Mississippian period centers?
the introduction to the diet of maize from Mesoamerica
nadene
the language family that includes the athapaskan branch to which navajo and apache languages belong
Maize vs. other food plants of the eastern woodlands
the metabolisms of these two plant types differ in the ways they pick up and store carbon dioxide containing stable carbon isotopes: 12C and 13C. The natural ratio in the atmosphere is about 100 to 1. Plants that initially take up carbon in three carbon molecules (C3) incorporate slightly less 13C. Plants that initially produce four carbon molecules (C4) incorporate slightly more 13C.
bastion
the part of a fortification that extends beyond its wall; built so that shooting can occur in numerous directions
Why were Navajo and Apache peoples able to succeed in areas that had been mostly abandoned by earlier agriculturalists?
they possessed hunter-gatherers adaptations that were better suited to current environmental conditions
Pueblo IV
three-century period between the abandonment of the San Juan drainage and the arrival of the Spanish around AD 1600. During this stage the Ancestral Pueblo peoples concentrated in the Hopi, Zuni, and Rio Grande areas where their descendants survive today. Influences from Mexico stimulated many changes in Ancestral Pueblo religion and society during this stage, which because of its tight dating is a better-defined time period than are earlier Ancestral Pueblo stages.
The "Vacant Quarter" refers to the largely depopulated region centered in the American Bottom portion of the Mississippi Valley after the collapse of many Middle Mississippian chiefdoms.
true
The most striking feature about the culture history of the ancient Interior West is the long-lasting, stable patterns of sociopolitical and economic organization that existed in the region prior to the arrival of Europeans.
true
Which material, with sources in the Greater Southwest, was a primary export to Mesoamerica from Chacoan communities?
turquoise
Chacoan communities controlled the ___________________ trade by the ninth century.
turquoise - chaco canyon became a distribution hub - chacoan roads linked the canyon to at least 30 outliers --- roads could run dead straight bc the chacoans lacked wheeled vehicles
Bundle burials
typically involve initial exposure of the dead, often on scaffolds. The bones, at least the largest of them, were later gathered up and buried in small bundles. It is likely that this was done periodically and at an appropriate time in the annual ceremonial round, probably at a time of the year when excavation was not difficult
chieftan
used in this context to distinguish the leader of a chiefdom from the less powerful chief or big man of a tribal society
While most village relocations involved moves of only a few kilometers, village abandonments that resulted from ______________ often led to much longer migrations and resettlement.
warfare
Evidence from burials at the Norris Farm site in western-central Illinois indicates:
widespread skeletal trauma and evidence of violence, suggesting endemic warfare
moundville
- located near Tuscaloosa Alabama - largest mound is on the north side near the black warrior river - contains about 29 mounds scattered across 75 hectares - a palisade was built around the three exposed sides of Moundsville's center, palisade was rebuilt at least 6 times
spruce tree house
- located near the mesa verde vsitor center and it is the first clidd dwelling seen close up - T shaped doors and ladders stick up through trap door of reconstructed kivas
Fort Ancient in Ohio
- long thought to be the type site for later Fort Ancient culture - used in later times the site now appears to date initially from the Hopewell period. It is on a flat hilltop, and the earthen walls follow the edge in a manner that suggests a defensive as well as a ceremonial purpose - many gaps in walls - partially occluded by mounds like those at many other hopewell sites
Adena Earthworks
- built simple mounds early on and complex ones later - Many were built over places where circular buildings had previously stood ---buildings were made from circles of single outward-leaning posts early on, double posts later - burial mounds were built in single construction episodes - log tombs were built for uncremated burials - log tombs eventually collapsed and their entrances were sealed
Why do people build burial mounds
- burial mounds (earthen mounds) are constructed by many different cultures around the world and there is every reason to conclude that they rose independently
kurgans
- burial mounds of central asia - built recently enough to have been described by greek historians - Mapuche Indians of Chile were still building mounds in recent times
Medival Maximum approaching
- climate improved for farmers - cultivation techniques were not suited to the rocky apps - central PA was eventually abandoned
ancestral pueblo architecture
- clusters of semi subterranean pithouses - early floor plans were round or rounded rectangular - later in time houses were built above ground - smoke holes helped fresh air get into the houses - evolution from round to rectangular structures due to demographic effects of increasing settlement size
Ephraim Squire
- commissioned in 1845 by the American Ethnological Society to report on the mounds of Ohio - along with E.H. Davis he surveyed he surveyed and excavated mounds not just in Ohio but across much of the Eastern Woodlands - report was published by the Smithsonian institution in 1848
the collisions of northern and southern air masses in the Eastern woodlands produce...
