BIO 112 - Chapter 6 - Review, Biology Chapter 7, Biology Chapter 20: Unifying Concepts of Animal Structure and Function

What is the organelle of photosynthesis?

Chloroplast

___________ generates fewer molecules of ATP because it contributes its electrons further along the electron transport chain?

FADH₂

The light-independent reactions always require light directly

False

The products from the light reaction are used in the dark reaction.

False

Shorter wavelengths of light have less energy while longer wavelengths of light have more energy.

False, a higher energy light will have a shorter wave length.

True or false: The transfer of H atoms from glucose to oxygen does not represent redox reactions. If false, make it a correct statement.

False, it does represent redox reactions, as oxygen gas is reduced.

True or false: Blood traveling from your leg muscles to the lungs would be high in oxygen. If false, make it a correct statement.

False, it would be low in oxygen.

True or false: A substance that makes the inner mitochondrial membrane leaky to H1 (H1 would be able to leak across the membrane at points other than ATP synthase) increases ATP production in mitochondria. If false, make it a correct statement.

False, it would decrease ATP production as ATP synthase efficiency would be reduced.

What type of pigments are found in chloroplasts, and where in the chloroplast would one expect to find these pigments?

Find these pigments in the thykaloid membrane. Chlorophyll A, Chlorophyll B, and Carotenoids: absorbs violet and blue-green and reflects yellow and orange.

How can photosynthesis moderate global warming?

Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The trees and plants release the oxygen and store the carbon. Any reduction of carbon dioxide, a powerful greenhouse gas, in the atmosphere can moderate global warming.

What is the function of the ozone layer?

Protection against UV radiation

CO₂ is a gaseous by-product of cellular respiration that you exhale with each breath. Briefly explain where the CO₂ comes from?

The CO₂ comes from the organic molecules (food) that you consume and is a by-product of cellular respiration.

reproductive system

The body organ system responsible for reproduction.

mesophyll

-where chloroplasts are concentrated -green tissue in the interior of the lead

epithelial tissue

A sheet of tightly packed cells lining organs, body cavities, and external surfaces; also called epithelium.

How is ATP produced in cells; what is the difference between the energy-producing process in animal cells and plant cells? How much ATP is produced?

