BIO 242 Lecture Exam 2

19. List functions of the lymphatic system. *****

1. Fluid Recovery -fluid continually filters from blood capillaries into the tissue spaces 2. Immunity - excess filtered fluid picks up foreign cells and chemicals 3. Lipid absorption -lacteals in small intestine absorb dietary lipids that are not absorbed by the blood capillaries

14. Describe the pathway of lymph flow.

1. Lymphatic capillary 2. Afferent lymphatic vessel 3. Lymph node 4. Efferent lymphatic vessel 5. Lymphatic trunk 6. Collecting duct 7. Subclavian vein

9. Name and describe the first process of inflammation. *****

1. Mobilization of defenses -leukocytes to the cite of tissue injury -local hyperemia; increased blood flow causes vasodilation and washes toxins and waste from site selectins (cell adhesion molecules) recruit leukocytes snagging them to their sticky membranes. Leukocytes adhere to the vessel wall( margination), Leukocytes crawl through gaps in endothelial cells and enter tissue fluid 3. Tissue cleanup and repair

18. Name and describe the four types of immunity.

1. Natural Active Immunity- you get antigen and body reacts by fighting it off 2. Artificial Active Immunity- given a shot. Receiving weakened pathogens 3. Natural Passive Immunity- given someone else's pathogens 4. Artificial Passive immunity- given antibodies from another source

21. Name and describe 4 properties/goals of immunity.

1. Specificity- T cells and B cells bind only one antigen 2. Versatility- Millions of lymphocytes, each sensitive to a different antigen 3. Immunologic memory- Memory cells remember antigens for future attacks 4. Tolerance- Ignoring normal "self" tissues

24. List steps in the formation of antibodies.

1. T helper cells are activated then stimulate a specific B cell 2. Cell divides and makes clones 3. Matures into a plasma cell 4. Plasma cell produces proteins that can attach to antigens making antibodies. 5. Antibodies released into blood stream marking cells for destruction

Name and describe the second process of inflammation*****

2. Containment and Destruction of Pathogens -prevents pathogens from spreading throughout body -fibrinogen filter fluid clots by forming sticky mesh that walls off microbes -heparin prevents clotting at site of injury -neutrophils accumulate at the site within an hour then undergo chemotaxis -neutrophils secrete cytokines for recruitment of macrophages and additional macrophages which secrete colony stimulating factor along with T cells to stimulate leucopoiesis.

Name and describe the third process of inflammation*****

3. Tissue Cleanup and repair Cleanup:- monocytes arrive in 8-12 hours and become macrophages engulfing and destroying dead and dying cells and bacteria - edema aids in compressing the veins wchich reduces venous drainage, opens valves of lymphatic capillaries increasing lymphatic drainage. These lymphatics collect and remove bacteria and debris better than the blood capillaries -pus is the accumulation of dead neutrophils bacteria and cellular debris and tissue fluid Repair: platelet-derived growth factoer secreted by blood platelets and endothelial cells in injured area stimulating fibroblasts to multiply and synethesization of collagen. -hyperemia delivers oxygen, amino acids, and other necessities for protein synthesis -increased heat increases metabolic rate, speeds mitosis, and tissue repair -fibrin clot forms a scaffold for tissue reconstruction -pain limits our use of body part that needs to heal.

14. . What are the approximate percentages of gases in the air?

78.6 % nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.04% carbon dioxide, 0 - 4% water vapor depending on temperature and humidity minor gases argon, neon, helium, methane and ozone

27. Describe the influence of temperature, pH, and oxygen concentration on hemoglobin saturation.

A higher pH means that hemoglobin has a higher concentration. A higher temperature, Hb has a decreased affinity for tissues. Higher oxygen concentration means a higher Hb saturation.

15. Distinguish between afferent and efferent lymphatic vessels.

Afferent- how lymph gets into the node. 4 on opposite side of hilum Efferent- passage for clean lymph to exit node 1.