- complex climatic conditions including "Noreaster" winter storms close tot eh coast in the winter and tropical deluges in the summer - cold fronts from great plains create random deadly tornados, especially in the flatter parts of the eastern woodlands
mongollon sequence
- compromised of half dozen local cultures - local cultures of Mogollon are Mimbres, Pine Lawn, Black River, San Simon, Forestdale, and Jornada
Bighorn Medicine Wheel
- considerable popular interest and speculation - ring of boulders in diameter that has 28 boulder spokes radiating from a central hub - artifacts indicate that it dates to recent centuries and it resembles the layout of a Plains Sundance
Kansas City hopewell
- defined by pottery styles and burial mounds with stone vault tombs
pheonix basin
- eventually had a Hohokam population of at least 40,000 people
platform mound
- evidence of political and religious authority - lies at the north bank of the salt river
compact villages
- made possible by agricultural food production - maize and squash were staples early on - a limit on maximum village size bc of the weaknesses - successful if related males can be kept from fighting one another - matrilineal organization and matrilocal post marital residence solves this problem
Residential architecture Cahokia
- many in the form of square or rectangular houses constructed with wattle-and-daub walls and thatch roofs. Storage pits below ground and granaries above provided long-term food storage.
rio grande
- many of todays pueblo communities are located near the upper rio grande - descendants of the ancestral pueblo people - Pecos (site in that region) have both long prehistoric sequences and remains dating from the spanish colonial period
Great Bear Mound
- measures almost 42 meters from nose to tail and the mound rises over a meter above the original ground level
The Plateau lies north of the Great Basin, between the Cascade Mountains on the west and the Rocky Mountains on the east. The region adaptation for Native American was defined by three key resources:
- migratory fish, mainly salmon - edible roots - large game
angel mounds
- mississippian town that was founded around 1100 CE and abandoned around 1450 CE - overlooks the ohio river in southern indiana - center of a chiefdom - contained 1000 residents - distinctive pottery - demise for the angel cheifdom is uncertain but its coincidence with the early stages of the little ice age suggests that it was impacted by the failing crops
fremont
- fremont culture in central utah was a tradition of at least five cultures that persisted from 400-1300 CE - diagnostic of fremont are incised stone tablets, petroglyphs and figurines - bone chemistry shows they relied on maize
fremont tradition and climate change
- fremont tradition ended when deteriorating environmental conditions forced fremont people to abandon their settlements and their traditional subsistence - abandonment began as early as 950 CE in northeast Utah but persisted four centuries longer around the marshlands of northwest utah
What did Lewis and Clark notice in western montana?
