Bio 101 Exam 3
Types of DNA Mutations
- Substitution - Insertion - Deletion
Point mutation occurs at only _____ base pair
1
The 20,000 protein coding sequences make up only ____ of DNA
1%
Transcription - Unlike replication: 1. Only copies _____ strand of the DNA 2. Synthesizes _____ instead of ______ 3. Releases _____ as it's made
1, RNA, DNA, RNA
Cell Cycle - Meiosis Phases - Produce cells with only ____ chromosome from each _________ and only chromatid of that chromosome - Meiosis 1 end result = chromosome number is ________ - Meiosis 2 end result = _______ ______ separate just like mitosis
1, homologous pair, halved, sister chromatids
Steps in Translation
1. Initiation 2. Elongation 3. Termination
Cell Division Phases
1. Prophase 2. Metaphase 3. Anaphase 4. Telophase
mRNA editing - 3. Poly(A) tail - Adds _____-_____ Adenines to the 3' end of the transcript - Acts as _______ and ______
100, 250, stabilizer, marker
Each somatic cell has ____ alleles of a gene - 1 on each _______ _________
2, homologous chromosome
- ___ alleles of each gene are present in an ________ - ______ allele of each gene is in each gamete
2, organism, 1
Meiosis has _____ divisions - To _______ both the chromosome ______ and the ______ amount
2, reduce, number, DNA
Law #2 - if you follow the inheritance of more than 1 gene - they assort independently - Brown coat B is dominant over white coat b - Short tail S is dominant over long tail s - The distribution would be 9:3:3:1 - But still ____% white and ____% long tail in total
25, 25
Translation - tRNA Adapters - How is the mRNA translated into a protein? - Transfer-RNA adapters are used to match each ____-_______ codon to an Amino acid - Adapters need to carry an ______ _______ and also be able to interact with the 3 base pair codon on the _______
3, nucleotide, amino acid, mRNA
DNA is often written just ____-_____ strand to save space/time
5', 3'
mRNA editing - 2. 5' Capping - To protect and identify the ____ end of mRNA a 7 methyl-guanine (___ _____) Is added (in a reversed orientation and with 3 phosphates connecting it) to the ____ nucleotide
5', a cap, 5'
Law #1 - Law of Segregation II - Because the chances of getting either trait is 1/2 or getting _____% from each gamete the percentage of offspring that have a genotype of bb is 1/4 or ____%, which agrees with Mendel's results
50, 25
Each of us has ___ billion bases in our genome
6
Each of us has an average of _____ new mutations
60
How similar are "sibling" cells?
99.999999% similar
Mitosis - _______ - Spindle Microtubules _______ taking _______ sister chromatid of each chromosome to each _______ cell - Happens from molecular ______
Anaphase, contract, one, daughter, motors
_______-______ strand - carries the opposite sequence
Anti, sense
Mutations fall into 1 of 3 categories: 1. _______ mutations increase the fitness of the organism 2. _______ Mutations do not affect an organism's fitness - _______ mutations are usually neutral 3. _________ mutations decrease the fitness of the organism
Beneficial, Neutral, Silent, Deleterious
Mitotic Regulation - _________ - __________ proteins at cell cycle 'check points' stop progress unless they get the _________ _________
Checkpoints, Regulatory, appropriate signal
___________ - the structural point where chromosome segments cross over
Chiasmata
____________ and even regions of chromosomes are distributed randomly into the ________ - and ________ with other gametes to make the next generation of an _________
Chromosomes, gametes, combine, organism
DNA/RNA language - 3 letter 'words' - a _______
Codon
Each cell contains a full complement of the _______ that the organism needs
DNA
The traits (features or morphologies) of organisms are determined primarily by the ______ that they contain.
DNA
We all know that the traits of organisms are determined primarily by the _______ that they contain
DNA
What is all the other DNA do?
