Bio Anthro
Explain how the "races" that we perceive in the US are a product of history and cultural constructions of difference. Be explicit.
"Distinct races" that we perceive are a product of history and social constructions of difference Race is an idea that is rooted in history Portrayal of Japanese in propaganda -Made them out to be bad, dangerous -Japanese internment camps -"The wild Japanese beast had been tamed" Ranking of differences were used, and continue to be used, to exploit the oppressed
Article, "Role of Forensic Anthro in Human Rights" and the lecture on Genocide: In the case of Rwanda, describe the injury patterns suffered by those who were victims of the genocide
#1 weapon of choice was a Machete Used for lethal blows to the skull Maiming (permanently disable somebody) Cut marks on posterior of calcaneus (heel) and lateral malleolus of fibula (ankle) harm them so they could not walk or get away/escape Also gunshot wounds Defensive wounds Evidence that victims were defenseless this was not a military battle Victims were defenseless against heavily armed people Most common cause of death = sharp trauma to cranium Some defensive wounds Proves large scale, systematic massacre (not cholera—some were trying to claim)
Article, Bioarchaeology of human sacrifice: violence, identity and the evolution of ritual killing at Cerro Cerrillos, Peru: How did sacrifice rituals change through time (ie, from pre-Muchika to Muchika)?
-Pre-Muchika Andean Ritual Violence (Moche) Throat-slitting Massive cranial injuries Decapitation Penetrating stab wounds Lambayeque or Sican Culture Complete and unmutilated bodies = used in the dedication of temples and in elite funerals, possibly involving poising that did not affect bone Blood sacrifice re-emerged A significant discontinuity in sacrifice ritual is apparent following the Moche period—victims went from warriors to children Chest opening and respectful burial of mutilated bodies -Muchika (maybe descendent from earlier Moche) Perimortem sharp force trauma was present Cutmarks (metal knife) Throat-slitting Semi-decapitation Chest-opening Mostly sub-adult males Burials involved Muchik people selecting and sacrificing individuals from their own ethnic group Victims appear to have been carefully selected, mutilated in specific ways to produce religiously significant offerings, and buried reverentially in ritual space
How did the colonial history of Rwanda factor into the genocide that occurred there?
2 main ethnic groups Hutu (majority) Tutsi (minority elite) European colonialists, designated Tutsi as superior highlighted physical differences between them Longstanding tensions between H & T In April of 1994, Hutu President was killed and the Tutsi rebels were blamed Hutu's began systematically slaughter of Tutsis 500,000-800,000 Tutsis killed
When do the Neanderthals disappear from the archaeological record? What is the best explanation for this?
30kya Due to the presence of modern humans with more modern tools, customs, and language Replacement
What kinds of images are often depicted in Upper Palelithic cave art? What are two interpretations on the meanings associated with the cave art?
40-35 kya -Elaborate tool kit -Transporting of raw materials -Ritual burials -Art Sculpted figures of animals and humans (portable art) -Animal figurines and other figures carved from mammoth tusks "Venus of Willendorf" -Cave paintings -Chauvet Cave, France (30kya) -Cave of Forgotten Dreams -Animals drawings -Light with contours of the cave—moving drawings Lascaux, France (17kya) -System of caves -Herds of animals -Each cave occupies by different clans? -Immense scale drawings—use of natural rock face for effect -Usually animals depicted in cave art Interpretations: -Initiation rituals --Handprints -Clan territory marker --Thematic rooms/chambers -"Good luck" rituals for hunting --Superimposed paintings -Shamanistic rituals --Abstract entoptics (inside of the eye) -Recording historic events -Signatures of artists
What is the "Human Revolution"?
40-35kya An abrupt change in material culture in the Old World (especially Europe) An art explosion! Culture or biology? Changes in the brain structure led to cultural changes No major morphological changes, but major cultural changes (innovation) Builds on millennia of experimentation with art Are Neanderthals
What do the findings at Shanidar cave suggest about Neanderthal behavior?
All of these individuals (Shanidar 1,3,4) were living with disabilities Violence, occupational injuries, accidental injuries? Physically active Altruism, compassion?