- game animals were abundant - but animals were scarce in columbia basin - impact of human predation on animal populations did that^
oneota ceramics
- globular, shell tempered pots, which typically have strap handles and incised designs - well ddesigned for the cooking of porridges and maize foods
Chetro Ketl
- great house that features a colonnade that appears to reflect Mexican Toltec architectural influence
lower and middle missouri
- great oasis appeared after 900 CE - farmining communities along the missouri river coincided with the onset of warmer climate - Scapula hoes, manos, and metates all point to the importance of farming
Plaquemine Mississippian Societies
- grew out of Coles Creek culture in the lower Mississippi Valley - best known historic survivor culture is the Natchez
moundbuilder stories
- harmless enough on the surface bc in their simplest form they only had mounds built by builders of mounds - stories were cover for racist denigration of woodland indians though ( a convenient justification for their dispossession by expanding Euroamericans)
hunting and gathering in Southern great plains
- horticulture was occasionally an option - cooler climate and the growth of bison herds led people to hunt more on the high plains
evidence from stalagmites
- human culture is a fragile thing in the hot dry climate of the american southwest - Polyak and Asmerom have measured and dated swings in Southwestern climate using columnar stalagmites from caves in the Guadalupe Mountains of southern New Mexico
the cheyenne case
- illustrates the rapidity with which American Indian cultures could shift their adaptations and reinvent themselves culturally
Hokoham tradition
- in place in southern arizona by 1 CE - residents of Paquime in chihuahua
Other cultures that appear to be intrusive from the Eastern Woodlands
- include Cooper culture in northeastern Oklahoma and Valley culture of western Iowa and eastern Nebraska. Population was thinner and burial mounds smaller to the west - plains woodland cultures (13 named archaeological cultures) - bow and arrow was adopted by 500 CE and all depeded on a mix of cultivating, gathering, and periodic hunting on the treeless prairie
tepee ring sites on the northern great plains
- increased population in the late period - diameters range widely
division of labor
- increasing importance of plant foods was a labor burden born mainly by women - plant collection was traditionally women's work nearly everywhere and the intensification of the use of plant foods became an extension of women's responsibilities - evidence from human skeletal remains suggests that as when maize agriculture became a greater part of daily life in Mississippian societies, women were responsible for the majority of the physical labor associated with agricultural work and food processing
Plains Village communities
- initially dispersed house clusters - houses were square or rectangular - wall posts with wattle and daub finishing were used in some cases - roofing is uncertain - deep pits both inside and outside the houses served to store crops
fort ancient culture
- lasted 1000-1670 CE - developed out of Hopewell, but unlike the earlier moundbuilders, these people used earthworks as fortifications - site has proven to be mainly Hopewell in origin rather than just a type site for the later Fort Ancient culture
extended coalescent
- lasted 1450-1650 CE - period of rapid growth and expansion - new villages were founded - evolved into the caddoan speaking arikara nation of the historic people - small pox epidemics that devastated some villagers
dismal river phase
- left by nadene speaking people who moved to the region from the north - adopted ceramics, some cultivating and villages from caddoan speaking central plains peoples east of them - deteriorated when they began seeling caddoan slaves to the spanish in new mexico
Jane Hill
- linguist at the university of arizona - shows linguistic evidence that maize agriculture was carried into the southwest from mexico
Mesa Verde National Park
- located in southwestern Colorado - area setlled by 400 CE - began moving into apartment dwellings - cliff dwellings were constructed 1150-1250 - By 1300 CE prolonged drought had caused the fragile adaptation to collapse and the Mesa Verde area was abandoned. - surviving Mesa Verde people retreated to the south and east. Some took up residence with surviving Chacoan villagers nearby. Others relocated to the upper Rio Grande Valley where they had good water supplies, arable soils close to villages, and broad views of fields.
Dickson mounds
- located in the illinois river valley - large burial complex that contains two cemeteries , ten burial mounds, and a platform mound
Pinson Mounds
- located near Jackson in western Tennessee - central mound at the Pinson site is named Sauls Mound - mound stands 22 m (72 ft) high, and unlike most mounds of the period it is square and has four corners that point to the cardinal directions - earthwork enclosure 365 m (1200 ft) in diameter sets off 6.7 hectares (16.5 acres) of ceremonial space Ozier Mound ---- round and flat topped ---- 10 m high and contains no burials and was probably used as a ceremonial platform ----- oldest mound in the eastern woodlands
Thomas Jefferson and moundbuilders
- moundbuilder myths rose even though thomas jefferson tried to not let that happen - his findings though did not deter the myth makers - jefferson organized a careful excavation of a mound near his home in Virginia to determine if the monument was built to hold people killed in a single episode ,as a repository for accumulated remains initially buried elsewhere, or as a regular cemetary - jefferson discovered the mound proved his second idea (as a repository for accumulated remains initially buried elsewhere) - jefferson discovered their origins were found in northeastern asia
How did Hopewell artisans trace the exotic materials they wanted?