7. What process drives gas exchange in both external and internal respiration?

Air Pressure

10. What is the force that drives inspiration?

Atmospheric pressure due to the weight of the air

10. Discuss B cell activities in the steps in antibody production. *****

B cells are activated when an antigen fits the shape of its receptor -produce clones (plasma cells) that release antibodies that mimic B cell antigen receptors - Some B cells may become memory B cells while others differentiate into plasma cells and produce and secrete large globular proteins called antibodies or immunoglobulins - B lymphocytes of humoral immunity produce antibodies that bind to foreign antigens and tag them for destruction by other means (cannon)

23. Which specific cells produce antibodies?

B cells, T helper cells

23. What are chemoreceptors? What are chemoreceptors responsible for? What are carotid bodies? What do they detect?

Chemoreceptors are: brainstem neurons that respond to changes in pH of cerebrospinal fluid. Peripheral chemoreceptors - located in the carotid and aortic bodies of the large arteries above the heart Chemoreceptors are responsible for: regulating respiration to maintain stable pH, respiratory center also ensures stable CÓ level in the blood (central) and respond\ Ó and CÓ content and the pH of blood (peripheral) Carotid bodies are a small mass of receptors in the carotid artery sensitive to chemical change in the blood. Carotid Bodies detect: Changes in blood pH, Ó and CÓ concentration

7. What are innate defenses? Give examples of innate defenses.

Come into play immediately or within hours of an antigen's appearance in the body. These mechanisms include physical barriers such as skin, chemicals in the blood, and immune system cells that attack foreign cells in the body.

1. Describe the structure and function of the spleen

Function- Your spleen's main function is to act as a filter for your blood. It recognizes and removes old, malformed, or damaged red blood cells. When blood flows into your spleen, your spleen performs "quality control"; your red blood cells must pass through a maze of narrow passages. Structure- Located under the rib cage, above the stomach in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen. contains two different tissues, white pulp (A) and red pulp (B). The white pulp functions in producing and growing immune and blood cells. The red pulp functions in filtering blood of antigens, microorganisms, and defective or worn-out red blood cells.

18. Describe the structure and function of alveoli

Function: provides surface area for gas exchange Structure: -Squamous Alveolar Cells (Type One) •thin, broad cells that allow for rapid gas diffusion between alveolus and bloodstream •cover 95% of alveolus surface area -Great Alveolar Cells (Type Two) •round to cuboidal cells that cover the remaining 5% of alveolar surface •repair the alveolar epithelium when the squamous (type I) cells are damaged •secrete pulmonary surfactant -a mixture of phospholipids and proteins that coats the alveoli and prevents them from collapsing when we exhale -Alveolar Macrophages (Dust Cells) •most numerous of all cells in the lung •wander the lumen and the connective tissue between alveoli •keep alveoli free from debris by phagocytizing dust particles •100 million dust cells perish each day as they ride up the mucociliary escalator to be swallowed and digested with their load of debris

17. Distinguish between cell mediated immunity and humoral immunity. Which cells carry out each type of immunity

Humoral- B cells recognize antigens or pathogens that are circulating in the blood. Mediated- T cells respond to any cell that displays aberrant MHC markers, including cells invaded by pathogens, tumor cells, or transplanted cells.

29.What causes infant respiratory distress syndrome?

IRDS is a syndrome in premature infants caused by developmental insufficiency of pulmonary surfactant production and structural immaturity in the lungs.

12. Why would carbon dioxide be added to air that a patient breathes?

Increase rate and depth of breathing.

22. Distinguish between innate and adaptive defenses.

Innate- The innate immune response is activated by chemical properties of the antigen, nonspecific defense mechanisms that come into play immediately or within hours of an antigen's appearance in the body. Adaptive- antigen-specific immune response. Composed of highly specialized, systemic cells and processes that eliminate pathogens or prevent their growth. "These mechanisms include physical barriers such as skin, chemicals in the blood, and immune system cells that attack foreign cells in the body."

