Bio 101 Exam 3

Types of DNA Mutations

- Substitution - Insertion - Deletion

Point mutation occurs at only _____ base pair

1

The 20,000 protein coding sequences make up only ____ of DNA

1%

Transcription - Unlike replication: 1. Only copies _____ strand of the DNA 2. Synthesizes _____ instead of ______ 3. Releases _____ as it's made

1, RNA, DNA, RNA

Cell Cycle - Meiosis Phases - Produce cells with only ____ chromosome from each _________ and only chromatid of that chromosome - Meiosis 1 end result = chromosome number is ________ - Meiosis 2 end result = _______ ______ separate just like mitosis

1, homologous pair, halved, sister chromatids

Steps in Translation

1. Initiation 2. Elongation 3. Termination

Cell Division Phases

1. Prophase 2. Metaphase 3. Anaphase 4. Telophase

mRNA editing - 3. Poly(A) tail - Adds _____-_____ Adenines to the 3' end of the transcript - Acts as _______ and ______

100, 250, stabilizer, marker

Each somatic cell has ____ alleles of a gene - 1 on each _______ _________

2, homologous chromosome

- ___ alleles of each gene are present in an ________ - ______ allele of each gene is in each gamete

2, organism, 1

Meiosis has _____ divisions - To _______ both the chromosome ______ and the ______ amount

2, reduce, number, DNA

Law #2 - if you follow the inheritance of more than 1 gene - they assort independently - Brown coat B is dominant over white coat b - Short tail S is dominant over long tail s - The distribution would be 9:3:3:1 - But still ____% white and ____% long tail in total

25, 25

Translation - tRNA Adapters - How is the mRNA translated into a protein? - Transfer-RNA adapters are used to match each ____-_______ codon to an Amino acid - Adapters need to carry an ______ _______ and also be able to interact with the 3 base pair codon on the _______

3, nucleotide, amino acid, mRNA

DNA is often written just ____-_____ strand to save space/time

5', 3'

mRNA editing - 2. 5' Capping - To protect and identify the ____ end of mRNA a 7 methyl-guanine (___ _____) Is added (in a reversed orientation and with 3 phosphates connecting it) to the ____ nucleotide

5', a cap, 5'

Law #1 - Law of Segregation II - Because the chances of getting either trait is 1/2 or getting _____% from each gamete the percentage of offspring that have a genotype of bb is 1/4 or ____%, which agrees with Mendel's results

50, 25

Each of us has ___ billion bases in our genome

6

Each of us has an average of _____ new mutations

60

How similar are "sibling" cells?

99.999999% similar

Mitosis - _______ - Spindle Microtubules _______ taking _______ sister chromatid of each chromosome to each _______ cell - Happens from molecular ______

Anaphase, contract, one, daughter, motors

_______-______ strand - carries the opposite sequence

Anti, sense

Mutations fall into 1 of 3 categories: 1. _______ mutations increase the fitness of the organism 2. _______ Mutations do not affect an organism's fitness - _______ mutations are usually neutral 3. _________ mutations decrease the fitness of the organism

Beneficial, Neutral, Silent, Deleterious

Mitotic Regulation - _________ - __________ proteins at cell cycle 'check points' stop progress unless they get the _________ _________

Checkpoints, Regulatory, appropriate signal

___________ - the structural point where chromosome segments cross over

Chiasmata

____________ and even regions of chromosomes are distributed randomly into the ________ - and ________ with other gametes to make the next generation of an _________

Chromosomes, gametes, combine, organism

DNA/RNA language - 3 letter 'words' - a _______

Codon

Each cell contains a full complement of the _______ that the organism needs

DNA

The traits (features or morphologies) of organisms are determined primarily by the ______ that they contain.

DNA

We all know that the traits of organisms are determined primarily by the _______ that they contain

DNA

What is all the other DNA do?