- moving outward through down the line networks - would not be difficult to determine the direction a material like native copper was coming form
proto algonquian
- proto language is one reconstructed from the lexical items of daughter languages - spoken after about 1 CE --- point peninsula culture - further examination of the reconstructed vocab shows they had words for wild rice, fishing gear, freshwater fish, and chiefs, they lacked any knowledge of maize or marine fish - most important word was for the bow and arrow
long house valley
- provides a nice example of the demographic effects of climate change - maize production drove the rise of ancestral pueblo population but then crashed - second crash made the population fall to such a low level that the ancestral pueblo gave up on the valley and abandoned it entirely by 1300 CE
harvesting wild rice
- pushed birchbark canoes through thick stands of wild rice each year - overlapps with the distribution of the american white birch tree to make birchbark canoes - after parching the seeds are rubbed to remove chaff and winnowed. After that they can be cooked like brown rice, ground into flour, or even popped like popcorn
region to the south of the continental divide
- region extends into westernmost texas and the mexican states of sonora and chihuahua
Paquime in context
- related to cultures on Mongollon tradition - located on the mexican side of the border One controversial hypothesis suggests that people abandoning Chaco Canyon around 1200 CE moved due south to Paquimé, swelling the population and changing local culture. There was much migration around this time and some communities did move southward from the northern Southwest in search of more secure water sources (Lekson 1999). While the details remain debated, the proposal of archaeological hypotheses that involve processes working at a regional scale is a welcome trend.
norris farm
- well known oneota mound cemetery - egalitarian society -250 people buried here and many died violently
Lesson 18 Main Points
1.) Later moundbuilders followed Hopewell customs but built mounds to serve other purposes. 2.) Fort Ancient culture turned earthwork construction to defensive purposes. 3.) Serpent Mound, Ohio, is a unique mound once thought to be Adena in origin but now considered by many to date to Fort Ancient times. 4.) Effigy Mound culture produced many small mounds in the shapes of animals. 5.) Only one rare negative mound or intaglio survives. 6.) The Toltec Mounds site bridges the time gap between Hopewell and later Mississippian sites.
Lesson 21 Main Points
1.) Mississippian chronology has been confused by the use of terms to denote both culture types and periods. 2.) Mississippian traits were added to South Appalachian cultures to produce a regional variant of Mississippian culture. 3.) The Ocmulgee site in central Georgia is the largest well-preserved Mississippian site in the region. 4.) The Etowah site in northwestern Georgia produced spectacular artifacts of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. 5.) The Town Creek site in North Carolina is an excellent example of a smaller center with a reproduced temple structure. 6.) Plaquemine Mississippian Societies were a fusion of Coles Creek culture and Mississippian traits. 7.) Plaquemine sites featured platform mounds and small permanent populations. 8.) Plaquemine farmers depended upon maize, beans, and squash as primary domesticates. 9.) The Winterville site is a typical Plaquemine town. 10.) Emerald Mound was a major center of the Natchez. 11.) Natchez society is well known because of excellent archaeological and documentary sources. 12.) A variant of Mississippian carried by Caddoan speakers developed on the southeastern Great Plains. 13.) The Spiro Mound was plundered by looters. 14.) An obsidian artifact from Spiro Mound indicates trade connections with Mexico. 15.) Olivella shell artifacts indicate trade with both the Gulf Coast and the Southwest.
Research has shown (I'm not making this up) that in the time period during which the site of Onyeteh was occupied Iroquoian villages allocated about 20 square meters per person within a defensive palisade. That being the case, how many square meters would you predict for this village as a whole?
8800
How much dirt can be moved by 2000 students each day?