Answer 1: How living things produce usable energy is important not only from the perspective of understanding life, but it could also help us to design more efficient energy harvesting and producing products - if we could "mimic" how living cells deal with their energy balance, we might be able to vastly improve our technology. For example, a plant is a much better harvester of sunlight than even our best solar panel. And of course, if we understand energy use, it can also help us deal with human diseases such as diabetes. Now, the answer to your question can be found in any basic biology text book, but sometimes, there is so much information packed into such a text book that it can be difficult to extract the information you need or more often, to view all of that information in a larger context. Let's try to tackle your question in several parts. First, we need to know what ATP really is - chemically, it is known as adenosine triphosphate. ATP is a usable form of energy for cells - the energy is "trapped" in a chemical bond that can be released and used to drive other reactions that require energy (endergonic reactions). Photosynthetic organisms use energy from sunlight to synthesize their own fuels. They can convert harvested sunlight into chemical energy (including ATP) to then drive the synthesis of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. When they synthesize the carbohydrates, oxygen gets released. Globally, more than 10 billion tons of carbon is "fixed" by plants every year - this means that carbon molecules are converted from being part of a simple gas (carbon dioxide) into more complex, reduced molecules (carbohydrates), making carbon available as food for non-photosynthesizers (and of course, providing oxygen). They use some of the carbohydrate for their own growth and reproduction. It is pretty remarkable when you think about it - have you been to Sequoia National Park or seen the redwoods along our northwest coast? Massive trees, right? Think about the fact that most of that mass is in the form of carbon that was pulled out of the air as carbon dioxide! The process of photosynthesis is two-part. First, there are the light reactions, where light is converted into chemical energy (a reduced electron carrier and ATP). This occurs in the thylakoids (stacked membranes) of the chloroplasts. The ATP and electron carriers are then used in a second set of reactions, called the light-independent reactions. This also occurs in the chloroplasts, but in an area called the stroma. In this case, carbon dioxide gets used to produce sugars in a series of reactions called the Calvin Cycle, C4 photosynthesis, and crassulacean acid metabolism. You can look in any basic bio textbook to see how much "energy" or "sugar" is produced in each step of the process. In non-photosynthesizers, the fuel has to be consumed. The most common chemical fuel is the sugar glucose (C6H12O6)... Other molecules, such as fats or proteins, can also supply energy, but (usually) they have to first be converted to glucose or some intermediate that can be used in glucose metabolism. Now this brings us to the next part - how do we go from glucose to ATP? This is achieved through the process of "oxidation" - and this is carried out through a series of metabolic pathways. Complex chemical transformations in the cell occur in a series of separate reactions to form each pathway, and each reaction is catalyzed by a specific enzyme. Interestingly, metabolic pathways are similar in all organisms, from bacteria to humans. In eukaryotes (plants and animals) many of the metabolic pathways are compartmentalized, with certain reactions occurring in specific organelles. Basically, cells trap free energy released from the breakdown (metabolism) of glucose. This energy gets trapped in the ATP as it converts from ADP to ATP by the addition of phosphate. There are 3 main pathways for harvesting energy from glucose: Glycolysis - begins glucose metabolism in all cells to produce 2 molecules of pyruvate. Occurs outside of mitochondria, usually in cytoplasm. Cellular Respiration - uses oxygen from the environment and converts each pyruvate to three molecules of carbon dioxide while trapping the energy released in this process in ATP. There are 3 sub-pathways of cellular respiration - pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid (Krebs or Tricarboxylic Acid) cycle and the electron transport chain. Occurs in different sub-compartments of mitochondria. Fermentation - converts pyruvate into lactic acid or ethanol; does not need oxygen. It is not as efficient as cellular respiration; it occurs in the cytoplasm. In terms of how much ATP is produced, you can look in your basic texts and assess how many ATPs are used versus how many are produced for each aspect of metabolism Answer 2: ATP is created through a complex enzyme-driven process. There are a couple of ways this works in cells: -glycolysis, in which glucose is broken up into two subunits, called pyruvate, which creates two units of ATP per molecule of glucose. This happens in the cytoplasm, in both animal and plant cells. -respiration, in which pyruvate is combined with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water, which creates a lot of ATP per unit of pyruvate (16 I think). Obviously, glycolysis has to happen first, in order to make the pyruvate. This happens in the mitochondrion, which likewise exists in both animals and plants. -light-dependent photosynthesis, in which electrons are cycled around photosynthetic pigments after being jostled around by mid-high-energy photons (light particles), which filter through an electron pump that makes ATP. This happens in chloroplasts, and as such only occurs in plants. Note: there is one more major (eukaryotic) ATP-generating reaction, called "fermentation", which takes pyruvate and turns it into carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol. Neither animals nor plants can do this, but fungi can do it. There is also light-independent photosynthesis, which USES ATP and creates glucose from carbon dioxide and water, producing oxygen as a waste product. This is really an energy storage mechanism, so that the organism doing it can later burn the glucose through glycolysis and respiration. This also happens in chloroplasts, so plants can, and animals can't.

What initial observation led scientists to hypothesize that brown fat may be activated by cold temperatures?

Brown fat tissue was found at higher levels when the scans were taken during cold weather.

Thylakoids space

segregates the stroma from another compartment

nervous tissue

Tissue made up of neurons and supportive cells.

Burning of fossil fuels has increased the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere

True

In photosynthesis, electrons are boosted up an energy hill when pigment molecules absorb light energy

True

Light is a form of electromagnetic light.

True

Photosynthesis is a redox process

True

Photosynthesis is the ultimate source of the food we eat and the oxygen we breathe

True

Plants store excess sugar as starch in roots tubers and fruits

True

Visible light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum and drives the light reactions of photosynthesis.