DNA that is ancestral, helps machinery of gene expression

RNA Polymerase form and function - Before the enzyme binds ______, its hand is open (b) After the enzyme binds the ______, it grips the DNA tight enough to hold on loose enough to move along the _____ (a)

DNA, DNA, DNA

______ makes _____ and ______ makes proteins (and never the reverse)

DNA, RNA, RNA

Genetic basis of mutation (a). Genetic information flows from _____ to _______ proteins (b). Differences in ________ may cause differences in _______

DNA, RNA, genotype, phenotype

Why Meiosis? - Small changes in ______/________ can create some diversity - Many _______ and simple eukaryotes create _______ this way - Meiosis allows the whole entire _______ ______-______- of the organisms to be _______ - This produces variation but in a controlled way - All DNA in body = genome - _________ creation of variation allows the species to survive ________ changes

DNA, chromosomes, Bacteria, variation, genetic library, genome, shuffled, Continuous, environmental

Silent mutation causes a change in the ______ but no change in the _______ _______ (allowed based on redundancy of genetic code)

DNA, protein sequence

Which type of mutation is most common?

Deleterious and Neutral

________ have Sexual Reproduction - Sexual reproduction results in ________ variation among offspring than does ______ - ____ parents give rise to offspring that have ______ combinations - ________ of sexual reproduction vary genetically from their _______ and from both _______.

Eukaryotes, greater, asexual, 2, unique, Offspring, siblings, parents

Incomplete Dominance - EX: Four-o' clocks, The heterozygote _____ plant exhibits a trait that is intermediate between the ___ homozygous parental plants

F1, 2

XX = ________

Female

________ mutation causes the triplet code to be read with a different frame of codons (deletion of three base pairs will still be in frame) The _____ and _______ above are frameshift mutations

Frameshift, Insertion, Deletion

_____ checkpoint - pass this check point if: 1. cell size is ______ 2. ______ = sufficient 3. social ______ are present 4. DNA is ________ - ______ _______ do not pass this checkpoint (they enter G0 state)

G1, adequate, nutrients, signals, undamaged, Mature cells

____ checkpoint - pass this check point if: 1. chromosomes have ______ successfully 2. ______ is undamaged

G2, replicated, DNA

___________ = similar but not identical

Homologous

Meiosis ____ - The _______ Division - ________ chromosomes pair in ______ I and one of each pair of homologous chromosomes is pulled into each _______ cell - Each daughter has _______ the chromosome number of the parent

I, Reduction, homologous, Prophase, daughter, half

Meiosis ____ - phases are similar to Mitosis - Each ________ cell from the meiosis II has the _______ number of the chromosomes as the parent cell - Each daughter cell has _____ the DNA as the sister _______ for each chromosome separate - Sister chromatids _______

II, daughter, same, half, chromatids, separate

Asexual Reproduction: - ________ offspring - ________ evolutionary changes

Identical, slow

Meiosis and Genetic Recombination 1. Parent cell 2. Crossing over 3. _______ ______ - The red and blue chromosomes can line up in different ways during metaphase 4. Gametes 5. _________

Independent assortment, Fertilization

__________: - Mitosis only represents a small % of the ______ ______ ______ even in fast growing regions - During Interphase ________ are not _________ but there is a lot going on biochemically

Interphase, cell cycle time, chromosomes, condensed

Mature mRNA - (________ spliced out)

Introns

mRNA editing - 1. Splicing - (a) ________ must be removed from eukaryotic RNA transcripts - Intron = sequence of _____ ______ for by the DNA sequence but removed to are the mature functional mRNA - ______ = sequence of RNA coded for by the DNA sequence that remains in the mature functional mRNA

Introns, RNA coded, Exon

XY = ______

Male

Mitosis - ________ - Chromosomes line up on ____ ______ - Spindle - ________ microtubules fully _______ to centromeres

Metaphase, cell plate, kinetochore, connected

_________ checkpoint - pass this check point if: 1. all __________ are attached to _______ ________

Metaphase, chromosomes, spindle apparatus

_______ - Pro-metaphase (early) - ________ ________ breaks apart - ________ is produced from centrioles - kinetochore connects _________ to centromeres - Microtubules come from _________

Mitosis, Nuclear membrane, Spindle, microtubules, cytoskeleton

Controlling Transcription - ________ control: Regulatory protein - Repressor shuts down transcription - _______ control: Regulatory protein - Activator triggers transcription