In general terms, what is the age and sex profile of the Wari trophy heads? (i.e., mostly adults or children, men or women?) (And see related lecture that presented strontium isotope data on the trophy heads.)
Among the 19 observable adult trophy heads, 42% exhibit cranial trauma—this suggests that violence was common among this group Evidence for Wari militarism Osteological evidence for violence (head trauma) Age 77% Adults 23% Juveniles Sex 88% Males 12% Females
Angled break Know how to identify antemortem trauma vs perimortem trauma vs post-mortem breaks in slide images. (Refer to the April 22 lecture to see examples and descriptions.)
Antemortem Trauma: healed wound, injury before death Blunt Force Trauma Offensive vs. defensive Wounds are healed or healing Perimortem Trauma: no healing, injury around time of death Repeated BFT flaking marks on end of fractures Indicated rubbing with other broken ends during repeated blows Angled break Post-mortem: breaks that occurred well after death Straight break Light/washed out color
What is antemortem and perimortem trauma? And how can we distinguish between the two?
Antemortem: healed or healing wound, injury before death -A healed wound/fracture Perimortem: acute, sudden fractures—no healing, injury around time of death -Repeated BFT flaking marks on end of fractures -Indicated rubbing with other broken ends during repeated blows -Angled break
Why is mtDNA good to use in studies of ancient DNA?
Because there are many copies in a cell, have a high and steady maturation rate, and are maternally inherited (no recombination—little variation)
Why is race better understood as a social concept, not as a biological concept?
Because there is not a biological basis to classify people into groups of race Race is a cultural concept
Article: "Patterns of Trauma among the Neanderthals": Describe the Trinkaus study on Neanderthal trauma. What did Trinkaus conclude? Describe the injury pattern of Neanderthals. How do the authors explain this pattern of trauma?
Berger & Trinkus study on 27 traumas on 17 Neanderthals They wanted to see how the pattern of Neanderthal trauma compared to archaeological and clinical populations Found that they had a high rate of head and neck injuries, shoulder and arm trauma, and a low rate of lower limb injury These injuries most closely resembled Rodeo-riders (very similar trauma patterns) Suggests Neanderthals had frequent and close encounters with large ungulates (large animals) hunting for big game and getting injured in the process Evidence also shows that they were very good hunters and were hunting BIG, meaty, healthy game (not old sick animals), so they were also getting injured while doing so
Why are discoveries of the "oldest art" in South Africa so important?
Blombos Cave, South Africa 77kya SYMBOLISM, cognitive development Red mineral "oaker" decorated bodies in modern ways Pressure flaking, also in Blombos Cave—very hard to make—it's easy for the stone to chip and fall off, they must have had a way to make them We originaly thought the oldest piece of art was approximately 40 kya -thus, modern human behavior may have occurred earlier than we originally expected
What have analyses of modern chimp mtDNA shown regarding chimp genetic variation? What does this suggest?
By comparison, chimps show more intra-species genetic variation Humans are less genetically variable than chimps We are much more recent than chimps (only 100-200kya as opposed to 2 mya)
What is structural violence? Explain it in your own words.
Harm done to individuals or groups through the normalization of social inequalities in political-economic organization Subtle, often invisible No specific authority can be held responsible
"Reading the Bones of La Florida". Researchers analyzed Native American skeletal remains from La Florida to compare population health before and after European contact. Describe one way in which health and lifeways changed for Native Americans, and describe the data that support the interpretation.
By studying the bones, it revealed that the Native American's diets changed after the Europeans came, but not for the better Their relatively heterogeneous diet, rich in seafood and a variety of plants and animals, was replaced by a more homogenous and less nutritious diet focused on the cultivation of a single crop: corn Corn-dominated diets are very poor diets Corn contains a great deal of sugar, which promotes cavities and poor oral health in general Also contains phytate, a chemical that binds with iron, inhibiting absorption of the mineral by the body People who's diets are heavy in corn are predisposed to anemia and many other consequences of low iron
Isotope Analysis
Carbon: plant foods As negative numbers get smaller, moving towards the right, more C4 plants Nitrogen: animal foods As nitrogen value increases—higher trophic levels (seafood)
One of the key phenotypes associated w/ Neanderthal variants was the hypercoagulable state. In general terms, what is this?