True, especially the red and blue parts

The driving force behind oxidative phosphorylation is ____________? a. oxygen b. carbon dioxide c. NADH d. H₂O

a. Oxygen

The formation of NaCl (table salt) involves an atom of Na giving an electron to an atom of Cl. a. This would be considered a redox reaction. b. Na got oxidized. c. Cl got reduced. d. All of the above are true statements regarding the formation of NaCl.

d. All of the above are true statements regarding the formation of NaCl.

In a leaf where are most of the choloroplasts located?

In the mesophyll which is the green tissue in the interior of the leaf.

Fats are hydrophobic and carbohydrates are hydrophilic. Use this information to explain why humans store the majority of their excess energy as fat and not carbohydrates.

Because fats will not require water for storage.

Fermentation is essentially glycolysis because glycolysis does not require _________________ to function?

Fermentation is essentially glycolysis because glycolysis does not require oxygen to function.

If you opened a wine vat, would the yeast inside continue to perform alcoholic fermentation? Briefly explain your answer with some details about what would happen.

No, because they would be exposed to atmospheric oxygen and they would preferentially per- form aerobic respiration.

skeletal muscle (striated muscle)

Striated muscle attached to the skeleton. The contraction of striated muscles produces voluntary movements of the body.

cardiac muscle

Striated muscle that forms the contractile tissue of the heart.

The overall chemical equation for cellular respiration is: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ →→→→ 6CO₂ + 6H₂O Briefly explain why the equation has multiple arrows.

The arrows represent the fact that cellular respiration consists of multiple chemical reactions. * Cellular respiration is the chemical reaction in which glucose and oxygen are turned into water, carbon dioxide, and energy (ATP). In this reaction, glucose and oxygen are reactants, while water, carbon dioxide, and energy (ATP) are products.

The leaves are the major site of photosynthesis

True

True or false: Brown fat contains mitochondria. If false, make it a correct statement.

True

True or false: Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle both function as metabolic interchanges where the products of their chemical reactions can also be used for biosynthesis. If false, make it a correct statement.

True

The only portion of cellular respiration that is cyclic is ____________. a. glycolysis b. the electron transport chain c. the citric acid cycle d. the oxidation of pyruvate

c. the citric acid cycle

A buildup of ____________ initiates the inhibition of an enzyme that functions early in glycolysis. a. ADP b. ATP c. glycerol d. amino acids

b. ATP Lactic Acid

grana

Thylakoids are concentrated in stacks

What is Carbon fixation, and in which stage does it occur?

-Carbon fixation refers to any process through which gaseous carbon dioxide is converted into a solid compound. -Occurs in Calvin cycle

What is NADP+ and what role does it play in photosynthesis. The reduced form of NADP+ is ___________________.

-NADP+ - (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is a coenzyme found in all living cells. -NADP+ is reduced to NADPH

Example of autotrophs

-Photoautotrophs: autotrophs that use the energy of light to produce organic molecules -chemoautotrophs: are prokaryotes that use inorganic chemicals as their energy source -heterotrophs: are consumers that feed on plants, animals and decompose organic material

What does the plant use G3P for?

-The plant uses G3P to make glucose and other organic molecules as needed. -sugar molecules made from G2P serves as food supply for plants

What are the two metabolic stages in photosynthesis and where do they occur?

-The light reactions: convert light energy to chemical energy and release dioxide -The Calvin cycle: series of reactions that builds sugar molecules from CO2 and the products of the light reactions.

autotroph

-make their own food through the process of photosynthesis -sustain themselves -do not consume organic molecules derived from other organisms -are called producers because they produce food for the biosphere

Thylakoids

-system of interconnected membranous sacs

stroma

-an envelope of two membranes encloses the stroma, the dense fluid within the chloroplast