Negative, Positive

The Nucleolus - The nucleus has regions of darker color called __________ - These are the site of ______ synthesis and partial ribosome assembly

Nucleoli, rRNA

Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes - ________ - No Poly A tail or 5' cap, few introns, no nucleus, usually unicellular - _________ - has Poly A tail or 5' cap, many introns, has nucleus, usually multicellular

Prokaryote, Eukaryotes

Anatomy of a Gene - The Basics - One specific section (locus) of DNA: - ________ - _________ - Coding region: contains the direct information for (codes for) a protein - _________

Promoter, Initiation, Termination

Mitosis - _______ - Chromosomes ______ - _______ separate

Prophase, condense, Centrioles

Gene Expression - The final product of gene expression is a _______ (polypeptide chain of amino acids) whose sequence was prescribed by the ______ ______

Protein, genetic code

Transcription termination - Termination occurs when the _______ sequence forms a strong ______ to itself making a hairpin turn - This causes _____ ________ to release the new RNA strand and the DNA strand

RNA, bond, RNA polymerase

RNA in Ribosomes - There are two large pieces of _____ in a ribosome and a number of smaller ________ - The RNA is intrinsic to the ______ ______ of the ribosome essential to protein synthesis

RNA, pieces, active site

Translation - Termination - The releases factors are not ______ but are ______

RNAs, proteins

There are 2 divisions during Meiosis: - 1st: ______ __________ where the number of chromosomes is _______ - 2nd: Almost identical to mitosis - sister chromatids _______ to reduce the amount of _____ so each daughter cell contains only _____ sister chromatid for each chromosome - Not only do the entire chromosomes ________ in new ways to the new gametes but sections of DNA from homologous chromosomes are ________ between _________ _________ to create unique and new DNA strands

Reduction division, halved, separate, DNA, 1, distribute, recombined, homologous chromosomes

Mendel's Law: 1. Law of ________ 2. The Law of _______ ________ 3. The Law of ___________

Segregation, Independent Assortment, Dominance

________ strand - sequence is same/similar to the RNA that is produced

Sense

Fertilization - ______ reproduction allows genetic _______ to occur and ______ the variation in a population

Sexual, shuffling, increases

mRNA in Eukaryotes is processed: 1. ________ 2. ________ (5') 3. ________ added to 3' end - Poly(A) is multiple adenine nucleotides added as a stabilizer 4. Exported from _________

Spliced, Capped, Poly(A), Nucleus

________ - close pairing of homologous chromosomes

Synapsis

Mitosis - ________ - Occurs at same time as _______ - Cytokinesis - ______ starts to form - Recreating contents each of our _______ cells will have - Can have mitosis _______ cytokinesis

Telophase, Cytokinesis, Nucleus, daughter, without

What is a gene?

The locus (region) on a chromosome that carries the information to produce one protein

The information stored in DNA is _______ into RNA

Transcribed

How does a cell determine when and where to express a gene? - ________ control - Know that ________ occurs at transcription block

Transcription, regulation

How is bacterial gene expression regulated? 1. ________ control 2. ________ control 3. ______-_______ control

Transcriptional, Translational, Post, translational

The RNA information is ________ into proteins at the Ribosome

Translated

DNA and RNA Review - OH group on the #2 carbon - _______ nucleotide is the compliment of ___ in RNA (no Thymine) - Single stranded - ______ - Double stranded - ______

Uracil, A, RNA, DNA

tRNA transfer RNA - acts as _______ to _______ mRNA Nucleotides to _____ sequences at ribosome

adaptor, translate, AA

Mendel's theories are dependent on the idea that not every ______ in an individual is expressed ________

allele, equally

An organism can have an ________ but not have it expressed as a ______

allele, trait

Different versions of a gene located at the same spot on different homologous chromosomes are called '_______'

alleles

2. The Law of Independent Assortment: _________ responsible for different traits are distributed to _________ (and thus the offspring) _________ of each other - Concerns how different genes _______ relative to each other