Coagulation is an early stage of immune response when you get a cut—your blood clots to stop the bleeding Hypercoagulable State When your blood clots for no reason—no injury This can be very dangerous
How do Harris lines develop in bones? How do those lines form and what is the cause?
Harris Lines appear in bones when growth stunts If a child is abused and experiences physical trauma (bone breaks) their body will stop growing until they heal—then spurt and start growing again—produces Harris lines
As noted in lecture, physical anthropology has a somewhat ugly history because studies of skeletal features were sometimes used to justify social hierarchies and oppress some populations. Give one example of a skeletal study that was used in this way
Craniology -Study of skull measurements -Used to justify population differences in socio-economic status -Modern studies: to examine biological relatedness for insights on migration or marriage problems -In the 1800s, European colonialism brought diverse people together -Rigorous cranial measurements used to explain population differences and to justify one group's control over another—rank human societies and explain biological differences -Pierre Paul Broca filled skulls with lead shot (or seeds) to determine cranial capacity -He concluded that the greater the capacity the higher intelligence, he ranked people based on cranial capacity -Educated, European males ranked highest (surprise!) -"Scientific legitimation of classism, racism, and sexism"
Based on the article, "Art: Revolution or Evolution," What are the two major competing theories that explain the explosion of art in the Upper Paleolithic?
Cultural Theory No major morphological changes, but major cultural changes over time Biological Theory Changes in the brain lead to cultural changes
Give two specific examples of something that a bioarchaeologist or forensic anthropologist might document on a skeleton, and explain what that tells us about the person.
Cut marks in the zygopopyhysial joint indicative of partial or semi-decapitation Cutmarks on the sternal end of the second right rib & biscested left laternal manubrium chest opening
Article, "Dismembering Bodies for Display": What are two characteristics of an Andean trophy head?
Cut marks on mandibles zygomatic (cheekbone or malar bone) Evidence of cutting off fresh tissue to separate the muscles from the bone—intentional Evidence of decapitation Small holes on superior of cranium (occipital) To string through in order to display the heads
Analysis of the bodies from the Rwandan genocide showed common injury patterns among the victims. What were they? Why was it important to document the patterns of trauma?
Defensive wounds show that this was NOT a military battle, but instead a slaughter of a group of people, a genocide Victims were defenseless against heavily armed people
How can age be estimated based on cranial remains (ie, the cranial sutures in particular)? (Not in terms of millions of years, but in terms of age-at-death for the person)
Dentition Bones/skeletal Cranial Suture Closure (works well for adults) As cranial bones, as an individual grows—the cranial bones grow closer together with age
Nitrogen Isotope Analysis
Different values suggest different categories of foods in diet As you go up in the food chain, N value increases Overall, you can learn what foods ancestors were eating—which can tell us a lot about their lifeways
"Science and Race:" Is the human species divisible into discrete racial groups? What is the evidence for Marks' answer to that question?
Diversity cannot be scientifically divided into a given number of subspecies or races Race does not exist on a biological level it is a cultural classification Dividing human populations into a small number of discrete groups results in associations of populations that are arbitrary, not natural For example, Africa is home to some people who are tall and thin, some people who are short, some people who very different from the American stereotype of African people all of these people are very biologically different, all are indigenously African, and to establish a single category (African/Black) to encompass them all reflects an arbitrary decision about human diversity one that is not at all dictated by nature Further, grouping the peoples of Africa together as a single entity and dividing them from the peoples of Europe and the Near East imposes an exceedingly unnatural distinction some people from certain parts of Africa are far more similar to European groups, than other people in Africa
Article: Bioarchaeology of Structural Violence and Dissection: How was structural violence being played out in this context?