DNA that is ancestral, helps machinery of gene expression
RNA Polymerase form and function - Before the enzyme binds ______, its hand is open (b) After the enzyme binds the ______, it grips the DNA tight enough to hold on loose enough to move along the _____ (a)
DNA, DNA, DNA
______ makes _____ and ______ makes proteins (and never the reverse)
DNA, RNA, RNA
Genetic basis of mutation (a). Genetic information flows from _____ to _______ proteins (b). Differences in ________ may cause differences in _______
DNA, RNA, genotype, phenotype
Why Meiosis? - Small changes in ______/________ can create some diversity - Many _______ and simple eukaryotes create _______ this way - Meiosis allows the whole entire _______ ______-______- of the organisms to be _______ - This produces variation but in a controlled way - All DNA in body = genome - _________ creation of variation allows the species to survive ________ changes
DNA, chromosomes, Bacteria, variation, genetic library, genome, shuffled, Continuous, environmental
Silent mutation causes a change in the ______ but no change in the _______ _______ (allowed based on redundancy of genetic code)
DNA, protein sequence
Which type of mutation is most common?
Deleterious and Neutral
________ have Sexual Reproduction - Sexual reproduction results in ________ variation among offspring than does ______ - ____ parents give rise to offspring that have ______ combinations - ________ of sexual reproduction vary genetically from their _______ and from both _______.
Eukaryotes, greater, asexual, 2, unique, Offspring, siblings, parents
Incomplete Dominance - EX: Four-o' clocks, The heterozygote _____ plant exhibits a trait that is intermediate between the ___ homozygous parental plants
F1, 2
XX = ________
Female
________ mutation causes the triplet code to be read with a different frame of codons (deletion of three base pairs will still be in frame) The _____ and _______ above are frameshift mutations
Frameshift, Insertion, Deletion
_____ checkpoint - pass this check point if: 1. cell size is ______ 2. ______ = sufficient 3. social ______ are present 4. DNA is ________ - ______ _______ do not pass this checkpoint (they enter G0 state)
G1, adequate, nutrients, signals, undamaged, Mature cells
____ checkpoint - pass this check point if: 1. chromosomes have ______ successfully 2. ______ is undamaged
G2, replicated, DNA
___________ = similar but not identical
Homologous
Meiosis ____ - The _______ Division - ________ chromosomes pair in ______ I and one of each pair of homologous chromosomes is pulled into each _______ cell - Each daughter has _______ the chromosome number of the parent
I, Reduction, homologous, Prophase, daughter, half
Meiosis ____ - phases are similar to Mitosis - Each ________ cell from the meiosis II has the _______ number of the chromosomes as the parent cell - Each daughter cell has _____ the DNA as the sister _______ for each chromosome separate - Sister chromatids _______
II, daughter, same, half, chromatids, separate
Asexual Reproduction: - ________ offspring - ________ evolutionary changes
Identical, slow
Meiosis and Genetic Recombination 1. Parent cell 2. Crossing over 3. _______ ______ - The red and blue chromosomes can line up in different ways during metaphase 4. Gametes 5. _________
Independent assortment, Fertilization
__________: - Mitosis only represents a small % of the ______ ______ ______ even in fast growing regions - During Interphase ________ are not _________ but there is a lot going on biochemically
Interphase, cell cycle time, chromosomes, condensed
Mature mRNA - (________ spliced out)
Introns
mRNA editing - 1. Splicing - (a) ________ must be removed from eukaryotic RNA transcripts - Intron = sequence of _____ ______ for by the DNA sequence but removed to are the mature functional mRNA - ______ = sequence of RNA coded for by the DNA sequence that remains in the mature functional mRNA
Introns, RNA coded, Exon
XY = ______
Male
Mitosis - ________ - Chromosomes line up on ____ ______ - Spindle - ________ microtubules fully _______ to centromeres
Metaphase, cell plate, kinetochore, connected
_________ checkpoint - pass this check point if: 1. all __________ are attached to _______ ________
Metaphase, chromosomes, spindle apparatus
_______ - Pro-metaphase (early) - ________ ________ breaks apart - ________ is produced from centrioles - kinetochore connects _________ to centromeres - Microtubules come from _________
Mitosis, Nuclear membrane, Spindle, microtubules, cytoskeleton