3,350
What is the volume of the small pyramid? (rounded to the nearest cubic meter)
4,500
burial mounds in the woodland traits
- besant case always included bison skeletons in addition to human burials - besant culture might have evolved into old women's culture
sites of las ciudad and las colinas
- both incorporated into the multivillage political system by 1000 CE
pelican lake culture
- appears to not have simply grown out of oxbow culture - pelican lake population spread across the northern plains from the west - adaptive advantage that allowed them to do this remains unclear
McKean series artifacts
- appear in the southern great plains after 3000 BCE - clearly derived from more northern prototypes - southern great plains became marginal between more successful adaptations - pottery appears is derived from the southeast - bow and arrow became common after 500 CE
shoshone
- primary representatives of all great basin numic peoples - hunted and gathered wild foods in the warm months - favorite game was rabbits - spent winters in base camps at higher elevations where they depended on stores food (ppine nuts from pinon trees)
clusters of effigy mounds
- probably important seasonal sites where people not only gathered to bury the recently deceased but also conducted important ceremonies, renewed vital friendships, and arranged marriages
How many total hearths were there in the village of Onyeteh?
44
How old was sample log C when it was cut?
10 or 11 years
What was the first region of North America to adopt the bow and arrow?
Alaska
modern archaeologists still refer to moundbuilders but none question their _______________________________________________
American Indian Identities
______________________________ in the Great Basin followed the disappearance of Paleoindian cultures. These simple band-level societies persisted until around 400 CE, when climatic conditions made it possible for people there to pick up farming and associated subsistence behaviors from the early settled cultures of the Southwest.
Archaic adaptations
Trade increased and people began getting exotic cherts from as far away as __________________________________ and _____________________________________________________________
British Columbia, native copper from the Great Lakes
The Southern Plains Village tradition is made up of several separately defined archaeological phases and complexes whose relationships largely remain to be defined. These include:
Custer Paoli Washita River Turkey Creek Upper Canark Antelope Creek Apishapa Buried City Zimms Henrietta Bluff Creek Pratt Round Prairie St. Elmo Wilmore Great Bend
Environmental variability and the effects of distance produced a series of local Ancestral Pueblo cultures that are sometimes referred to as "branches," following a scheme introduced by Gladwin in 1934.
Chaco culture Cibola culture Mesa Verde culture Kayenta culture Tusayan culture Virgin culture Little Colorado culture Rio Grande culture Largo-Gallina culture
____________________ expedition probably visited Moundville in late 1540. By then the place had declined to the status of a small chiefdom, one of many in the region. After a few more decades it was deserted.
De Soto's
_____________________________ is a wonderful archaeological tool for telling absolute time, but unfortunately it works well only in certain parts of the world. It works best where trees undergo periodic stress from general climatic variations, as they do on the Colorado Plateau. Trees growing in the American Southwest respond in similar ways to widespread periodic droughts. By contrast, the trees in the woodlands of eastern North America and many other parts of the world lay down annual growth rings in response to much more local and consequently highly variable events.
Dendrochronology
mesoamerican connections
Earthen pyramids and many other features of Mississippian sites have long suggested direct contacts with Mesoamerican cities but convincing evidence was lacking until the analysis of an obsidian artifact from Spiro. Trace elements showed that the artifact came from the Pachuca source in the Mexican highlands (Barker, et al. 2002).
Elisabeth Tooker and clans
For many years anthropologists hypothesized that clans had arisen as social categories to regulate marriage in societies larger than bands or small tribes. However, Elisabeth Tooker showed that their original function was to facilitate trade. Only later did marriage prohibitions with clan siblings and political innovations like the League of the Iroquois build upon preexisting clan structures (Tooker 1971).
plants varied from one region to another but south of _____________________ many of the cultures of the Eastern Woodlands depended heavily on the collection, storage, and consumption of CULTIVATED plants
Great Lakes
rapid culture change and oneota
Like some Dakota (Siouan) groups, the Algonquian-speaking Cheyenne people were wild rice gatherers in the Seventeenth century. They moved south and took up maize agriculture when expanding Ojibwas forced them out of northern Minnesota. They later became bison-hunting horse-mounted nomads on the Great Plains.
What was the last region of the prehistoric U.S. to adopt the bow and arrow?