Embodying social forces that shape health inequality 19th century dissection as structural violence Dissection as social stigma; a form of punishment "Unclaimed" bodies used for dissection from poor and marginalized groups Supported and promoted through anatomy laws Dissection Purpose: anatomical study Regarded as punishment Identity stripped away Body as object Body is fragmented (retention of body parts) and altered (surgical experimentation) Non-mortuary behavior, almshouse cemetery Autopsy Purpose: cause of death No stigma Person is important enough to warrant look into death Intact body and cut marks consistent with autopsy Normal mortuary behavior, public cemetery Albany County Almshouse Cemetery Almshouse inmates: local hospital, penitentiaries, unclaimed bodies 903 individuals; 51 with evidence of postmortem exam Evidence of craniotomies of variable skull Drill holed in cranial bones and postcranial cut marks NOT CONSISTENT WITH AUTOPSY Erie County Poorhouse Cemetery Buffalo Medical Center 480 burial features, but only 376 bodies 20 with evidence of postmortem exam DISSECTION Political-economic structures of 19th century Created legal and socio-political contexts of social inequities Led to dissection against one's will SV gets normalized...dissection of the disposable members of society seem normal and necessary
What is epigenetics? What is methylation?
Epigenetics: the study of changes in organisms caused by modification of gene expression rather than alteration of the genetic code itself (how certain genes are changed by our environment) Methylation: process by which methyl groups are added to DNA (important role for epigenetic gene regulation in development of disease)
What is the geographic distribution of Neanderthals?
Europe/Near East Eurasia
Alan Goodman has outlined 5 key reasons why race does not equal human biological diversity. Briefly explain two of those 5 key reasons.
Evolution (not race) explains HBV HBV is not continuous HBV involves many traits that typically vary independently HBV within "races" is much greater than the variation among them There is no way to consistently classify human beings by race
Give two possible interpretations regarding the meanings associated with the Venus of Willendorf (and other Venus figurines)
Fertility Goddess? Child's Toy? Pornography? Artistic representation of Paleolithic women?
Where is the oldest modern H. sapiens from? How old is it?
Florisbad Skill (South Africa) is a pre-modern Homo Sapien 290-2230 kya more modern human traits Oldest Modern Homo Sapiens 195 kya Omo, Ethiopia Second Oldest Modern Homo Sapiens 160 kya Herto, Ethiopia
What does the skeletal evidence suggest regarding this debate? (out of Africa/ Multiregional model)
Fossil evidence doesn't show any sort of mixture between the two species The abrupt nature of the cutoff of the Neanderthal fossils indicates that they disappeared quickly Fossils after Neanderthals (everything they found after Neanderthals went extinct) are close to humans—supports Out of Africa Model Neanderthals Bigger cranial capacity Barrel chested More robust Small black teeth and large, heavily worn front teeth Homo Sapiens Smaller, flatter face with a protruding chin Rounded skull Smaller cranial capacity Less robust postcranial skeletal
"Racialized Genetics and Study of Complex Diseases: Thrifty Genotype Revisited" What is geneticization? What is racialization?
Geneticization: The notion that genes are primary determinants for biology and behavior "Genetic fatalism" Racialization: exaggerated salience of ethnorace in genetic studies
Be able to interpret a graph that shows carbon and nitrogen isotope values for a population of humans. (i.e., You should know that nitrogen isotope values increase as you go up the food chain (and as you eat more meat and seafood, or as you suffer from starvation).
Highest levels of nitrogen seafood and meats, or anorexic individuals starving themselves, and a baby who is breastfeeding As nitrogen value increases, you go up the food chain
What is the general Neanderthal mortality pattern? What might that mortality pattern suggest about Neanderthal lifeways?
Highest mortality in young adults Neanderthals had a hard and short life—they experienced a lot of trauma and died young They were involved in a lot of risky behavior (females dying in childbirth, males hunting large animals) and that behavior lead to injuries and death Maybe exposed harmful pathogens—maybe caused some disease, lived lives full of disease
Article: Bioarchaeology of Structural Violence and Dissection: What was the main thesis of this article?
How structural violence is seen in dead bodies Structural violence—normalizing social inequalities SV extends beyond life intro treatment after death Dissection vs. Autopsy Disembodiment and treatment of dead bodies Bioarchaeology of structural violence must consider not only how inequality may be embodied as health disparities in the living, but also "disembodiment" and the treatment and fate of the dead body
Describe the contexts in which the Wari trophy heads were found.