Controlling Transcription - ________ control: Regulatory protein - Repressor shuts down transcription - _______ control: Regulatory protein - Activator triggers transcription
Negative, Positive
The Nucleolus - The nucleus has regions of darker color called __________ - These are the site of ______ synthesis and partial ribosome assembly
Nucleoli, rRNA
Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes - ________ - No Poly A tail or 5' cap, few introns, no nucleus, usually unicellular - _________ - has Poly A tail or 5' cap, many introns, has nucleus, usually multicellular
Prokaryote, Eukaryotes
Anatomy of a Gene - The Basics - One specific section (locus) of DNA: - ________ - _________ - Coding region: contains the direct information for (codes for) a protein - _________
Promoter, Initiation, Termination
Mitosis - _______ - Chromosomes ______ - _______ separate
Prophase, condense, Centrioles
Gene Expression - The final product of gene expression is a _______ (polypeptide chain of amino acids) whose sequence was prescribed by the ______ ______
Protein, genetic code
Transcription termination - Termination occurs when the _______ sequence forms a strong ______ to itself making a hairpin turn - This causes _____ ________ to release the new RNA strand and the DNA strand
RNA, bond, RNA polymerase
RNA in Ribosomes - There are two large pieces of _____ in a ribosome and a number of smaller ________ - The RNA is intrinsic to the ______ ______ of the ribosome essential to protein synthesis
RNA, pieces, active site
Translation - Termination - The releases factors are not ______ but are ______
RNAs, proteins
There are 2 divisions during Meiosis: - 1st: ______ __________ where the number of chromosomes is _______ - 2nd: Almost identical to mitosis - sister chromatids _______ to reduce the amount of _____ so each daughter cell contains only _____ sister chromatid for each chromosome - Not only do the entire chromosomes ________ in new ways to the new gametes but sections of DNA from homologous chromosomes are ________ between _________ _________ to create unique and new DNA strands
Reduction division, halved, separate, DNA, 1, distribute, recombined, homologous chromosomes
Mendel's Law: 1. Law of ________ 2. The Law of _______ ________ 3. The Law of ___________
Segregation, Independent Assortment, Dominance
________ strand - sequence is same/similar to the RNA that is produced
Sense
Fertilization - ______ reproduction allows genetic _______ to occur and ______ the variation in a population
Sexual, shuffling, increases
mRNA in Eukaryotes is processed: 1. ________ 2. ________ (5') 3. ________ added to 3' end - Poly(A) is multiple adenine nucleotides added as a stabilizer 4. Exported from _________
Spliced, Capped, Poly(A), Nucleus
________ - close pairing of homologous chromosomes
Synapsis
Mitosis - ________ - Occurs at same time as _______ - Cytokinesis - ______ starts to form - Recreating contents each of our _______ cells will have - Can have mitosis _______ cytokinesis
Telophase, Cytokinesis, Nucleus, daughter, without
What is a gene?
The locus (region) on a chromosome that carries the information to produce one protein
The information stored in DNA is _______ into RNA
Transcribed
How does a cell determine when and where to express a gene? - ________ control - Know that ________ occurs at transcription block
Transcription, regulation
How is bacterial gene expression regulated? 1. ________ control 2. ________ control 3. ______-_______ control
Transcriptional, Translational, Post, translational
The RNA information is ________ into proteins at the Ribosome
Translated
DNA and RNA Review - OH group on the #2 carbon - _______ nucleotide is the compliment of ___ in RNA (no Thymine) - Single stranded - ______ - Double stranded - ______
Uracil, A, RNA, DNA
tRNA transfer RNA - acts as _______ to _______ mRNA Nucleotides to _____ sequences at ribosome
adaptor, translate, AA
Mendel's theories are dependent on the idea that not every ______ in an individual is expressed ________
allele, equally
An organism can have an ________ but not have it expressed as a ______
allele, trait
Different versions of a gene located at the same spot on different homologous chromosomes are called '_______'
alleles
2. The Law of Independent Assortment: _________ responsible for different traits are distributed to _________ (and thus the offspring) _________ of each other - Concerns how different genes _______ relative to each other
alleles, gametes, independently, assort