alleles, gametes, independently, assort

1. The Law of Segregation: during the formation of gametes, _________ responsible for a trait __________ one to each gamete; this allows for __________ during __________ - Concerns how ____ alleles _______ into the next generation

alleles, separate, recombination, fertilization, 2, sort

We now know that many genes have different _______/________ that can be present in a given cell

alleles, versions

Meiosis - Process of _______ _____ which produces haploid ______ (contains half number of chromosomes of the organism - Each _______ in a diploid organism has a ______ other half - part of a homologous pair of chromosomes - When the cell undergoes ______ one member of each _______ is moved to each _____

cell division, gametes, chromosome, homologous, meiosis, pair, cell

Meiosis is the process of ______ ________ that occurs to make _______ (cells for sexual reproduction) - The chromosomes in a _______ cell are divided into pairs of homologous chromosomes - One of each individual homologous chromosomes is distributed to ______ _______ during meiosis

cell division, gametes, somatic, each gamete

Each ___________ contains hundreds of thousands - millions of nucleotide bases of DNA

chromosome

Each __________ contains hundreds of thousand - millions of ________ _______ ____ _______

chromosome, nucleotide bases of DNA

A processed mRNA ready for translation in Eukaryotes - 5' Cap - Protects from _______/_______ for ribosome - 5' untranslated region - 3' untranslated region - Poly(A) tail - Protects from ________/_______ to cytoplasm

degradation, recognition, degradation, transport

The _______ between 1 type of cell and another is primarily due to what genes are ________ (which, when, and how much)

difference, expressed

Life Cycles - Zygote - _______ cell that has components of both _____ - Fertilization and meiosis alternate in ______ ______ _____ - Meiosis _______ chromosomes number from ______ to ______ - Gametes - ______ and eggs

diploid, parents, sexual life cycles, reduced, diploid, haploid, sperm

Traits are passed onto the next generation as ______ units - (genes) that do not ______ together

discrete, blend

Cytokinesis = ______ _____ _____

division of cytoplasm

Mitosis = _______ ___ _______

division of nucleus

Even though present, genes are not always _________ as a trait, Some genes remain ________ or _________ in some cases

expressed, recessive, unexpressed

Translation - The final product of _____ _______ is a Protein (polypeptide chain of amino acids) whose sequence was prescribed by the ______ ______

gene expression, genetic code

A trait is produced by the "expression" of a ______ or a number of _______

gene, genes

A trait is produced by the expression of a ______ or set of ______

gene, genes,

If traits blend in each ________ then every trait would be a _______ of the parents' __________

generation, mixture, phenotype

Each chromosome is made of a series of ________

genes

There are many ______ one after the other on a single strand of DNA

genes

Each chromosome contains thousands of ______ - areas of the DNA strand that contain the ________ to make ______ protein

genes, information, 1

How is gene expression regulated? - Primarily transcription initiation - It seems that _______ are either on or off and the difference between 1 gene to the next is it frequently it is turned back '____' - Cells often make many ______ transcripts at the same time from a single gene.... the more mRNA _______ the higher the level of expression for a gene - Which genes (and, thus, RNA instructions) are made can ______ quickly

genes, on, RNA, copies, change

Each chromosome contains thousands of _________ - areas of the DNA strand that contain the information to make one ________

genes, protein

Meiosis I - Crossing Over - Allows ______ on the same strand of DNA to be ________ - When homologous chromosomes are _______ ______ in metaphase I, regions of one chromosome often ______ with the similar region on the homologous chromosome - a process called _____ _______

genes, separated, lined up, swap, crossing over

Sexual Reproduction: - Offspring _______ _______ - ______ evolutionary changes

genetic remixes, Fast

And also has a ________ - a genetic combination that may be observable or not

genotype

Bb is called __________ - 1 copy of the dominant allele and 1 copy of the recessive allele

heterozygous

Each member of a pair of _______ _________ contain one 'version' of each gene

homologous chromosomes

The pattern of chromosome transmission creates the rules of inheritance/genetics - Each member of a pair of _______ ________ contains 1 'version' of each gene - Different versions of a gene located at the same ________ (place), on different homologous chromosomes called '______' - Possible Alleles composition of _______

