Assessments

Beck Anxiety Inventory

The Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) was developed by Aaron Beck as part of the Beck Scales to assist the clinician in making balanced and reliable assessments of patients. Test results are useful as a first step in detecting and proper treatment of an affective disorder. The Beck Anxiety Inventory gauges the severity of patient anxiety. It was intended to help differentiate between anxiety and depression by measuring anxiety symptoms shared minimally with those of depression. The test addresses physiological as well as cognitive elements of anxiety with a 21 question tool addressing subjective, somatic, or panic-related symptoms. The BAI distinguishes between anxious and non-anxious groups in a variety of clinical settings and is appropriate for use with all adult mental health populations. In this test, subjects respond on the 21 items on a scale of 0-3. The test is appropriate for individuals ages 17-80 and requires 5-10 minutes to administer.

Beck Hopelessness Scale

The Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS) was developed in conjunction with the Beck Depression Scale to gauge the likelihood of suicide in adult and adolescent patients of 17 years of age or older. It was developed by Aaron Beck, a well known specialist and researcher on depression, drawing from the writings of Ezra Stotland for its conceptual basis. The test was based on research of a sample of 294 psychiatric inpatients who had documented histories of recent suicide attempts. It contains 20 items which are administered and interpreted by computer, but introduced by an examiner. To score this test, items that are blackened in on a template are added together to give a straightforward score which is then interpreted according to its numerical value. A weakness of this test is that it is very easily manipulated by subjects who are both conscious and unconscious of wishing to exaggerate their emotional distress. The BHS builds on the Beck Depression Scale as a means of evaluating hopelessness and suicidal ideation in depressed patients. It is made up of 20 true/false questions that either confirm or deny pessimistic or optimistic statements. The authors of the test underscore that this test should not be used in and of itself as a means of identifying potentially suicidal individuals but should be part of a comprehensive clinical examination. The test usually takes 5-10 minutes to complete.

The Children's Apperception Test

The Children's Apperception Test (CAT) was invented by Leopold Bellak to assess personality in children ages 3-11. It is actually a projective test with its base in Freud's concept of projection as a psychological mechanism by which an individual projects inner feelings onto the external world. The CAT is really a children's version of the Thematic Apperception Test which is used as a diagnostic tool for adults. The CAT consists of 10 scenes showing a variety of animal figures mostly in human social settings. The subject is shown pictures of the animals and his/or her responses are studied by the clinician. The fact that animals are used rather than humans is based on the assumption that children relate more closely with pictures of animals than with humans. The author elaborates on the interpretation basing it on psychoanalytic themes, but this test could also be interpreted from other theoretic perspectives. The test is not evaluated quantitatively on the basis of the presence or absence of particular thematic elements. This test is intended for use in clinical and research settings.

Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS)

The Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale, created by JE Overall and DR Gorham, is used to assess psychotic and non-psychotic symptoms in people with major psychiatric disorders. It contains various versions in order to increase reliability and validity and is used frequently with schizophrenics. The original version listed 16 symptoms with a 7-point rating scale, with 1 denoting "not present", and 7 denoting "most severe". The test records the severity of symptoms in separate areas. The assessed ratings are based on the perception of the clinician during a brief (15-30 minutes) interview. Clinician measured areas include: emotional withdrawal, mannerisms, tension, uncooperativeness, and motor retardation. The self-report of the patient is also incorporated into the rating. The patient self-reports on unusual thought content, anxiety, guilt, conceptual disorganization, grandiosity, hostility, somatic concerns, depressive mood, hallucinatory behavior, suspiciousness, and blunted affect. The 16-symptom list has recently been updated with two additional items: excitement and disorientation. Positive aspects of this test include its brevity, the fact that it is well researched, and the relative ease with which it can be administered; weaknesses include that the criteria for different degrees of severity are somewhat vague, and there is a strong possibility for overlap in certain areas. While this tool was created mainly for inpatient populations, it is usable for outpatient clients as well. This test takes 15-30 minutes to complete and is most frequently completed by professional mental health clinicians.

Brigance Diagnostic Inventory of Essential Skills

The Brigance Diagnostic Inventory of Basic Skills was developed by Albert Brigance as a means of evaluating "basic readiness and academic skills." The Brigance Diagnostic Inventory of Essential Skills was developed by Albert Brigance so as to assess skills needed for successful functioning as an adult

Brigance Diagnostic Inventory of Basic Skills-Revised

The Brigance Diagnostic Inventory of Basic Skills-Revised is designed by Brigance, Albert H, Glascoe and Frances Page for diagnostic and classroom assessment in reading skills, reading comprehension, math calculation, math reasoning, written language, listening comprehension and information processing.

Brigance Diagnostic Life Skills Inventory

The Brigance Diagnostic Life Skills Inventory was developed by Albert Brigance as a means of assessing "listening, speaking, reading, writing, comprehending and computing skills within the context of everyday situations."