1. The Law of Segregation: during the formation of gametes, _________ responsible for a trait __________ one to each gamete; this allows for __________ during __________ - Concerns how ____ alleles _______ into the next generation
alleles, separate, recombination, fertilization, 2, sort
We now know that many genes have different _______/________ that can be present in a given cell
alleles, versions
Meiosis - Process of _______ _____ which produces haploid ______ (contains half number of chromosomes of the organism - Each _______ in a diploid organism has a ______ other half - part of a homologous pair of chromosomes - When the cell undergoes ______ one member of each _______ is moved to each _____
cell division, gametes, chromosome, homologous, meiosis, pair, cell
Meiosis is the process of ______ ________ that occurs to make _______ (cells for sexual reproduction) - The chromosomes in a _______ cell are divided into pairs of homologous chromosomes - One of each individual homologous chromosomes is distributed to ______ _______ during meiosis
cell division, gametes, somatic, each gamete
Each ___________ contains hundreds of thousands - millions of nucleotide bases of DNA
chromosome
Each __________ contains hundreds of thousand - millions of ________ _______ ____ _______
chromosome, nucleotide bases of DNA
A processed mRNA ready for translation in Eukaryotes - 5' Cap - Protects from _______/_______ for ribosome - 5' untranslated region - 3' untranslated region - Poly(A) tail - Protects from ________/_______ to cytoplasm
degradation, recognition, degradation, transport
The _______ between 1 type of cell and another is primarily due to what genes are ________ (which, when, and how much)
difference, expressed
Life Cycles - Zygote - _______ cell that has components of both _____ - Fertilization and meiosis alternate in ______ ______ _____ - Meiosis _______ chromosomes number from ______ to ______ - Gametes - ______ and eggs
diploid, parents, sexual life cycles, reduced, diploid, haploid, sperm
Traits are passed onto the next generation as ______ units - (genes) that do not ______ together
discrete, blend
Cytokinesis = ______ _____ _____
division of cytoplasm
Mitosis = _______ ___ _______
division of nucleus
Even though present, genes are not always _________ as a trait, Some genes remain ________ or _________ in some cases
expressed, recessive, unexpressed
Translation - The final product of _____ _______ is a Protein (polypeptide chain of amino acids) whose sequence was prescribed by the ______ ______
gene expression, genetic code
A trait is produced by the "expression" of a ______ or a number of _______
gene, genes
A trait is produced by the expression of a ______ or set of ______
gene, genes,
If traits blend in each ________ then every trait would be a _______ of the parents' __________
generation, mixture, phenotype
Each chromosome is made of a series of ________
genes
There are many ______ one after the other on a single strand of DNA
genes
Each chromosome contains thousands of ______ - areas of the DNA strand that contain the ________ to make ______ protein
genes, information, 1
How is gene expression regulated? - Primarily transcription initiation - It seems that _______ are either on or off and the difference between 1 gene to the next is it frequently it is turned back '____' - Cells often make many ______ transcripts at the same time from a single gene.... the more mRNA _______ the higher the level of expression for a gene - Which genes (and, thus, RNA instructions) are made can ______ quickly
genes, on, RNA, copies, change
Each chromosome contains thousands of _________ - areas of the DNA strand that contain the information to make one ________
genes, protein
Meiosis I - Crossing Over - Allows ______ on the same strand of DNA to be ________ - When homologous chromosomes are _______ ______ in metaphase I, regions of one chromosome often ______ with the similar region on the homologous chromosome - a process called _____ _______
genes, separated, lined up, swap, crossing over
Sexual Reproduction: - Offspring _______ _______ - ______ evolutionary changes
genetic remixes, Fast
And also has a ________ - a genetic combination that may be observable or not
genotype
Bb is called __________ - 1 copy of the dominant allele and 1 copy of the recessive allele
heterozygous
Each member of a pair of _______ _________ contain one 'version' of each gene
homologous chromosomes
The pattern of chromosome transmission creates the rules of inheritance/genetics - Each member of a pair of _______ ________ contains 1 'version' of each gene - Different versions of a gene located at the same ________ (place), on different homologous chromosomes called '______' - Possible Alleles composition of _______