homologous chromosomes, locus, alleles, gametes

BB and bb are __________ - each individual has 2 copy of the same allele

homozygous

3. The Law of Dominance: In a cross between contrasting _______ ________, only one form of the trait will appear in the F1 generation - this trait is the ______ _______ -Concerns how different ________ get __________ (or not)

homozygous individuals, dominant trait, genes, expressed

A heterozygous individual can also be called a _______ or ________ for that other trait

hybrid, carrier

The principle of ________ _________ states that genes are distributed to the next generation _________ of each other

independent assortment, independently

Ploidy - The haploid number n _______ the number of ______ ______ of chromosomes present - A cell's ______ (n, 2n, 3n) indicates the ______ of each type chromosome present

indicates, distinct types, ploidy, number

Cytokinesis - Cytokinesis does not have to be _______ to mitosis - In ________: - Cell plate formed from ________ _______ - In Animals: - _________ _______ formed by cytoskeletal _______ between cells

linked, plants, internal vesicles, Cleavage furrow, constriction

Transport out the nucleus - ________ must be transported out of the nucleus through nuclear pores - This acts as a final check that the ______ is properly formed - Then in the _______ the cell can _______ the mRNA to protein

mRNA, mRNA, Cytoplasm, translate

Error in genotype leads to __________ of what the proteins supposed to be

misexpression

Nondisjunction - When ______ occur in sorting chromosomes during ________, cells with _______ or _______ chromosomes can be produced

mistakes, meiosis, extra, missing,

The Ribosome - A _______ ________ made of RNA and proteins - It synthesizes _______

molecular machine, proteins

Neurospora crassa makes Arginine (an amino acid) through a three step metabolic pathway - Can then add different compounds in the pathway to rescue the ________ - Defects in enzyme 1 can be rescued by __________ with any of the compounds. - Defects in enzyme_____ can be rescued by Citruline and Arginine but not Ornithine supplementation - All the single ______ _______ they found were blocked in only one of the enzymatic steps. - Each gene only affected _____ enzyme/protein - Therefore: A gene encodes the information to produce ______ ______

mutants, supplementation, 2, gene mutants, 1, 1 protein

A ________ is a heritable change in the DNA

mutation

Genes that are located ______ each other and so therefore do not sort _________ are said to be _______

near, independently, linked

Some genes can behave in a _______-_________ way when they are located near to ______ ______ on the same chromosome

non-mendelian, each other

Membrane Proteins - mRNA leaving the _______ can be targeted to the ____ to make membrane proteins or ________ proteins

nucleus, ER, secreted

Transcription - Just like DNA replication: 1. DNA needs to _____ (called a transcription bubble) 2. Pattern read by _______ ______ to DNA bases 3. Build polymer of ________

open, hydrogen bonding, nucleotides

We say that an organism has a _________ - a observable trait

phenotype

Circular mRNA - In the cell, proteins attach to the ____ ___ _____ and to the ____ ____ creating a circle of the mRNA - This makes translation more efficient since the ________ begins and ends in a similar area

poly A tail, 5' cap, ribosome

Some traits do not behave as _______ by the sorting of a single or even 2 or 3 genes - These traits are termed _________ traits and are ________ on many sets of _______ to produce their trait

predicted, quantitative, dependent, genes

Interphase = _____ _____ ______

preparing to divide

Transcription Initiation - Initiation - sigma factors bind the ______ and allow an _______ ______ ______ to form which inserts the DNA into the RNA polymerase

promoter, initiation protein complex

Bacterial transcription - TATA box - Bacterial _______ contain ___ DNA sequences that are recognized by _______ factor located upstream of the ______ _______ site

promoters, 2, sigma, transcript initiation

RNA has levels of structure similar to those in ________

proteins

mRNA messenger RNA - sequence that directly codes for _______

proteins

Secreted proteins - Secretory system: _______ travel through the ______ to the ______ to a secretion _____ (Exocytosis)

proteins, ER, Golgi, vesicle

Translation Initiation - Translation occurs in _______ - Ribosome Binding Site interacts, ________ to _________, with a sequence in the ribosomal RNA - The full ribosome (remember, otherwise it's in two+ main parts) forms of _______