Chlorophyll

-an important light absorbing pigment which is responsible for the green color of plants -converting solar energy to chemical energy

photoautotroph

-are autotrophs that use the energy of light to produce organic molecules -most plants, algae and other protists, and some prokaryotes are photoautotrophs

stomata

-tiny pores in the leaf that allow carbon dioxide to enter and oxygen to exit -vein in the lead deliver water absorbed by roots

negative feedback

A common control mechanism in which a chemical reaction, metabolic pathway, or hormone-secreting gland is inhibited by the products of the reaction, pathway, or gland. As the concentration of the products builds up, the product molecules themselves inhibit the process that produced them.

fibrous connective tissue

A dense tissue with large numbers of collagenous fibers organized into parallel bundles. This is the dominant tissue in tendons and ligaments.

cartilage

A flexible connective tissue consisting of living cells and collagenous fibers embedded in a rubbery matrix.

organ system

A group of organs that work together in performing vital body functions.

neuron

A nerve cell; the fundamental structural and functional unit of the nervous system, specialized for carrying signals from one location in the body to another.

organ

A structure consisting of several tissues adapted as a group to perform specific functions.

bone

A type of connective tissue consisting of living cells held in a rigid matrix of collagen fibers embedded in calcium salts.

adipose tissue

A type of connective tissue whose cells contain fat.

blood

A type of connective tissue with a fluid matrix called plasma in which blood cells are suspended.

A drug is administered to a person that causes the inner mitochondrial plasma membrane to become permeable to H+. What effect will this have on oxidative phosphorylation? Are there possible repercussions for the other stages of cellular respiration?

A weight loss drug decreases the synthesis of ATP by making the mitochondrial membrane permeable to H+, allowing H+ to leak into the intermembrane space. It prevents ATP from being made by blocking access of H+ to ATP synthase.

What does oxidation mean?

All reactions which involve electron flow are considered oxidation-reduction reactions. The basic definition can be defined as: One reactant is oxidized (loses electrons), while another is reduced (gains electrons). For instance in cellular respiration, the oxidation of glucose (C6H12O6) produces CO2.

tissue

An integrated group of cells with a common function, structure, or both.

muscular system

All the skeletal muscles in the body. (Cardiac muscle and smooth muscle are components of other organ systems.)

________________________ uses the energy found within a proton gradient to drive the syn- thesis of ATP?

ATP Synthase

immune system

An animal body's system of defenses against agents that cause disease.

interstitial fluid

An aqueous solution that surrounds body cells and through which materials pass back and forth between the blood and the body tissues.

Why do leaves appear green?

Because chlorophyll a- absorbs mainly blue-violet and red light. it reflects mainly green light. Chlorophyll b absorbs blue and orange light and reflects yellow-green

____________is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.

Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.

What are CFCs and what is the problem associated with them?

Chlorofluorocarbons chemicals developed in the 1930s that are used in aerosol sprays. They created a hole in the ozone over Antarctica that is not expected to be "fixed" until 2060

Sugars also serve as the starting material for other organic compounds such as cellulose.

True

___________________ is always lost during photosynthesis and cellular respiration?

Energy

List two sources of evidence that indicate glycolysis is extremely old?

Glycolysis is universal, and it does not occur within a membrane-bound organelle.

What are some consequences of global warming?

Increase in the average temperature and the melting of the polar ice caps, rising sea levels, extreme weather patterns, droughts, and increased extinction rates.

How is ozone formed?

It is formed from Nitrogen oxides and Volatile organic compounds

You are taking a road trip from Chicago to Denver. The trip is going to take roughly 15 hours. At the start of your trip, you get a 96-oz Mega Gulp from 11-seven of Mountain Mist. This beverage will have roughly 1,360 kcal. How long into your trip will you have burned the calories from this drink? Refer to Figure 6.4 in your textbook on page 91.

It would actually take longer than your trip, a bit over 22 hours.

Briefly explain why a teeter-totter is a good analogy for describing how reductions and oxidations always go together?

It's a good analogy because, for every reduction, there is an oxidation, and vice versa. This is similar to a teeter-totter: When one side goes up, the other has to go down.

smooth muscle

Muscle made up of cells without striations, found in the walls of organs such as the digestive tract, urinary bladder, and arteries.