homologous chromosomes, locus, alleles, gametes
BB and bb are __________ - each individual has 2 copy of the same allele
homozygous
3. The Law of Dominance: In a cross between contrasting _______ ________, only one form of the trait will appear in the F1 generation - this trait is the ______ _______ -Concerns how different ________ get __________ (or not)
homozygous individuals, dominant trait, genes, expressed
A heterozygous individual can also be called a _______ or ________ for that other trait
hybrid, carrier
The principle of ________ _________ states that genes are distributed to the next generation _________ of each other
independent assortment, independently
Ploidy - The haploid number n _______ the number of ______ ______ of chromosomes present - A cell's ______ (n, 2n, 3n) indicates the ______ of each type chromosome present
indicates, distinct types, ploidy, number
Cytokinesis - Cytokinesis does not have to be _______ to mitosis - In ________: - Cell plate formed from ________ _______ - In Animals: - _________ _______ formed by cytoskeletal _______ between cells
linked, plants, internal vesicles, Cleavage furrow, constriction
Transport out the nucleus - ________ must be transported out of the nucleus through nuclear pores - This acts as a final check that the ______ is properly formed - Then in the _______ the cell can _______ the mRNA to protein
mRNA, mRNA, Cytoplasm, translate
Error in genotype leads to __________ of what the proteins supposed to be
misexpression
Nondisjunction - When ______ occur in sorting chromosomes during ________, cells with _______ or _______ chromosomes can be produced
mistakes, meiosis, extra, missing,
The Ribosome - A _______ ________ made of RNA and proteins - It synthesizes _______
molecular machine, proteins
Neurospora crassa makes Arginine (an amino acid) through a three step metabolic pathway - Can then add different compounds in the pathway to rescue the ________ - Defects in enzyme 1 can be rescued by __________ with any of the compounds. - Defects in enzyme_____ can be rescued by Citruline and Arginine but not Ornithine supplementation - All the single ______ _______ they found were blocked in only one of the enzymatic steps. - Each gene only affected _____ enzyme/protein - Therefore: A gene encodes the information to produce ______ ______
mutants, supplementation, 2, gene mutants, 1, 1 protein
A ________ is a heritable change in the DNA
mutation
Genes that are located ______ each other and so therefore do not sort _________ are said to be _______
near, independently, linked
Some genes can behave in a _______-_________ way when they are located near to ______ ______ on the same chromosome
non-mendelian, each other
Membrane Proteins - mRNA leaving the _______ can be targeted to the ____ to make membrane proteins or ________ proteins
nucleus, ER, secreted
Transcription - Just like DNA replication: 1. DNA needs to _____ (called a transcription bubble) 2. Pattern read by _______ ______ to DNA bases 3. Build polymer of ________
open, hydrogen bonding, nucleotides
We say that an organism has a _________ - a observable trait
phenotype
Circular mRNA - In the cell, proteins attach to the ____ ___ _____ and to the ____ ____ creating a circle of the mRNA - This makes translation more efficient since the ________ begins and ends in a similar area
poly A tail, 5' cap, ribosome
Some traits do not behave as _______ by the sorting of a single or even 2 or 3 genes - These traits are termed _________ traits and are ________ on many sets of _______ to produce their trait
predicted, quantitative, dependent, genes
Interphase = _____ _____ ______
preparing to divide
Transcription Initiation - Initiation - sigma factors bind the ______ and allow an _______ ______ ______ to form which inserts the DNA into the RNA polymerase
promoter, initiation protein complex
Bacterial transcription - TATA box - Bacterial _______ contain ___ DNA sequences that are recognized by _______ factor located upstream of the ______ _______ site
promoters, 2, sigma, transcript initiation
RNA has levels of structure similar to those in ________
proteins
mRNA messenger RNA - sequence that directly codes for _______
proteins
Secreted proteins - Secretory system: _______ travel through the ______ to the ______ to a secretion _____ (Exocytosis)
proteins, ER, Golgi, vesicle