Human trophy heads from the Wari site of Conchopata (AD 600-1000) are examined to evaluate if recently deceased persons or old corpses were used to make trophy heads and determine if they modifications are standardized Fresh bodies or naturally decomposed bodies Also tried to discover whether the trophy heads were those of enemies, or of Wari people/ancestors Trophy heads: who are they? Kind of Bodies Processed Fresh bodies Naturally decomposed bodies (antiques) Trophy Head Processing and Artistic Depictions Standardized Prep: central/state oversight Highly variable: non-centralized preparation Identity of Trophy Heads Age and sex Lifeways (health, trauma) Local or foreign Trophy heads found in ritual spaces at Conchopata in D-shaped rooms and circular rooms
Out of Africa/Replacement Model
Humans and Neanderthals are not related Chris Stringer: Modern Homo Sapiens moved northward to replace (with some interbreeding) Neanderthals, but Neanderthals are an evolutionary dead-end—Modern Homo Sapiencs first evolved in Africa and moved northward to replace Neanderthals—when they encounter Neanderthals they interbreed, but ultimately modern humans from Africa replace Neanderthals If this "replacement" model is true, then better language, cognition, and tools by modern Homo Sapiens likely played a role
Multiregional Model
Humans and Neanderthals are related Various regions were interacting Milford Wolpoff: Neanderthals contributed to modern human gene pool There was some gene flow, but because they were physically separated they remained two different species Modern Homo Sapiens evolved simultaneously in all 3 regions Africa Only Homo Sapiens Near East Neanderthals and Modern Homo Sapiens coexisted Europe Neanderthals and Modern Homo Sapiens coexisted Asia Archaic sapiens, Floresiensis and Modern Homo Sapiens coexisted
"Six Wrongs of Racial Science": Why is the notion of race better understood as a typology, rather than an evolutionary concept?
Humans are divisible into a small and discrete number of types Types are old, primordial, fixed, and unchanging Types have defining characteristics and are hierarchically arranged The type explains the individual: an individual's biology and behavior are in large part explicable by the type/race of which the individual is a member The concept of race remain a typological and nonevolutionary concept—the idea of race was conjured up by Christian Europeans in order to express their dominance over other races; it is an idealist worldview that misfits Darwin's theory because it does not take into account that variations accumulate and humans change over time and place
What do the genetic data for Nuclear DNA suggest regarding this debate?
In 1997, Svante Paabo extracted Ancient mtDNA from 3 Neanderthals Neanderthal mtDNA distinct from modern human mtDNA Found that Neanderthal DNA has subtle but significant impact on human traits PROVES THERE IS RELATEDNESS (maybe just a small amount tho?) 5.3 billion nucleotides from 3 female Neanderthals (after testing 21 samples) Compared mtDNA 16 & 25 differ 16 & 26 no differ 16 & 26 may be maternally related Compared autosomal DNA All 3 differ 5 modern humans Issues with ancient DNA Most Neanderthal DNA is identical to modern humans because were so closely related Contamination from modern humans Microbes (95-99% of DNA from non-primate)
Article, Pattern of Injury in Child Fatalities Resulting from Child Abuse: The authors state, "Notably, in only 24% of our sample were there any antemortem fractures suggesting that radiographic skeletal surveys alone are not an effective method for identifying or predicting abuse" (p.101). Give one reason why it is difficult to detect fractures in infants and young children.
Infants and young children heal very quickly. If they break their bone—it can heal in a month, and doctors will never know. Fractures in young children are most often subtle and difficult to detect—a contributing factor to the missed diagnosis is related to the child's age Because of the increased vascularity and osteogenic activity of children's bones, they heal more quickly than adult bones Rate of bone healing is directly related to the child's age—with more rapid healing occurring in the youngest
Krapina Neanderthals: Why are so many bones broken and scratched?
Kaprina Cave, Croatia Discovered in 1899 130-100 kya About 900 bones from 14-82 individuals Most aged 16-24 years old Broken bones due to burial activity or cannibalism? The missing bones suggest that the individuals were buried by natural or human processes, soon after death (whole new level of cognitive activity) The cut/scratch marks cannot be analyzed because scientists preserved them long ago and ruined the DNA) But, there are possible cut marks on the frontal lobe—possible scalping?