Match the following stages of cellular respiration with the correct characteristics. Some stages may have more than one characteristic or share characteristics. For glycolysis, put A; for citric acid cycle, put B; and for oxidative phosphorylation, put C. Occurs in the cytosol: ____________ Occurs in the mitochondria: ____________ Involves the splitting of glucose: ____________ Produces molecules of NADH: ____________ Produces ATP: ____________ Produces CO2: ____________ FADH2 shuttles electrons to the electron transport chain: ____________ Occurs in a plant cell: ____________ Occurs in an animal cell: ____________ Uses the potential energy of a H gradient: ____________ Produces molecules of FADH2: ____________ Substrate-level phosphorylation occurs: ____________

Occurs in the cytosol: A - glycolysis Occurs in the mitochondria: B & C - citric acid cycle & oxidative phosphorylation Involves the splitting of glucose: A - glycolysis Produces molecules of NADH: A - glycolysis and B - citric acid cycle Produces ATP: A, B, & C - glycolysis, citric acid cycle & oxidative phosphorylation Produces CO2: B - oxidative phosphorylation FADH2 shuttles electrons to the electron transport chain: C - oxidative phosphorylation Occurs in a plant cell: A, B, & C - glycolysis, citric acid cycle & oxidative phosphorylation Occurs in an animal cell: A, B, & C - glycolysis, citric acid cycle & oxidative phosphorylation Uses the potential energy of a H gradient: C - oxidative phosphorylation Produces molecules of FADH2: B - citric acid cycle Substrate-level phosphorylation occurs: A - glycolysis and B - citric acid cycle

Oxidation-reduction?

Oxidation-reduction in cellular respiration differs from photosynthesis in the direction of the electron transfer. In respiration, electrons are transferred from glucose molecules to oxygen. Therefore, glucose is oxidized, while oxygen is reduced in cellular respiration. However, in photosynthesis, electrons travel from water to CO2. In cellular respiration electrons travel from organic molecules to oxygen, while in photosynthesis electrons travel from oxygen in water to a carbon-based molecule.

Why are carotenoids associated with photoprotection?

Photo protection: absorb excessive light that would damage chlorophyll or interact with oxygen to form molecules that could damage cell molecules.

What are the products from the light reaction and the Calvin cycle?

Products of the light reactions: O2, ATP, and NADPH (DO NOT PRODUCE SUGAR) Products from the Calvin Cycle: 2 G3P, 3 ADP, and 2 NADP+

Redox Reactions?

Redox Reactions are an important process for cellular respiration and photosynthesis. These reactions are also known as oxidation-reduction. In a redox reaction one reactant transfers partially or completely one or more electrons to another. The electron-losing reactant is known as the reducing agent and is considered oxidized in the reaction. The substance gaining electrons is referred to as the oxidizing agent and is considered reduced.

How do CO2 and water necessary for photosynthesis enter the plant?

Roots and the stomata

Explain the greenhouse effect.

Solar radiation penetrates the Earth's atmosphere and warms the planet's surface. Heat radiating from the warmed planet is absorbed by gases in the atmosphere, which then reflects some of the heat back to Earth.

loose connective tissue

The most widespread connective tissue in the vertebrate body. It binds epithelia to underlying tissues and functions as packing material, holding organs in place.

endocrine system

The organ system consisting of ductless glands that secrete hormones and the molecular receptors on or in target cells that respond to the hormones; cooperates with the nervous system in regulating body functions and maintaining homeostasis.

integumentary system

The organ system consisting of the skin and its derivatives, such as hair and nails in mammals; helps protect the body from drying out, mechanical injury, and infection.

digestive system

The organ system involved in ingestion and digestion of food, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of wastes.

nervous system

The organ system that forms a communication and coordination network between all parts of an animal's body.

urinary system

The organ system that forms and excretes urine while regulating the amount of water and ions in the body fluids.