Translation Initiation - Translation occurs in _______ - Ribosome Binding Site interacts, ________ to _________, with a sequence in the ribosomal RNA - The full ribosome (remember, otherwise it's in two+ main parts) forms of _______
ribosome, nucleotide, nucleotide, translation
Steps in Translation 1. Initiation - the 2 subunits of the _______ come together and the start codon on the mRNA in the ribosome is aligned to set the ______ _______ (= the arrangement of codons) 2. Elongation -________ tRNAs attach and ________ bonds form between the amino acids 3. Termination - A ______ ______ in the mRNA causes the ribosome to stop and detach from the ______ and new proteins
ribosome, reading frame, Charged, peptide, stop codon, mRNA
Gene expression in Bacteria - When many ________ are attached to mRNA it is called a _______
ribosomes, polysome
Bacterial Transcription - In Bacteria the ________ are present as the RNA is _______ - so ________ can begin before ________ is finished
ribosomes, synthesized, translation, transcription
mRNA, rRNA, tRNA - in _______ and _______
ribosomes, translation
rRNA ribosomal RNA - acts as _______ to synthesize ________ from mRNA templates (produced in nucleolus of nucleus)
ribozyme, proteins
The Pattern of Chromosome transmission predicts all the _______ of ________/________
rules, inheritance, genetics
What Mendel Found: - Sometimes traits could be _______ for a generation and then ______ - So genes had to be passed as _______ units that could be _______ to other genes at times
silent, recur, discrete, recessive
Sometimes traits could be _______ for a generation and then ______ - So this told Mendel that alleles have to be ________ as _______ units that could be '________' to other alleles at times
silent, recur, passed, discrete, recessive
Transcription - process - Much _______ 'transcription bubble' than replication bubble - New nucleotides added on ____ end of growing transcript - Coding strand has the same _______ _______ as the RNA produced (with 'U's instead of 'T's)
smaller, 3', base sequence
Recombination - Not only does the version of each chromosome _____ to different _______ ______ - BUT, when the chromosomes are _____ ______ in metaphase I, regions of 1 chromosome often ______ with the similar region on the ________ ______ - a process called ______ _______ - Each cross over... - Crossing over usually occurs at least ______ in each ______-_____ ________; ___ of 4 chromatids are shown _______ ______
sort, daughter cell, lined up, swap, homologous chromosome, crossing over, once, non-sister chromatid, 2, crossed over
Meiosis - In humans ______ + ______ are haploid - In some plants + algae the _____ portion of the life cycle can be the _______ phase of the organisms life
sperm, eggs, haploid, dominant
Charging tRNA with an Amino Acid - An individual _______ is specific for a single amino acid. (There are at least 20 different tRNAs) - _________ is the process of covalently attaching an amino acid to the tRNA - Charging is accomplished by ________ - aminoacyl tRNA synthetases, each of which is specific for an amino acid
tRNA, Charging, enzymes
Translation adapter is an RNA molecule t-RNA (transfer RNA) - Each specific ______ is attached to its corresponding ______ ______ on one end and has an ________ to match the appropriate codon in the mRNA at the other end
tRNA, amino acid, anticodon
Translation - Elongation - Three sites for ______ in a ribosome - A = ________ - P = ______ Bond - E = ______
tRNAs ,Accepter, Peptide, exit
The ________ (features or morphologies) of organisms are determined primarily by the ________ that they contain - A trait is produced by the "_______" of a gene or a number of genes
traits, DNA, expression
Hereditary - Patterns of how _______ are passed on to the ______ ________
traits, next generation
RNA Polymerase ________ the information in the DNA into a new strand of _____ - New nucleotides on the ____ end
transcribes, RNA, 3'
Membrane and Secreted Proteins - ER is _______ proteins and shipping out to ______ membrane
translating, plasma
Evolution of the Genetic Code - The genetic code is nearly _______, shared by the simplest bacteria to the most complex animals - _______ can be transcribed and translated after being transplanted from 1 species to another
universal, Genes
The genetic code is said to have '______' meaning - often the third nucleotide can vary for a given _______ so the base pairing there is least important
wobble, tRNA
DNA is '_____ _____' by histone proteins into Chromatin - Only when unwound can the ______ ________ in the DNA can be accessed
wound up, genetic information