In the lectures on racial health disparities, we looked at a graph showing the differences in birth weight among American blacks, American whites, and African blacks that were 1st, 2nd and 3rd generation immigrants. Be able to interpret that graph and explain the broader implications of that study. (See the lecture from Apr 13 and 15.)
LBW predicts higher rate of negative health consequences Are racial disparities in the U.S. due to genetic or socio-cultural differences (or both)? Low birth weight IS NOT DUE TO GENES there is something about living in the United States, for African American, leads to lower birth weights in baby -NOT GENETIC -societal influences and other influences
Describe the "old man" from La Chapelle aux-saints
La Chapelle-aux Saints, France "Old Man" found in 1908 About 50kya Pretty intact HUGE braincase (1625 cc) Mandible teeth were missing, but continued to survive—we can tell that he lived for a very long time without teeth because his jaw bone went away because of the lack of use Scientists can reconstruct how he was placed into the round for death (curled up—maybe an intentional burial) "Old Man" suffered from many diseases and injuries—maybe people took care of him Osteoarthritis of cervical vertebrae (deformed left hip and broken rib) Non-pathological cervical vert Maybe some evidence of violence? Also some body decoration/jewelry—which showed Neanderthals had it, but wasn't as advanced
What does Stephen J. Gould argue regarding the evolution of language? Does he think it was specifically selected for?
Language is a byproduct of evolutionary processes, specifically their evolution of a large brain, not a special adaptation that arose by ordinary natural selection acting on mutations Part of a general learning mechanism Specific evolutionary adaptation He thinks language just coincidentally happened as they had bigger brains
Know three defining traits of the Neanderthal skull
Large braincase (average ~1500 cc), occipital bun, no chin, large browridge, large nose, low forehead, long skull, bulging mid-parietal, mid-facial projection, small posterior teeth and large anterior teeth
What did Tung conclude based on the strontium isotope results?
Majority of trophy heads are foreign persons The state was heavily involved in production of trophy heads Foreign enemies Militarized tradition and enemy capture Ceremoniously used in ritual spaces integration of militarism and ritualism to establish Wari authority
You watched this short video in class about methylation in rats. Briefly describe the main point of that study
Mice, all genetically the same, one of them was fed methyl groups, which turned off certain genes, and made brown, skinny rats instead of fat yellow ones. This same phenotype was in the next generation of rats, regardless of what mother ate. And when an environmental toxin was added to the rats, then more yellow, fat rats were made
What was found at Klasies River mouth, South Africa? And what do the finds suggest about the morphology and behavior of early modern humans?
Modern Homo Sapiens found at Klasies River Mouth, South Africa ~134-74 kya VERY modern morphology Chin on mandible, smaller browridge, more gracile Also see cut marks, burn marks, and percussion impact scars Burial treatment, interpersonal violence, cannibalism?
What have analyses of modern human mtDNA shown regarding human genetic variation? What does this suggest?
Modern humans are very homogeneous, which supports the Out of Africa Model as there would not have been enough time for substantial amount of genetic variation
According to research by bioanthropologists and molecular biologists, is there a biological basis to race?
NO, there is not a biological basis to race There is no natural classification to group humans into distinct "races" Ideas of race do not map onto biological differences Race evolved from social constructions There is no "race" gene
What were the results of Svante Pääbo's older research on ancient mtDNA from Neanderthals? What did those results suggest?
Neanderthal mtDNA is distinct from modern human mtDNA, which suggests that Neanderthals are a separate species and did not interbreed with humans
Neanderthal tool technology appears to change with the arrival of anatomically modern humans in Europe. How is this observation interpreted?
Neanderthal tools shift from Mousterian to Chatelperronian Decorative items appear Neanderthals might have borrowed tool and art from modern humans (who had Aurignacian tools) If improved tools were independent: Sign of modern cognition If improved tools were borrowed: Sign of inferior cognition (Modern human's tools were considered superior and they're decorative too)
Additional studies compared Neanderthal trauma to other trauma victims—what did that study conclude?