Lower Mississippi Valley
______________ began to appear in their sites near the end of the late Plains Woodland period
Maize
The __________________________ petroglyphs in Ontario combine abstract forms with more explicit representations. One large female figure was carved over a crack in the rock face that contained a mineral that ran red in the rain until the whole site was covered by a protective museum structure (see image above). Although it no longer does so, the female figure appeared to menstruate when it rained.
Peterborough
platform mounds
Platform mounds were often built in stages. Special clays or other distinctive soils were sometimes used to finish off a new stage (see example from Mississippian site of Feltus, MS below). Adding a new stage to a mound literally elevated the rank of the chieftain while legitimizing him through a physical connection with the earlier mound. Sometimes that historical connection can be traced archaeologically back to a single residential structure under the earliest buried mound platform
Modern ______________________ are the descendants of Numic peoples that successfully adapted to the harsh environmental conditions of the Great Basin, as described by the anthropologist Julian Steward.
Shoshone
Where did the North American Indian bow and arrow probably come from?
Siberia
____________________________________ had so decimated the eastern Indian nations that many areas of the Eastern Woodlands had been abandoned for decades before the first Euroamericans arrived.
Small Pox and other diseases - park forest and fields created by the Indians had reverted to wilderness, and settlers believed the land always looked that way
classic plains indian nations late arrivals
The Algonquian-speaking Arapahos, Gros Ventres, Plains Cree, Plains Ojibwas and Blackfeet moved on to the Great Plains from northern woodlands. The Sioux (Lakotas and Dakotas) and Assiniboins did the same from the northeast. Shoshone, Ute, and Comanche groups came from the Great Basin
havasupai, walapai mohave
The Havasupai people live at the bottom of the Grand Canyon, a place that was long almost inaccessible except on foot or horseback. A few Mohave potters continued a distinctive ceramic tradition until the late twentieth century
Early expansion
The Northern Iroquoians lived in the Appalachian Mountains from Pennsylvania to North Carolina 1300 years ago. The Northern Iroquoians had already become differentiated from the Southern Iroquoians by that time. The Cherokee are modern descendants of the southern branch. The Northern Iroquoians appear in the archaeological record as the Clemsons Island phase in central Pennsylvania around 775 CE (Snow 1994:10-20; 1996).
importance of clans
Trading partnerships across cultural and language boundaries were traditionally facilitated by bonds of fictive kinship. These were typically established in historic times by means of shared clan totems. Someone from the bear clan in one tribe was symbolically related to someone from the bear clan in a distant and unrelated tribe. The shared identity facilitated hospitality for travelers and fraternal reasons for ritual gift exchange.
____________ and the starchy and oily seeds of various native plants had become important cultigens by 750 CE
Tubers
swidden
a form of shifting agriculture involving field rotation and long fallow period
mimbres
a branch of mogollon popularly known for its ceramics
Earthworks of ___________________ geometric shapes were often linked together in larger complexes
different - sometimes they were contiguous, at other times they were linked by avenues bordered by pairs of parallel linear earthworks. In all cases the interiors of the earthworks were clearly intended to be ceremonial precincts
Like the Great Plains area, few edible plant species were available to early human populations in the American Southwest before the adoption of agriculture.
false
small family burial mounds on river bluffs
featured a greater use of stone slab crypts, more frequent burial, and a decline in the burial of cremated remains
burial mounds of the Eastern Woodlands show no _________________________________ with mound building traditions in other parts of the world
historical connections
anneal
in the case of copper, a process to reduce brittleness by applying high heat and rapid cooling
The bones of people who had high ____________ diets show slightly elevated levels of 13C relative to 12C
maize
Initial Mogollon settlement were often situated ______________, in order to provide _____________.
on hilltops and bluffs; defensive position against violent attack
The earliest farmers in the American Southwest likely:
people expanding northward out of Mexico, bringing domesticates with them.
WPA
the federal workds progress administration program
Nomadic cultures throughout the Interior West made use of dogs as pack animals through the use of the travois.
true
Miamisburg mound
very large conical Adena mound at the town of the same name in southern Ohio