California Psychological Inventory

The California Psychological Inventory was intended according to its author "to forecast what a person will say or do under defined conditions, and to identify individuals who will be described in characteristic ways by others who know them well or who observe their behavior in particular contexts." The scales are divided into 4 groups, according to their implications. This instrument is used to investigate interpersonal behavior and social interactions between individuals who are 13 years of age and older. It provides information connected with an individual's character and interpersonal values and predicts how one will behave in certain social situations. This test is comprised of 18 scales that are divided into 4 classes: 1) measures of poise, ascendance, self-confidence, and interpersonal adequacy, 2) measures of socialization, responsibility, intra-personal values, and character, 3) measures of potential for accomplishment, and intellectual capability, and 4) measures of intellectual and interest modes.

Carroll Depression Scale (CDS-R, CRS)

The Carroll Depression Scale was created primarily by B. Carroll to assess the degree of depression in adults. In its current revised form, the 52 items are rated "yes" or "no". A highly abbreviated form of the Carroll test can be used as a screening tool and may be administered in only 5 minutes. The Carroll Depression Scale assesses baseline symptoms of depression and can evaluate the response to treatment over a specific time period. The revised unabridged version of the test is self-rated by the patient and takes approximately 20 minutes to complete. Sample questions are: "I feel just as energetic as always" and "I am losing weight", with the patient choosing "yes" or "no" in all cases.

Carrow Elicited Language Inventory

The Carrow Elicited Language Inventory is an assessment of speech and language development focusing on morphology and syntactical structure. Morphology is defined as "the study of word structure". It explains how words are formed out of the basic elements of language known as morphemes. Morphemes are used to change the structure of words which in turn change the meaning of the words. For example, the word "happiness" has three morphemes: hap - pi - ness. Syntax is defined as the way words are put together to make acceptable sentences. Syntax and morphology are two of the five components of language.

Child Behavior Checklist

The Child Behavioral Checklist was designed by T. Achenbach and C. Edelbrock to measure social competence and behavior problems in children as reported by parents regarding the behavior of their children within the most recent 6 months. It is based on careful research of the literature and carefully managed observational studies of 1300 children. This tool has two versions: one that is for children between the ages of 1 and 1/2 to 5 (the CBCL/1.5-5) and another one for children between the ages of 6 to 18 (the CBCL/6-18). The CBCL/1.5-5 contains a 99-item checklist of behaviors. If takes approximately 10-20 minutes to administer. The CBCL/4-18 contains a total of 118 items related to behavioral problems; they are scored on a 3-point scale ranging from "not true of the child" to "often true of the child". Along with the behavioral and social competency checklists, there is a youth self-report form, a teacher's report form, and a direct observation form." This version takes approximately 15 minutes to administer.

Child Language Intervention Program

The Child Language Intervention Program (CLIP) provides intervention for children with speech and language disorders who are between 18 months and 6 years old. The early identification and treatment of children with these communication disorders is important to their academic and social success and to prevent future problems. This program offers research clinics under its umbrella and help determine which treatments are most effective for which children. CLIP is regarded as a National Center for the study of language intervention by the National Institutes of Health, Division of Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. CLIP treats children with a variety of disorders, including Autism Spectrum Disorder, Down Syndrome, and global cognitive impairments as well as children who are late in talking. They receive funded, individualized services under the guidance of speech and language pathologists. Both diagnostic testing and treatment are provided.

Columbia Mental Maturity Scale

The Columbia Mental Maturity Scale (CMMS) is an instrument intended to screen the overall reasoning capacity of children ages 3 and 1/2 to 10. This test, requiring no verbal response and minimal motor response, consists of 92 pictures and figures arranged in a series of 8 levels which are geared to specific age groups. Each of the 8 levels consists of between 51 and 65 items that are appropriate for each particular age level. The test is completed in 15-20 minutes. The CMMS was based on standardized results on 2600 children divided into groups according to parental occupation, race, geographic location and size of their community. A total of 200 children were sampled for each age level as reflected by the U.S. population in 1960..

Covi Anxiety Scale

The Covi Anxiety Scale was developed by L. Covi with others as a way of measuring the severity of anxiety symptoms in patients. It is relatively simple to administer and uses a three-item scale; these items include: verbal report, behavior, and somatic symptoms (i.e. trembling, sweating, rapid heartbeat, breathlessness, hot and cold spells, restless sleep, discomfort in stomach, lump in throat, and frequently needing to go to the bathroom). They are rated on a spectrum of 1-5 depending on the severity of the symptoms, with 1=not at all, 2=somewhat, 3=moderate, 4=considerably, and 5=very much. This tool is frequently paired with the Hamilton Scale for Anxiety (HAM-A), which is more comprehensive in nature. While there is not a great deal of psychometric data on this test, it has been said to distinguish between patients with depressive symptoms and those with anxiety symptoms with relative accuracy. The first part of the Covi Anxiety Scale (i.e. the verbal report) asks whether the patient feels nervous, shaky, jittery, suddenly fearful or scared for no reason, has to avoid certain places, situations or things due to fear, or has difficulty in concentration. The second part (i.e. behavior) asks about the behavior of the patient; for example, does the patient look scared, is he/she shaking, apprehensive, restless, and/or jittery. The final part of the test (i.e. somatic symptoms) asks about somatic symptoms of anxiety