Neanderthal trauma vs. Assault victim trauma (Denmark's assault victims) It is upsetting to see that assault victims have nearly the same injuries that rodeo-riders and Neanderthals have from encounters with large and aggressive animals— poorly socialized humans can produce similar fracture patterns to other humans Fighting face to face
Article: "The Riddle of Coexistence:" What does the archaeological evidence tell us about the cultural achievements of Neanderthals and modern humans?
Neanderthals reached new heights of cultural achievement Ivory beads, stone tools, body ornaments, cave art, bone carvings
What is porotic hyperostosis? What causes it? (Look at the skeleton image in the La Florida article by Clark Larsen.)
Pathological condition that affects bones of the cranial vault and is characterized by localized areas of spongy or porous bone tissue Caused by anemia brought on not simply by an increasingly corn-rich diet but also by intestinal infection
Carbon Isotope Analysis
People absorb C from plants and animals Teeth and bones incorporate Carbon during development Different values suggest different categories of foods in diet Terrestrial versus marine food in diet Extract dental samples
Video: Unnatural Causes, Bad Sugar: Many researchers have assumed that genes are a primary factor explaining the high prevalence of Type II diabetes among Native Americans. According to the video, what other factors (historical and social) are also major contributors to the high prevalence of Type II diabetes in Native American communities in the American southwest?
People used to think the high rate of Type II diabetes among in Native American communities in the southwest (like the O'dham Tribe) was due to their biology/genetics But, other factors play a role—people who have been dispossessed from their land—land/culture/work all vanished this is the real risk They lost their water source, couldn't farm and so they didn't have food or money so they had to start eating cheap unhealthy foods couldn't grow crops, work in field—or grow economically There is a direct connection between living in poverty and elevated blood sugar Low income = risk factor for diabetes, don't have healthy choices for food or a place to exercise They lost their identity when they lost their water SES is a powerful indicator of health status Shows how people don't just get diseases due to genes—there are many other factors
How might language have conferred an advantage to ancient humans? (i.e., how was it a beneficial adaptation?)
Quick communication of threats Problem solving Passing on knowledge Social skills Kin, enemies, allies, cheaters
Explain how racism is a public health problem that affects all American lives, using at least one example from the lecture or from this film, "Unnatural Causes: When the Bough Breaks."
Racial health disparities are socio-cultural Our experiences affect our offspring Pregnancy Diet, stress Early life Abuse Later life Smoking, diet, toxins Epigenetics help to explain racial health disparities in U.S. African American women—decreasing birth weight with time in United States LBW predicts higher cardiovascular disease risk Type II Diabetes among Native American people in the Southwest
Describe the expected differences in human genetic variation if modern humans are recent versus if they are ancient. Why is this the case?
Replacement Model Modern humanness is recent (190 kya)—not much time for genetic variations to develop; humans should be very genetically similar Multi-regional Model Modern humanness is ancient (1.75 mya)—more time for genetic variations to develop; humans should be more genetically diverse Analysis of modern mtDNA shows that modern humans are very homogenous
Explain how strontium isotope analysis was used to determine the geographical origins of Wari trophy heads.
Researchers used "Distinct Strontium Isotope Ratios" to detect if the trophy heads were locals or outsiders Strontium (Sr) naturally occurs in bedrock and plants absorb Sr from soil People absorb Sr from plants and animals Teeth absorb Sr during development (childhood years) Bones absorb Sr throughout like (adult years) Strontium Isotope levels vary depending on geology—there are established Sr values in different regions Geology of Ayachucho Basin if the trophy heads are local they should have a Sr level ~.7059 If they are not local it should higher or lower Tung went to animals to determine local Sr ratio Guinea pigs eating local food They were in the proper Sr range BUT the trophy heads showed very different Strontium levels FOREIGNERS Wari took captives for sacrifice and transformation The state was heavily involved in the production of trophy heads
Describe Svante Paabo's recent research on autosomal DNA from Neanderthals. What are the results of that new research? What are the implications of those findings?