13. What is lymph? How is it formed? What structures contain lymph? What are lacteals?

Lymph: (recovered fluid) clear colorless fluid similar to plasma, but contains much less protein. Extracellular fluid that is drawn into a lymph vessel. Formation: Filtration from plasma exceeds reabsorption leading to net formation of tissue fluid -this increases fluid hydrostatic pressure within interstitial spaces forcing fluid into lymphatic capillaries forming lymph Structures: Lymphatic capillaries, collecting vessels, 6 lymphatic trunks, 2 collecting ducts, subclavian vein Lacteals: lymph vessels of the small intestine that absorb digestive fats

20. List the sequence of steps leading to inspiration. *****

Nerve impulses travel along phrenic nerves to muscles in diaphragm, contracting them As dome shaped diaphragm drops, the thoracic cavity expands At the same time, the external intercostal muscles contract, raising the ribs, expanding the thoracic cavity further Intra-alveolar pressure decreases below atmospheric pressure Atmospheric pressure, greater on the outside, forces air into the respiratory tract through the air passages. Lungs fill with air

6. Describe the general structure and functions of the organs of the respiratory system.

Nose: warms cleanses and humidifies inhaled air Nasal cavity: % into nasal septum nasal fossa opening: lined with stratified squamous epithelium Rest: ciliated stratified columnar epithelium Sinuses: air filled spaces act as resonant chambers and decrease the weight of the skull Pharynx: nasopharynx posterior to oral cavity nasopharynx- pseudostratified bc air only Oropharynx and laryngopharynx stratified squamous because food and air pass through Larynx: keep food and drink out of airway with epiglottis muscular walls Trachea: windpipe- air trasport

9. List and describe methods of oxygen and carbon dioxide transport. Which method carries the most of each gas?

Oxygen: Transported by Hemoglobin (most) (98.5%) Dissolved in plasma (1.5%) Carbon Dioxide: Transported by -70% as bicarbonate ion (most) -23% bound to hemoglobin -7% dissolved in plasma

16.What are the effects of pH, carbon dioxide, and oxygen on the respiratory centers? Which has the greatest effect?

PH: CÓ: indirect effect through PH - CÓ at beginning of exercise may directly stimulate peripheral chemoreceptors and trigger ventilation more quickly than central chemoreceptors -Stimulates pontine respiratory group to stimulate VRG to increase rate and depth -THIS IS WHAT DRIVES RESPIRATION Ó: •PÓ usually has little effect on respiration •chronic hypoxemia, PÓ less than 60 mm Hg, can significantly stimulate ventilation -hypoxic drive - respiration driven more by low PÓ than by CÓ or pH THE MORE CÓ, THE LOWER THE PH

4. What are paranasal sinuses? What are the functions of the sinuses? What bones contain sinuses?

Paranasal Sinuses: Collect tears, drain them into the nasal cavity. Function: Resonant Chambers, Decrease the weight of the skull Sinuses that contain bones: Maxillary, Frontal, Ethmoid, and Sphenoid

5. What is the function of the phrenic nerves? Intercostal nerves?

Phrenic Nerves: Carry an impulse to the diaphragm to contract Intercostal Nerves: Supply intercostal muscles

6. List the order of events in humoral immunity

Recognize, react, remember

4. What is interferon? Describe how interferon works. What pathogens are targeted by interferon?

Secreted y certain cells infected by viruses, alerting neighboring cells protecting them from becoming infected. Bind to surface of neighboring cells. The alerted cells synthesize proteins to defend from virus breaking down viral genes. Also activates NK cells and macrophages which destroy malignant cells.

3. Describe the lining of the respiratory passageways. How does the lining change distally?

See 6

3. Distinguish between specific and nonspecific body defenses. Give examples and briefly describe each. *****

Specific: Two complementary mechanisms work to fight infection, illness, and disease -Depends on specific lymphocyte activities -produce state of protection ( immunity or specific resistance) Non specific: general defenses (present from birth and do not distinguish one type of threat from another.) -Physical barriers -phagocytes -immunological surveillance -interferons -complement -inflammatory response -fever