Depression Outcomes Module

The Depression Outcomes Module, created by G. Smith with a team of professionals from various disciplines, measures different types of treatment utilized for depressive symptoms, the results of treatment, and the patient characteristics that affect treatment results. It is available in a computerized version and comes with a user's guide. It is effective for primary caregivers and in mental health settings. The test is comprised of four components: 1) The patient baseline assessment is administered to patients with a prior diagnosis of depression and includes 80 items which are useful in verifying diagnostic criteria and measuring treatment results and prognostic variables; examples include level of functioning, severity of depression, sociodemographics, length of hospitalization, and psychiatric history. 2) The Clinician Baseline Assessment employs 20 items to gauge diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment information. It includes information related to psychotropic medication history. 3) The Patient Follow-up Assessment gives information related to the treatment received since baseline and is ideally meant to be repeated quarterly. 4) The Medical Record Review, containing 11 items, is performed by a trained medical records clerk and is ideally repeated on a quarterly basis. The patient baseline and follow-up assessments, each requiring 25 minutes, are completed by the patient; the clinician's assessment and medical record assessment are completed by trained medical staff, and each require 5-10 minutes.

Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude (DTLA-P-2 & DTLA-4)

The Detroit Test of Learning Aptitude-Primary, 2nd Edition (DTLA-P-2) is an individually administered test that assesses abilities and deficiencies in three domains: language, attention, and motor. The age range for this test is 3-10 years old; the time it takes to administer the test is 15-45 minutes. This test is of particular use in diagnosing learning disabilities and mental retardation in children. It has various subtests including: Articulation, Conceptual Matching, Design Reproduction, Digit Sequences, Draw-a-Person, Letter Sequences, Motor Directions, Object Sequences, Oral Directions, Picture Fragments, Picture Identification, Sentence Imitation, and Symbolic Relations. The Detroit Test of Learning Aptitude, 4th Edition (DTLA-4) is geared toward ages 6-17 and takes anywhere from 40 minutes to two hours to administer. This is the oldest and most highly respected test of particular mental abilities and includes 10 subtests, the results of which can be added to form 16 composites evaluating general intelligence as well as discrete ability areas. This test allows for interpretation in the light of recent theories of intellect and behavior. It is the test most used by professionals seeking a complete investigation of an individual's cognitive functioning. Basic abilities are measured by this test as well as revealing language, attention, and motor abilities' effect on test performance. This test was also designed to minimize the effects of bias, by including minority and disability groups in the normative sample, examining reliability and validity data for all these subgroups, and removing items that appeared to be biased against certain groups. In addition, none of the subtests are timed. The subtest composites of the DTLA-4 include: Word Opposites, Design Sequences, Sentence Imitation, Reversed Letters, Story Construction, Design Reproduction, Basic Information, Symbolic Relations, Word Sequences and Story Sequences.

Eating Disorder Inventory

The Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) is designed as a self-report assessment of psychological and behavioral traits common in Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia. It is designed for individuals 12 and older and contains 64 items, with a 6 point forced inventory measuring several behavioral and psychological factors common in these eating disorders. The EDI may be used as a screening tool, outcome measure or part of a research effort. It is not intended to be a diagnostic device for either disorder. The test contains 8 sub scales, including thinness, Bulimia, body dissatisfaction, ineffectiveness, perfectionism, interpersonal distrust, interoceptive awareness, and maturity fears. Reliability information was based on a study of 271 college women about whom information was compiled. The EDI is suggested for determining subtypes of Anorexia Nervosa in clinical or research settings. The EDI is administered in 15-25 minutes

Eating Disorder Inventory-2

The Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2) is an instrument based on the self-reporting of symptoms associated with Anorexia Nervosa and/or Bulimia Nervosa in individuals age 12 and older. It is intended to assist in diagnosing these eating disorders, but it should not be used as the sole diagnostic tool for diagnosis of either disorder. The EDI-2 supplies additional data about the behavioral and emotional aspects of eating disorders. It is comprised of a Symptom Checklist, a structured self-report which asks about the subject's present and past eating habits and menstrual history, and is completed in a 15-20 minute time frame. This tool is recommended for use by social workers, psychiatrists and psychologists who work with young college age women and men who are thought to have eating disorders. It is also intended to help in attaining greater clinical understanding of eating disorders and related characteristics.

Goldman-Fristoe-Woodcock Test of Auditory Discrimination

The Goldman-Fristoe-Woodcock Test of Auditory Discrimination is an individually administered test that assesses the ability to discriminate speech sounds against two different backgrounds: noise and quiet. This test is given to individuals age 3 and older and takes 20-30 minutes to administer. The test is specifically intended to evaluate young children and is directed to the vocabulary levels and limited attention spans of children. The test progresses quickly as responses are made by pointing to pictures of familiar objects. Writing and speaking are not required. The test is also useful with adults, especially those with handicaps. It is divided into three parts: the Training Procedure, the Quiet Subtest, and the Noise Subtest. Each one involves practice in word-picture associations and gives two measures of speech-sound discrimination. This test is widely used by speech and language professionals

Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery

The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery is a battery of tests that provides a comprehensive evaluation of a subject's brain behavior functioning in order to assess problems in neurocognitive function related to a number of different brain disorders. The evaluation indicates an individual's cognitive strengths and weaknesses as associated with neurological dysfunction, ascertains how certain neurological and psychiatric factors contribute to a patient's presenting issues, and assists in forming conclusions regarding present and future functioning. Also, the results of this evaluation can be directly incorporated into a general neurocognitive remediation strategy. The purpose of the battery is to offer the clinician a source of data that would serve to infer the nature, location and extent of physiological changes to the brain that may be responsible for impaired functioning that is deduced from the information provided by the test battery. The test battery is comprised of 10 tests that distinguish between subjects with and without documented cortical damage. The test has been shown to provide strong data favoring clearer brain damage localization with the HRNTB for acute lesions than for chronic neuropathology. The battery claims to evaluate elements of memory, abstract thinking, language, sensory-motor synthesis, perceptual imperfections and motor agility. This battery is considered a better than sufficient neuropathological tool for use in clinical and research settings. The manual relies on the body of research over the past 30 years with the battery for interpretation and standards.

Hamilton Rating Scale for Anxiety

The Hamilton Rating Scale for Anxiety (HAM-A) was developed in 1959 by Max Hamilton primarily as a means of assessing anxiety symptoms in people who were already diagnosed with anxiety disorders. It is not intended as a means of detecting or diagnosing anxiety, but is most useful in helping clinicians measure patient improvement over time. The HAM-A is not particularly useful in evaluating anxiety symptoms in patients with other psychiatric disorders. This scale is based on a self-report from the patient. It is heavily focused on somatic symptoms and is comprised of 14 items regarding the degree of each of the patient's symptoms scored on a scale of 0-4 with 0=not present, 1=mild, 2=moderate, 3=severe, and 4=very severe. The HAM-A's focus on the subjective self-reporting of somatic symptoms as well as its lack of usefulness in anxiety assessment in patients with other psychiatric disorders are limitations to the usefulness of this scale. Moreover, a patient may easily manipulate the results of this scale since it is so obvious. The test has been heavily marketed by Upjohn and has no manual to speak of. It may have good merit if used as a supplement along with an interview or if cross-validated, but it is still in need of further validation studies if it is to be used to confirm a claim. This scale generally takes approximately 20 minutes to complete and is administered by a trained rater or clinician. Rated items include: anxious mood, tension, fears, insomnia, intellectual concentration, depressed mood, and somatic complaints. There is also a question to be answered by the clinician or rater regarding the behavior of the subject at the interview.

Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HAM-D, HRSD)

The Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HAM-D, HRSD), created by M. Hamilton, is used widely around the world for assessing symptoms of depression. According to the leading psychiatric journals of 1994, the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression is the assessment tool of choice when rating depression symptoms in most research studies. This test is rated by the observer and consists of 17-21 items with a scale of either 0-4, with 0=none and 4=most severe or 0-2, with 0=none and 2=severe. Evaluations are based on a clinical interview as well as the information provided by nursing, familial or other appropriate reports. While this test was originally intended for assessment of symptoms only in patients with primary depression, in reality it is used to evaluate depressive symptoms in patients with other primary disorders, including Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder. This test places a strong emphasis on somatic symptoms of depression and is most effective for patients with formidable symptoms. The HRSD has an excellent research and validity base and is easy to administer. Since the test was designed to assess the symptoms of individuals with primary depression, when it's used to evaluate depressive symptoms associated with other disorders, it should be paired with additional assessment scales. For example, when it is administered to patients with Schizophrenia, it should be paired with a scale that is more geared to that disorder, such as the BPRS or the ANSS. This scale is completed in 20-30 minutes by a trained rater.

House-Tree-Person Interrogation Form

The House-Tree-Person Interrogation Form is basically a scoring form that uses the technique known as the House-Tree-Person technique. The House-Tree-Person technique is a projective assessment used for both children and adults as an intelligence and personality test. Projective tests originated in the inkblot (or Rorschach test) in which the subject looks at each blot to see what it looks like or what it could be. The subject imposes his/her structure, thoughts, feelings and themes. Some other types of projective tests are the TAT test and the Rorschach test. The House-Tree-Person Interrogation Form and technique were developed by John Buck as an outgrowth of the Good Enough scale for measuring intellectual capability and functioning. Buck's premise was that personality characteristics could be perceived by examining the drawings of his subjects and that they were revealed by use of graphic art. His conviction that drawings portrayed inner conflicts and emotional processes was put into play with his belief that the pictures in quality and details were based in the subject's fundamental personality. This test was created originally as an intelligence test. Buck devised a quantitative scoring system to assess general intelligence levels, but he also included a qualitative guide enabling the interpretation of fundamental personality traits. There is a Post-Drawing Interrogation that is comprised of 60 questions that span the range from concrete and specific to abstract and nonspecific.

Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children

The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC) is an assessment used to evaluate and assess the cognitive development of children utilizing many of the most recent findings of both psychological theory and statistical methodology. This test also gives particular consideration to the testing needs of special groups such as the handicapped, learning disabled, and cultural and ethnic minorities. The authors of this test battery, Alan Kaufman and Nadine Kaufman, assert that this assessment ought not to be thought of as a complete test battery, but that it should be considered in conjunction with other assessment tools that are selected for use based on individual needs. The following are considered supplemental tests that may be used in conjunction with the KABC: the Stanford-Binet, Wechsler Scales, McCarty Scales, and other neuropsychological tests. This assessment battery is comprised of 16 subtests which are divided into a mental processing set and an achievement set, with separate global scores for each set. To establish norms for the test, it was administered to samples of 2000 children at 6 month age intervals from 2.5 to 12.5. It is recommended as one piece of a cognitive battery in clinical settings

Key Math Diagnostic Arithmetic Test

The Key Math Diagnostic Arithmetic Test is designed to assess the mathematical competencies of an exceptional (visually impaired) child in selected skills in order to begin instruction.

The Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery

The Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery (LNNB) was developed to evaluate neurologically impaired patients ages 15 and over. This battery is based on Alexander Luria's theory of higher-cortical functioning. Luria's test uses unstructured qualitative techniques to test neurologically injured patients as opposed to the quantitative emphasis of the majority of western neuropsychological clinicians. Golden and others have tried to incorporate Luria's methods into American neuropsychology. The LNNB is comprised of 269 items on 11 scales: 1. Reading 2. Writing 3. Arithmetic 4. Visual 5. Memory 6. Expressive language 7. Receptive language 8. Motor function 9. Rhythm 10. Tactile 11. Intellectual There are three additional scales that may be scored: pathognomonic, right hemisphere, and left hemisphere. The LNNB has been shown to be 80% successful in separating brain-damaged from pseudo neurological patients. This assessment battery is recommended for screening for as well as measuring neurologically damaged patients.

Millon Adolescent Personality Inventory (MAPI)

The Millon Adolescent Personality Inventory (MAPI) was developed by Theodore Millon, Catherine Green, and Robert Meagher, Jr. as an objective assessment of personality, as well as expressed concerns and behavioral elements in adolescents ages 13-18. It is stated by the authors of this test that use with any other age group is not appropriate and will lead to distortions of diagnostic data. This assessment uses 157 true/false questions to evaluate adolescents who possess at least a 6th grade reading level. Most adolescents are able to complete this exam in 20 minutes or less. The test is recommended for use by mental health professionals as well as guidance and school counselors to assist their identification of, predictions about, and understanding of different psychological attributes associated with adolescence. It is professed to identify certain personal difficulties, such as peer conflicts, confusions about self, and fear of academic failure. It also helps identify subjects who may have trouble in acting out, underachievement in academics and attendance issues. Age appropriate language is used on the test, and the authors address issues of concern to teenagers.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent (MMPI-A)

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent (MMPI-A) was designed to assess and evaluate personality and emotional disorders in adolescents ages 14-18. It was developed by J. Butcher, C. WIlliams, et al, and closely parallels the MMPI-2, which is a broad based assessment of patterns in personality, emotional, and behavioral disorders in adults. The MMPI-A has 478 true/false questions that are divided among 18 scales (8 of which are validity scales and 10 of which are personality scales). Each personality scale is further divided into subsets that assess a specific personality trait or issue that is associated with adolescence (i.e. eating disorders, substance addictions, family problems). This assessment is predominantly used in drug and alcohol treatment in research and clinical settings.

Peabody Individual Achievement Test-Revised

The Peabody Individual Achievement Test-Revised (PIAT-R) is the latest revised version of the well known Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT). This test is an assessment of academic achievement and gives a wide range screening in 6 areas of content. It is considered to provide an accurate overview regarding the scholastic achievement of an individual. It can be used to test individuals aged 5 years and 3 months to 18. This test has been criticized for being of questionable use with children with emotional disturbances, mental retardation, and cultural deprivation. It is given individually and is used with students in grades K-12. The entire battery takes approximately 30-40 minutes to take and score. The 6 areas of content included in the PIAT-R are: General Information, Reading Recognition, Reading Comprehension, Math, Spelling and Written Expression. Norms for this test were established based on a sample of 2889 students from 33 communities. They were randomly chosen from public schools and some private schools. They were evenly divided between males and females. This test is noted positively for its ability to reflect scores in terms of grade level and percentile ranks. It also offers raw and standard scores. The test assumes that the examinee has given his/her best possible performance. If a lesser than expected score results, there is the likelihood of underestimating the examinee's potential for academic achievement, rehabilitation potential or ability to be employed, and to overestimate disability or limitations. Subtests of the PIAT include: The Mathematics Subtest is comprised of 84 multiple choice questions with a choice of 4 options each. The questions range from lower level skills to advanced geometrical and trigonometrical concepts. The Reading Recognition Subtest is comprised of 84 questions gradually increasing in difficulty from preschool through high school levels. This test evaluates skills translating printed alphabetical symbols into speech sounds. It is in actuality an oral reading test, asking the student taking the test to read aloud. The Reading Comprehension Subtest is comprised of 66 questions. The student reads a sentence on one page and then turns to a second page and chooses the illustration that best represents the sense of the sentence. This test is read silently. The Spelling Subtest asks the examinee to point out the correct spelling for a word from among 4 choices. It is a test of the ability to recognize correct spelling. The General information subtest is comprised of questions read aloud by the tester and answered aloud by the examinee. The questions deal with general knowledge including the fields of science, social studies, fine arts and sports. The test developers have taken some attention to ensure that the test is not biased against English speaking countries outside the U.S.

Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test

The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) is a basic intelligence test developed by Lloyd M. Dunn of George Peabody College for Teachers in Nashville, Tennessee. This test is intended to use the examinee's hearing vocabulary to give an estimation of the examinee's verbal intelligence. This test is prevalently used in clinical assessments in schools for counseling- academically and emotionally. In the final standardization of the PPVT, 4012 children, either white or living around Nashville, Tennessee, were included in the standardization group. This test works as follows: the examiner shows the examinee a series of 4 pictures, one of which is supposed to reflect the meaning of the word that the examiner speaks. This test also claims that a vocabulary assessment is an important gauge of general intelligence. The literature seems to support this claim. The test provides both mental ages and percentile equivalents for raw scores on two forms of the test. The PPVT has been revised to give an evaluation of the student's verbal intelligence.

Positive and Negative Symptom Scale for Schizophrenia (PANSS)

The Positive and Negative Symptoms Scale for Schizophrenia (PANSS), adapted from the BPRS (Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale) and other psychopathology scales by S.R. Kay and others, was intended to assess positive and negative symptoms in patients with Schizophrenia and is commonly used in research settings. The PANSS incorporates items from the BPRS, which can, in fact, be rated based on the interview for the PANSS. The PANSS tool is based on the assumption that schizophrenic symptoms are both positive, i.e. including particular features, and negative, i.e. containing a lack, or deficit of certain features. Positive symptoms of Schizophrenia include delusions and hallucinations, while social withdrawal and flattened affect are examples of the negative symptoms. The PANSS is an interview consisting of 30 items which are rated on a scale of 1-7, with 1= none/absent and 7= extreme. Separate ratings are given in 9 clinical areas, including positive symptoms, negative symptoms, depression, a composite index, and general psychopathology. Reports by subjects are based on the previous week. For greater standardization, a completely structured interview, known as the Structured Clinical Interview for the PANSS (SCI-PANSS), has been created. The PANSS is available in 22 languages worldwide. It provides clinical evaluations and treatment responses of schizophrenic patients. The test has high reliability and validity according to available research. It takes 30-40 minutes and is administered by a professional rater trained in working with schizophrenic populations.

Sequenced Inventory of Communication Development

The Sequenced Inventory of Communication Development is a non-standardized language assessment which provides an assessment of one's general level of language and communication functioning. It is helpful in gathering information regarding the current level of what a child is capable of doing and to offer constructive input regarding possible remedial techniques. The test assumes the normal developmental sequence of language development and focuses on semantic and practical processes. The original version is in English, but nine items were altered to adapt the test to Spanish, and one item was omitted in the Spanish version. The age range of this test is 4 months to 48 months. It requires 20- 30 minutes to administer and is administered by an individual examiner and, in the Spanish version, requires a Spanish speaker or the use of an interpreter. The test uses toys and materials to hold the child's attention and interest and gives information on many communicative abilities including: motor and verbal imitation, digit and sentence repetition, question and answering, understanding of basic concepts, direction following, and auditory discrimination. The Spanish version can be used together with the English version to determine dominant language, and provides useful age range scores. The test is considered a developmental test in that it assesses skills or emerging skills in young children. It can provide an early learning profile.

Sequenced Inventory of Communication Development-Revised Edition (SICD-R)

The Sequenced Inventory of Communication Development-Revised Edition (SICD-R) is a non-standardized language assessment tool that is useful to obtain a general level of language/communication functioning. It is also helpful to gauge the child's overall ability and to offer suggestions as to remediation strategies

Slosson Intelligence Test (SIT)

The Slosson Intelligence Test (SIT) was developed to provide a quick evaluation of general verbal cognitive ability or what is referred to as an "index of verbal intelligence". It is used for screening, but requires that there be follow-ups to verify SIT results. It is designed for ages 4 and up and takes approximately 10-20 minutes to administer. This test contains 187 question and answer items that are not timed and relate to vocabulary, general information, similarities and differences, comprehension, quantitative skill and auditory memory. The test is easy to administer and there is a significant correlation between the SIT standard score and the WAIS-R and the WISC-R IQs. This test is comprised of both crystallized verbal and fluid performance items so that a more balanced assessment of a subject's cognitive ability can be surmised. It was originally constructed so as to screen children at risk for academic failure, to provide a quick appraisal of cognitive capability and to identify individuals who might be appropriate candidates for further assessment. The test includes a variety of items, including vocabulary, similarities and differences, digit sequences, sentence memory and quantitative ability all under the crystallized section of the test, and stacking blocks, locomotion and coordination on the fluid section of the test. The complexity at each level is determined by the age level of the subjects.