respiratory system

The organ system that functions in exchanging gases with the environment. It supplies the blood with O2 and disposes of CO2.

skeletal system

The organ system that provides body support and protects body organs such as the brain, heart, and lungs.

circulatory system

The organ system that transports materials such as nutrients, O2, and hormones to body cells and transports CO2 and other wastes from body cells.

homeostasis

The steady state of body functioning; a state of equilibrium characterized by a dynamic interplay between outside forces that tend to change an organism's internal environment and the internal control mechanisms that oppose such changes.

physiology

The study of the functions of an organism's structures.

anatomy

The study of the structure of an organism.

lymphatic system

The vertebrate organ system through which lymph circulates; includes lymph vessels, lymph nodes, and the spleen. The lymphatic system helps remove toxins and pathogens from the blood and interstitial fluid and returns fluid and solutes from the interstitial fluid to the circulatory system.

How are photosynthesis and cellular respiration linked on a molecular level?

They are linked in that the products of one are the reactants of the other. How are photosynthesis and cellular respiration related to each other? Cellular respiration and photosynthesis act as parallel processes. They are both similar in that both are designed to harvest energy through synthesis of ATP. However, the direction of electron movement is opposite in the electron transfer chain. Additionally, cellular respiration uses food to harvest energy, while photosynthesis uses light energy.

What must proteins be broken down into before they can be burned as energy? Refer to Figure 6.15 on page 102 in your textbook.

They must be broken down into amino acids. Proteins in food are broken down into pieces (called amino acids) that are then used to build new proteins with specific functions, such as catalyzing chemical reactions, facilitating communication between different cells, or transporting biological molecules from here to there. When there is a shortage of fats or carbohydrates, proteins can also yield energy.

Strenuous exercise uses up all ATP stores and causes a build-up of lactic acid.

This is a toxic (poisonous) substance which causes the muscles to stop working. Lactic acid can only be removed in the presence of oxygen and upon completion of hard strenuous exercise it is essential that the oxygen debt is repaid. Large amounts of oxygen are needed for this oxygen recovery. This is why we pant after hard exercise. In this way ATP stores are replenished and lactic acid removed from the muscular system.

Students frequently have the misconception that plant cells don't perform cellular respiration. Briefly explain the basis of this misconception?

This misconception arises because plant cells perform photosynthesis, which creates the as- sumption that plant cells do not perform cellular respiration.

connective tissue

Tissue consisting of a sparse population of cells held in an abundant extracellular matrix, which they produce.

muscle tissue

Tissue consisting of long muscle cells that are capable of contracting when stimulated by nerve impulses; the most abundant tissue in a typical animal.

UV radiation can cause skin cancer. Defend this statement.

UV radiation can cause skin cancer because short wavelengths can damage organic molecule

In photosynthesis _____ is oxidized and _________ is reduced.

Water, carbon dioxide

Plants release what gaseous by-product as a result of photosynthesis? a. O₂ b. CO₂ c. H₂O d. Solar energy

a. O₂

In lactic acid fermentation, __________ becomes the target of reduction by NADH? a. pyruvate b. lactate c. glucose d. ATP

a. pyruvate

Which of the following is the correct order of the main stages of cellular respiration? a. Citric acid cycle, glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation b. Glycolysis, citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation c. Citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, glycolysis d. Oxidative phosphorylation, glycolysis, citric acid cycle

b. Glycolysis, citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation *Cellular respiration uses energy in glucose to make ATP. Aerobic ("oxygen-using") respiration occurs in three stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and electron transport. In glycolysis, glucose is split into two molecules of pyruvate.

Any substance that inhibits the transportation of oxygen from the lungs affects _____________? a. photosynthesis b. cellular respiration c. chloroplasts d. none of the above

b. cellular respiration

What causes global warming?

increased concentration of greenhouse gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane)

producer

is an autotroph

Define wavelegnth

the distance between the crests of two adjacent waves. This influences where the wave falls on the visible light spectrum.