12. Describe the structure and function of lymph nodes. Where are the locations of lymph nodes?

Structure: elongated bean shaped structure with hilum enclosed with fibrous capsule with trabeculae that divide interior into compartments. Divided into cortex and medulla containing germinal centers where B cells multiply and differentiate into plasma cells. Several afferent lymph vessels lead into node and 1-3 efferent vessels where the lymph leaves the hilum Function: cleanse the lymph and acts as a site of T and B cell activation Location: neck, groin, axillae

19. What is surface tension? What is the role of surface tension in respiration? *****

Surface Tension: Attraction of water molecules to each other. Keeps the two pleural layers attracted to each other. The two pleural layers, their cohesive attraction to each other (surface tension), and their connections to the lungs and their lining of the rib cage bring about inspiration

8. What is surfactant? What is its function?

Surfactant: a mixture of phospholipids and proteins that coats the alveoli Function: prevents Alveoli from collapsing when we exhale

16. Describe the structure and function of the spleen. Thymus.

Thymus- houses developing lymphocytes, secreting hormones that regulate their activity. Bi-lobed organ in superior mediastinum between sternum and aortic arch. Degenerates with age. Spleen- largest lymphatic organ, located in upper left abdominal quadrant. Sinuses filled with blood. White pulp; lymphocytes, immunity Red pulp; RBC, lymphocytes, macrophages, filters blood.

24. Define and know the formulas for the following terms: tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume, inspiratory reserve volume, vital capacity, residual volume, total lung capacity. Know average volumes for each.

Tidal Volume: Volume of air moved into & out of lungs during a single, quiet respiratory cycle. Average: M/F 500mL Expiratory Reserve Volume: Volume of air forcefully exhaled past TV. Averages: Males = 1200 mL, Females = 700mL Inspiratory Reserve Volume: Volume of air moved into lungs over and above Tidal Volume (TV). Averages: Males = 3100 mL, Females = 1900 mL Vital Capacity: Maximum volume of air that can be moved into & out of lungs in a respiratory cycle. Averages: Males = 4800 mL, Females = 3100 mL Residual Volume: Amount of air remaining in lungs after a maximal exhalation. Average: Male = 1200 mL, Female = 1100 mL Total Lung Capacity: Total Volume of Lungs. VC + RV = TLC. Averages: Males = 6 L, Females = 4.2 L

2. Distinguish between organs of the upper and lower respiratory organs.

Upper Respiratory Tract: Nose through Pharynx, Sinuses Lower Respiratory Tract (organs of the neck and thorax) Larynx through lungs

17. Define the following terms related to respiration: ventilation, external respiration, internal respiration, cellular respiration.

Ventilation: flow of air in and out of lung depends on a pressure difference between air pressure within lungs and outside body External Respiration: alveoli/lung capillaries Internal respiration - capillaries/cells Cellular respiration - using oxygen to release energy from food.

20. What specific cells form antibodies?

antibody monomer composed of 4 polypeptide chains, 2 large heavy chains, 2 light chains and a variable region in all 4 chains

11. Which cells directly attack target cells?

cytotoxic T cells

22. Describe what is happening during internal and external respiration. (Be more detailed than a simple definition) *****

internal respiration refers to gas exchange across the respiratory membrane in the metabolizing tissues external gas exchange refers to gas exchange across respiratory membrane in lungs

25. Define the term antigen.

molecules that can elicit an immune response

5. What is phagocytosis? What leukocytes are the most active phagocytes?

process of removing foreign particles from lymph. The most active phagocytic cells are neutrophils and monocytes/macrophages. When chemicals attract these cells to the injury it is called chemotaxis.