Slosson Intelligence Test-Primary (SIT-P)

The Slosson Intelligence Test-Primary (SIT-P) assesses children's intelligence. It is comprised of verbal and fluid performance questions that are designed to provide a more balanced picture of a child's cognitive capacities. This test is intended to screen for children who are at risk of academic failure, to identify in a quick manner those children who may require additional testing, and to quickly assess mental ability. There are a wide range and variety of verbal/perceptual, speed/block design, and visual-motor/performance items. Scores are obtained on two scales for verbal and performance abilities. The verbal scale consists of vocabulary, similarities and differences, digit sequences, sentence memory, and number skills. The nonverbal-performance scale is comprised of fine and gross motor skills, coordination, dexterity, block design, and visual-motor integration in which a child is required to hand copy geometric figures of increasing complexity. This test is geared for children ages 2-8 and is individually administered in 10-25 minute

System of Multicultural Pluralistic Assessment (SOMPA)

The System of Multicultural Pluralistic Assessment (SOMPA) is intended to evaluate the needs of children in a racially and culturally nondiscriminatory manner. It is designed for children ages 5-11 and assesses in three areas: medical, social systems and pluralistic systems. The test takes 4-5 hours to administer and was developed by Mercer & Lewis. It is meant to be more in keeping with the stipulations of PL 94-142. Its suggested usage is based on the ideological view of American society being pluralistic in nature. Therefore, Mercer & Lewis openly express their ideological assumptions that intelligence and potential are equally distributed among all the various ethnic and cultural groups, and express the hope that the use of this test will promote cultural pluralism. There is a medical perspective to the SOMPA that focuses on the presence or lack of organic pathology in being able to perform certain neurological and motor functions, normal physical development, health, vision and auditory acuity. There is a social perspective that assesses a child's ability to conform to the social norms of the various groups the child participates in and the third perspective- unique to SOMPA- is the pluralistic model with the score based on how well the child performs on the WISC-R in comparison with children who have had similar learning opportunities (i.e. similar socioeconomic backgrounds). The SOMPA is considered a comprehensive child assessment battery suggested for educational and research purposes.

Vineland Adaptive Behavioral Scales (VABS)

The Vineland Adaptive Behavioral Scales (VABS) evaluate the social and personal functioning of handicapped and non-handicapped people from birth to adulthood. These scales are structurally divided into four areas of behavior known as "Behavioral Domains" along the multidimensional conceptualization of adaptive behaviors first postulated by Edgar Doll. These four domains of behavior are: Communication, Daily Living Skills, Socialization and Motor Skills. The scales are used to assess people from birth to age 18 and low functioning adults. It is available in two different versions: an interview edition of 20-60 minutes and an Expanded format of 60-90 minutes. It is suggested for evaluating clients in clinical and research settings.

Vineland Social Maturity Scale (VSMS)

The Vineland Social Maturity Scale (VSMS) assesses the ability of students with developmental disabilities to function socially. These scales were developed by Edgar Doll in 1935. The scales assess competencies in determining the level of mental handicap (mild/moderate/profound) and presume adaptive behavior to be the central issue in all evaluations of students with developmental handicaps. It is also presumed that progress in social competencies should be well monitored and programs constantly modified to reinforce the acquisition of social competencies. This behavior assessment is useful for determining the level of disability, identifying skills mastered and not mastered, developing objectives, monitoring the effect of interventions, assessing progress, assessing outcomes, and evaluating programs. Various domains on this assessment include: independent functioning (this is the most widely used component of this scale); social functioning (including appropriate attention to others, acceptable effort to communicate, express feelings, avoiding obnoxious behavior, situational appropriateness); functional academic competencies (fundamental literacy skills, knowledge of time and numbers); vocational occupational competencies (knowledge about career and work, specific skills associated with job or career)

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R)

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R), developed by David Wechsler in 1974, represents a revision of his 1949 WISC test and contains the same set of 12 subtests. It was intended as a general intelligence test for children. Intelligence, as defined by Wechsler, is "the overall capacity of an individual to understand and cope with the world around him" or the "global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment." The WISC-R is made up of 12 separate subtests which are divided into 2 scales: Performance Scale and Verbal Scale. Only 10 of these are used to calculate IQ. The verbal portion of the test requires verbal ability using language-based questions, while the other tests are more visual-motor dependent. Five of the subtests in each of the two sections produce scale relevant IQs, and these 10 subtests together result in a full-scale IQ reflecting ability in both areas. The subtests in each classification are as follows: VERBAL CLASSIFICATION 1. The Information test contains 30 questions that assess the child's grasp of general information, and relate to intellectual alertness, motivation, and retention of information. Along with the Block Design, it is the second most reliable subtest in the WISC-R. 2. The Digit Span test evaluates memory for series of digits, forward and backward increasing with rigor up to nine digits and is associated with ability to focus and recall auditory information. It is at times used dubiously to assess brain damage. 3. The Vocabulary test is comprised of 32 words to be defined by the test taker. It is considered to be an excellent assessment of general intelligence. It is also claimed that this test is culturally biased depending on educational and cultural opportunities. but it is also deemed the most reliable subtest of the WISC-R. 4. The Arithmetic test has 18 arithmetic problems in the context of various stories. It is said to measure arithmetic reasoning, verbal instruction comprehension, and the individual's ability to focus. This test is also felt to be dependent on previous education. 5. The Comprehension test contains 17 questions about everyday life and social functioning. It is said to be a test of common sense, and requires the ability to apply experience to solve practical everyday problems and to verbalize. Examples of questions are "Why do we need police?" and "Why do we put stamps on letters?", etc. 6. The Similarities test requires the child to use abstract reasoning to discern what is similar in each set of 17 paired subjects. PERFORMANCE CLASSIFICATION 1. The Pictures Completion test contains 26 pictures that the test taker is instructed to complete. 2. The Block Design test contains 11 designs that need to be composed out of red and white blocks following patterns indicated on cards. This test assesses problem solving, visual-motor integration, and performance speed. 3. The Object Assembly test has five puzzles with large pieces that need to be put together to form basic forms such as a face, car, etc. This tests evaluates one's ability to integrate and assemble parts into wholes. This subtest is reputed to have the lowest reliability of any of the subtests on the WISC-R. Children are most likely to receive a different score on reexamination. 4. The Coding test asks the child to note and mark symbols associated to numbers. It assesses speed, accuracy, the capacity to learn a new task and visual-motor skill. It also corresponds to the Digit Symbol subtest of the WAIS-R. The WISC-R test was standardized based on groups which are representative of the U.S. population of children. The age range of the scale is from 6 years to 16 years and 11 months. Ideally the test should have been standardized based on random sampling, but due to practical considerations, a stratified sampling plan was used which included representative proportions of various classes of children. It is suggested for use in clinical research and clinical practice. 5. The Picture Arrangement test asks the test-taker to arrange a series of pictures in a particular order to reveal a story. 6. The Mazes test assesses one's ability to follow a pattern that is depicted visually. The WISC-R's scores and their equivalencies: 120-129=Superior; 110-119=High Average; 90-109=Average Intelligence; 80-89=Low Average; 70-79=Borderline; 69 and below=Mentally Deficient

Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT)

The Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT) is a short achievement test that assesses reading recognition, spelling, and arithmetic computation. The test has two levels: level one for children ages 5-11 and level two for individuals ages 12-64. This test is similar to the Peabody Individual Achievement Test in that both are short, individually administered tests. Both tests cover comparable material in Reading, Spelling and Arithmetic. The test is useful for comparison of achievement between various individuals, to determine learning disabilities and to compare codes with comprehension to compose and adjust learning remedial programs

Zung Depression Scale (SDS and DSI)

The Zung Depression Scale (SDS), developed by W. Zung, contains 20 items and a self-rated scale for evaluating depression in adults. This tool asks the subject to self-rate based on a 1-4 scale where 1=none and 4=severe. It includes a number of somatic symptoms (sleep disturbances, weight loss, fatigue, and decreased appetite). The SDS scoring tool is particularly useful in distinguishing between depressive disorders and Schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, personality disorders, and situational disturbances. It takes approximately 10 minutes to administer. There is also a clinician rated part known as the Depression Status Inventory (DSI). The DSI consists of the same 20 items as the Depression Scale and results in a global measure of an individual's degree of depressive symptoms. The DSI is rated by the clinician or trained rater. Positive characteristics of this tool are its brevity and ease of administration; however, one of its weaknesses is that it has a limited capacity to perceive change over time.

Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test

This instrument is used to investigate the measurement of the perpetual-motor and cognitive development in minors over the age of 4. It consists of different designs that the subject views and is then asked to copy onto a blank piece of paper. This 10-minute test is normally used on all different cases including those of the mentally challenged, psychotic and normal nature in educational, researching, and clinical surroundings. The Bender-Gestalt, Second Edition, is comprised of a series of 9 templates with each displaying a separate figure. The subject is requested to copy each figure as he/or she observes it. The template is not removed until the drawing is complete. This test takes approximately 20 minutes to administer. The responses are scored according to orientation, form, quantity, shape and pattern. One problem with the test is in the ease with which a subject can intentionally distort the representations he/or she copies, deliberately drawing with distorted images and impaired performance. In addition, many examiners do not actually score this exam but rather make a visual scan and intuitively interpret the results. This test is not intended to be used as a full neuropsychological exam.

Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)

This test was developed by Aaron Beck to assess depression and, in conjunction with the Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS), to gauge the likelihood of suicide. While research indicates that no mental health professionals have ever actually devised an accurate predictor of physical violence either to oneself or others, the Beck instrument is commonly used for clinical assessment and research. The Beck Depression and Hopelessness Survey contains 22 items for the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and 20 items for the Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS). The survey is administered and interpreted by computer, so it can be administered to a group. It is geared to adults 13 years of age or older who have at least a 5th grade reading level. An examiner introduces the test, and while it is not timed, the BDI generally takes 10-20 minutes to administer. One of the problems with the test is the ease with which it is subject to conscious exaggeration and voluntary manipulation on the part of the subject. The Beck Depression Inventory was revised in 1971 with 21 items and introduced at the University of Pennsylvania Medical School Center for Cognitive Therapy. Based on clinical observations and self descriptions by depressed psychiatric patients, it has replaced the original BDI (1961) and is used to evaluate seriousness of depression in adolescents and adults. It is intended to be used for patients who have been psychiatrically diagnosed with depression, but is of general use in identifying symptoms of depression in normal individuals. Beck's Depression Scale has a range of 0-63, with 0-9=normal, 10-18=mild, 19-29=moderate to severe, and 30-63=serious depression. It is most helpful when used in clinical settings and for patients diagnosed with depression as a primary diagnosis. Other psychiatric disorders may present serious complications in terms of this assessment tool, so it is highly recommended that it not be used to diagnose other psychological disorders.