ribosome, nucleotide, nucleotide, translation

Steps in Translation 1. Initiation - the 2 subunits of the _______ come together and the start codon on the mRNA in the ribosome is aligned to set the ______ _______ (= the arrangement of codons) 2. Elongation -________ tRNAs attach and ________ bonds form between the amino acids 3. Termination - A ______ ______ in the mRNA causes the ribosome to stop and detach from the ______ and new proteins

ribosome, reading frame, Charged, peptide, stop codon, mRNA

Gene expression in Bacteria - When many ________ are attached to mRNA it is called a _______

ribosomes, polysome

Bacterial Transcription - In Bacteria the ________ are present as the RNA is _______ - so ________ can begin before ________ is finished

ribosomes, synthesized, translation, transcription

mRNA, rRNA, tRNA - in _______ and _______

ribosomes, translation

rRNA ribosomal RNA - acts as _______ to synthesize ________ from mRNA templates (produced in nucleolus of nucleus)

ribozyme, proteins

The Pattern of Chromosome transmission predicts all the _______ of ________/________

rules, inheritance, genetics

What Mendel Found: - Sometimes traits could be _______ for a generation and then ______ - So genes had to be passed as _______ units that could be _______ to other genes at times

silent, recur, discrete, recessive

Sometimes traits could be _______ for a generation and then ______ - So this told Mendel that alleles have to be ________ as _______ units that could be '________' to other alleles at times

silent, recur, passed, discrete, recessive

Transcription - process - Much _______ 'transcription bubble' than replication bubble - New nucleotides added on ____ end of growing transcript - Coding strand has the same _______ _______ as the RNA produced (with 'U's instead of 'T's)

smaller, 3', base sequence

Recombination - Not only does the version of each chromosome _____ to different _______ ______ - BUT, when the chromosomes are _____ ______ in metaphase I, regions of 1 chromosome often ______ with the similar region on the ________ ______ - a process called ______ _______ - Each cross over... - Crossing over usually occurs at least ______ in each ______-_____ ________; ___ of 4 chromatids are shown _______ ______

sort, daughter cell, lined up, swap, homologous chromosome, crossing over, once, non-sister chromatid, 2, crossed over

Meiosis - In humans ______ + ______ are haploid - In some plants + algae the _____ portion of the life cycle can be the _______ phase of the organisms life

sperm, eggs, haploid, dominant

Charging tRNA with an Amino Acid - An individual _______ is specific for a single amino acid. (There are at least 20 different tRNAs) - _________ is the process of covalently attaching an amino acid to the tRNA - Charging is accomplished by ________ - aminoacyl tRNA synthetases, each of which is specific for an amino acid

tRNA, Charging, enzymes

Translation adapter is an RNA molecule t-RNA (transfer RNA) - Each specific ______ is attached to its corresponding ______ ______ on one end and has an ________ to match the appropriate codon in the mRNA at the other end

tRNA, amino acid, anticodon

Translation - Elongation - Three sites for ______ in a ribosome - A = ________ - P = ______ Bond - E = ______

tRNAs ,Accepter, Peptide, exit

The ________ (features or morphologies) of organisms are determined primarily by the ________ that they contain - A trait is produced by the "_______" of a gene or a number of genes

traits, DNA, expression

Hereditary - Patterns of how _______ are passed on to the ______ ________

traits, next generation

RNA Polymerase ________ the information in the DNA into a new strand of _____ - New nucleotides on the ____ end

transcribes, RNA, 3'

Membrane and Secreted Proteins - ER is _______ proteins and shipping out to ______ membrane

translating, plasma

Evolution of the Genetic Code - The genetic code is nearly _______, shared by the simplest bacteria to the most complex animals - _______ can be transcribed and translated after being transplanted from 1 species to another

universal, Genes

The genetic code is said to have '______' meaning - often the third nucleotide can vary for a given _______ so the base pairing there is least important

wobble, tRNA

DNA is '_____ _____' by histone proteins into Chromatin - Only when unwound can the ______ ________ in the DNA can be accessed

wound up, genetic information