8. What are the four signs of inflammation?

redness, swelling, heat, pain

2. What cardiovascular structures are similar to lymphatic vessels?

spleen, tonsils, thymus, MALT, and appendix

30.List functions of the respiratory system. ***** BBAASSO

Ó and CÓ exchange blood and air •speech and other vocalizations •sense of smell •affects pH of body fluids by eliminating CÓ •affects blood pressure by synthesis of vasoconstrictor, angiotensin II •breathing creates pressure gradients between thorax and abdomen that promote the flow of lymph and venous blood •breath-holding helps expel abdominal contents during urination, defecation, and childbirth (Valsalva maneuver)

21. State the gas laws and explain their role in respiration. *****

•Dalton's Law - the total atmospheric pressure is the sum of the contributions of the individual gases. Air pressure is how air gets into our lungs •Henry's law - at the air-water interface, for a given temperature, the amount of gas that dissolves in the water is determined by its solubility in water and its partial pressure in air -the greater the PÓ in the alveolar air, the more Ó the blood picks up •Boyle's Law - at a constant temperature, the pressure of a given quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its volume -if the lungs contain a quantity of a gas and the lung volume increases, their internal pressure (intrapulmonary pressure) falls •if the pressure falls below atmospheric pressure the air moves into the lungs Charles's Law - the given quantity of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature this thermal expansion will contribute to the inflation of the lungs

1. Why do we breathe? What process uses oxygen and produces carbon dioxide?

•all our body processes directly or indirectly require ATP -ATP synthesis requires oxygen and produces carbon dioxide -drives the need to breathe to take in oxygen, and eliminate carbon dioxide

26. Briefly describe emphysema.

•emphysema -alveolar walls break down •lung has larger but fewer alveoli •much less respiratory membrane for gas exchange -lungs fibrotic and less elastic •healthy lungs are like a sponge; in emphysema, lungs are more like a rigid balloon -air passages collapse •obstructs outflow of air •air trapped in lungs -weaken thoracic muscles •spend three to four times the amount of energy just to breathe

11. What changes occur in the respiratory tube as the branches become smaller?

•main (primary) bronchi - supported by c-shaped hyaline cartilage rings -rt. main bronchus is a 2-3 cm branch arising from fork of trachea •right bronchus slightly wider and more vertical than left •aspirated (inhaled) foreign objects lodge right bronchus more often the left -lt. main bronchus is about 5 cm long •slightly narrower and more horizontal than the right •lobar (secondary) bronchi - supported by crescent shaped cartilage plates -three rt. lobar (secondary) bronchi - superior, middle, and inferior -one to each lobe of the right lung -two lt. lobar bronchi - superior and inferior -one to each lobe of the left lung •segmental (tertiary) bronchi - supported by crescent shaped cartilage plates -10 on right, and 8 on left

25. Where are the respiratory control centers located?

•respiratory nuclei in medulla -ventral respiratory group (VRG) •primary generator of the respiratory rhythm •inspiratory neurons in quiet breathing fire for about two seconds •expiratory neurons fire for about three seconds allowing inspiratory muscles to relax •produces a respiratory rhythm of 12 breaths per minute -dorsal respiratory group (DRG) •modifies the rate and depth of breathing; forceful inspiration and expiration •receives influences from external sources •pons -pontine respiratory group (PRG) •modifies rhythm of the VRG by outputs to both the VRG and DRG •adapts breathing to special circumstances such as sleep, exercise, vocalization, and emotional responses

15. . Distinguish between the visceral and parietal pleura. What holds them together?

•visceral pleura - serous membrane that covers the lungs •parietal pleura - adheres to mediastinum, inner surface of the rib cage, and superior surface of the diaphragm Held together by pleural fluid that creates surface tension between them

28. Distinguish between visceral and parietal pleural membranes. What is the function of the fluid in between the membranes (serous/pleural fluid)?

•visceral pleura - serous membrane that covers the lungs •parietal pleura - adheres to mediastinum, inner surface of the rib cage, and superior surface of the diaphragm •functions of pleurae and pleural fluid -Reduce friction -Creates pressure gradient •lower pressure than atmospheric pressure and assists lung inflation -Compartmentalization •prevents spread of infection from one organ in the mediastinum to others

13. List functions of the respiratory system***

•Ó and CÓ exchange blood and air •speech and other vocalizations •sense of smell •affects pH of body fluids by eliminating CÓ •affects blood pressure by synthesis of vasoconstrictor, •breathing creates pressure gradients between thorax and abdomen that promote the flow of lymph and venous blood •breath-holding helps expel abdominal contents during urination, defecation, and childbirth (Valsalva maneuver)