bio 101 exam 2

What is the Calvin Cycle?

A biochemical pathway of photosynthesis in which carbon dioxide is converted into glucose using ATP and NADPH

explain what metabolic pathways are

A metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions in a cell that build and breakdown molecules for cellular processes.

describe the difference in behavior of chromosomes during mitosis

Chromosomal behaviour is just the normal movement of chromosomes during cell division. During mitosis, replicated chromosomes align themselves along the equator of the cell forming a metaphase plate, and then sister chromatids are pulled apart towards opposite poles of the cell.

describe how the wavelength of light affects its energy and color

Different colors of light have different wavelengths and energy. (Human eyes detect differences in wavelength and energy as differences in color.) Light toward the red end of the spectrum has longer wavelengths and lower energy than light toward the violet end of the spectrum.

explain the process of aerobic cell respiration

During aerobic cellular respiration, glucose reacts with oxygen, forming ATP that can be used by the cell. Carbon dioxide and water are created as byproducts. The overall equation for aerobic cellular respiration is: In cellular respiration, glucose and oxygen react to form ATP.

Discuss the behavior of chromosomes during mitosis

During mitosis, replicated chromosomes segregate such that each daughter cell receives one copy of the genome. Faithful mechanical transport during mitosis requires that chromosomes undergo extensive structural changes as the cell cycle progresses, resulting in the formation of compact, cylindrical bodies

discuss how enzymes function as molecular catalysts

First, they increase the rate of chemical reactions without themselves being consumed or permanently altered by the reaction. Second, they increase reaction rates without altering the chemical equilibrium between reactants and products

distinguish between chromosomes genes and traits

Genes are contained in chromosomes, which are in the cell nucleus. A chromosome contains hundreds to thousands of genes. Every normal human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. A trait is any gene-determined characteristic and is often determined by more than one gene.

what are the mechanisms within meiosis that generate genetic variation among the production of meiosis

Genetic variation is created in meiosis by two important mechanisms, namely independent assortment of gametes and genetic recombination via crossing over. During meiosis, a cell divides and its genetic information is divided into 4 gametes.

explain why glycolysis is considered to be evidence for evolution

Glycolysis is the first pathway used in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy. Because it is used by nearly all organisms on earth, it must have evolved early in the history of life.

Describe the main structures involved in photosynthesis

In plants, photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts, which contain the chlorophyll. Chloroplasts are surrounded by a double membrane and contain a third inner membrane called the thylakoid membrane, that forms long folds within the organelle.

Explain how ATP is used by the cell as an energy source

It loses a phosphate group, releasing energy in the process

explain why humans need to breathe oxygen

Most living things need oxygen to survive. Oxygen helps organisms grow, reproduce, and turn food into energy. Humans get the oxygen they need by breathing through their nose and mouth into their lungs. Oxygen gives our cells the ability to break down food in order to get the energy we need to survive.

explain how plants absorb energy from sunlight

Most plants contain a special colored chemical or pigment called chlorophyll that is used in photosynthesis. Chlorophyll is what absorbs the sun's energy and turns it into chemical energy. Not all the light energy from the sun is absorbed. Sunlight has many different colors in it.

explain how nondisjunction leads to disorder in chromosome number

Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes to disjoin correctly during meiosis. This results in the production of gametes containing a greater or lesser chromosomal amount than normal ones. Consequently the individual may develop a trisomal or monosomal syndrome.

what is the relevance of photosynthesis to living organisms

Photosynthesis sustains life on Earth today by releasing oxygen into the atmosphere and providing energy for food chains. The rise of oxygen-producing photosynthesis allowed the evolution of complex life forms like animals and land plants around 2.4 billion years ago

understand the differences in cytokinesis between plants and animals

Plant cytokinesis is centrifugal in nature, the cytoplasmic division starts at the center of the cell and moves towards the cell wall. Animal cytokinesis is centripetal in nature, the cytoplasmic division starts at the edges of the cell at the plasma membrane and moves towards the center.

explain the variation among offspring is a potential evolutionary advantage resulting from sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction results in infinite possibilities of genetic variation. In other words, sexual reproduction results in offspring that are genetically unique. It is this variation that is the essence of evolution. Without genetic differences among individuals, "survival of the fittest" would not be likely.

describe the relationships of glycolysis the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation in terms of their inputs and outputs

The citric acid cycle, where acetyl CoA is modified in the mitochondria to produce energy precursors in preparation for the next step. Oxidative phosphorylation, the process where electron transport from the energy precursors from the citric acid cycle (step 3) leads to the phosphorylation of ADP, producing ATP. Glycolysis occurs in both aerobic and anaerobic states. In aerobic conditions, pyruvate enters the citric acid cycle and undergoes oxidative phosphorylation leading to the net production of 32 ATP molecules. In anaerobic conditions, pyruvate converts to lactate through anaerobic glycolysis

describe the prokaryotic and eukaryotic genome

The genome is composed of one or more DNA molecules, each organized as a chromosome. The prokaryotic genomes are mostly single circular chromosomes. Eukaryotic genomes consist of one or two sets of linear chromosomes confined to the nucleus.

describe the light dependent reactions of photosynthesis

The light-dependent reactions use light energy to make two molecules needed for the next stage of photosynthesis: the energy storage molecule ATP and the reduced electron carrier NADPH. In plants, the light reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes of organelles called chloroplasts.

describe the 3 different life-cycle strategied among sexual multicellular organisms and their commonalities

There are three main categories of life cycles in multicellular organisms: diploid-dominant, in which the multicellular diploid stage is the most obvious life stage (and there is no multicellular haploid stage), as with most animals including humans; haploid-dominant, in which the multicellular haploid stage is the most obvious life stage (and there is no multicellular diploid stage), as with all fungi and some algae; and alternation of generations, in which the two stages, haploid and diploid, are apparent to one degree or another depending on the group, as with plants and some algae.

describe the types of fermentation and the differences between them

There are two types of fermentation, alcoholic and lactic acid. Fermentation follows glycolysis in the absence of oxygen. Alcoholic fermentation produces ethanol, carbon dioxide, and NAD+. Lactic acid fermentation produces lactic acid (lactate) and NAD+.

explain how photosynthesis works in the energy cycle of all living organisms

Through photosynthesis, certain organisms convert solar energy (sunlight) into chemical energy, which is then used to build carbohydrate molecules. The energy used to hold these molecules together is released when an organism breaks down food. Cells then use this energy to perform work, such as cellular respiration.

explain how cancer cells are caused by uncontrolled cell division

Unlike normal genes, oncogenes cannot be turned off, so they cause uncontrolled cell growth. In normal cells, tumor suppressor genes prevent cancer by slowing or stopping cell growth. DNA changes that inactivate tumor suppressor genes can lead to uncontrolled cell growth and cancer.

what is the difference between meiosis and mitosis

What's the Difference? Mitosis produces two genetically identical "daughter" cells from a single "parent" cell, whereas meiosis produces cells that are genetically unique from the parent and contain only half as much DNA

State the first and second laws of thermodynamics

a. First Law: the energy in the universe is constant, energy cannotbe created or destroyed (law of energy conservation) b. Second Law: energy transformations increase disorder or entrophy and during energy transformation, some energy becomes unavailable to work.

describe the 3 stages of interphase

growth and centrioles start to replicate (G1), DNA synthesis/replication (S), centrioles finish replicating (G2)

explain the process of photosynthesis

photosynthesis, the process by which green plants and certain other organisms transform light energy into chemical energy. During photosynthesis in green plants, light energy is captured and used to convert water, carbon dioxide, and minerals into oxygen and energy-rich organic compounds