Results 1: Neanderthals share more DNA with: French individuals Han Chinese individuals Papau New Guinean individuals Than they share with: San (South African) individuals Yoruba (West African) individuals Results 2: What makes us human They analyzed derived DNA regions in Neanderthals and Homo Sapiens (excludes ancestral DNA shared w/ chimps) Mutations that became "fixed" after we diverged from Neanderthals 20 regions: 5 of them have no protein coding genes (regulatory) 15 regions code for metabolism, skin morphology, and cognitive and cranial development Admixture is minimal
"Sarrtje Baartman: Her life, Her Remains... " Who was Sarrtje Baartman? What was the attitude, in 19th cent. Europe, about the place of Baartman and others like her in the kingdom of living things?
Saartje Baartman was a tragic victim of the colonial era she is a symbol of its oppressions She was taken from Cape Town, South Africa and brought to England (1810) Then, she was removed taken to France (she was sold), where she died in 1816 The parts of her body that were preserved after her death have stayed in Paris She was literally studied and exhibited Then once she died, a body cast was made and her body was dissected She was exhibited in shows—was treated like a wild animal, very degrading Court case Baartman was there on her own will and was not under restrain—case dismissed The English and the French thought of her as very animalistic and wondered if she was fully human When she died, George Cuvier dissected her body and was extremely focus on her sexual characteristics and her enlarged butt—Baartman's genitalia, breasts, buttocks, and pelvis were removed and preserved in a bottle and the brain cast was cut horizontally and the brain removed No regard for human life—treated her like an animal/creature
Describe the Neanderthals found at Shanidar Cave. In particular, describe the lifeways of Shanidar 1
Shanidar Cave, Northern Iraq About 60kya 9 individuals 2 infants, 7 adults 4 males (Shanidar 1,3,4,5) S1 had head trauma, foot fracture, arm atrophy S3 had 4 rib traumas S5 had head trauma 1 female, 1 unknown sex, 1 adult (limited data) Shanidar 1: Male, 40 years old Healed head injury on left orbit—didn't cause his death Healed foot fracture Perimortem fractures on many bones Injured by rock fall in cave—mechanism of death Right arm atrophy Had heavily worn anterior teeth used mouth as an "extra tool" since he had one arm that he could not use His patella shows us he had an active/physical lifestyle His ulna (elbow) had more bone growths—shows repeated throwing activity—very physical life "DISH" on lumbar vertebrae (Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis) Degenerative arthritis Predisposition to all of his injuries? Maybe people took care of him
What do anthropologists mean when they state that race is a social construct?
Society has certain expectations for different races and they're maintained throughout history
What data support the perspective that language was a specific adaptation?
Steven J Gould's argument—byproduct of evolutionary processes No direct relationship between cognition and language skills Data shows: Stroke victims; head trauma Child development and language studies Low larynx—allows us to produce the full range of vowels—other mammals have a higher one
Video: Unnatural Causes, When the Bough Breaks and Monte Talley's associated lecture on April 8 Define structural racism and explain how it affects health using at least one example from the lecture or from this film, "Unnatural Causes: When the Bough Breaks."
Structural Racism: a system in which public policies, institutional practices, cultural representations and other norms work in various, often reinforcing ways, to perpetuate racial group inequity 9/11 and Arab American women in California had a 34% increase in low birth weight infants
"How racism hurts - literally": In your own words, what is the general thesis of this article?
Study done on 334 midlife Black women in America Examined links between different kind of stress factors for heart disease and stroke Black women who claimed racism to be a source of stress in their life—developed more plaque in their arteries (early sign of heart disease), than the black women who didn't Makes an important connection between hardening of the arteries to racial discrimination Many more studies have documented how racism effects physical health Viewing racial discrimination as a health risk Very striking how consistent findings have been across a wide range of studies African Americans today face higher risk, than any other racial group, of dying from heart disease, diabetes, stroke, and hypertension Across multiple societies, different countries—you see the same connection between racism and negative health consequences Link between higher rates in disease and death among African Americans and social determinants such as residential segregation, environmental waste, joblessness, unsafe housing, targeted marketing of alcohol and cigarettes, and other inequities Racism acts as a classic chronic stressor
Scholars have argued that human differences have been (and still are) used to exploit some peoples. To illustrate this point, we discussed the slaughter of Tasmanian indigenous populations. Briefly summarize that case study. How did Europeans justify these atrocious actions?
Tasmanian Indigenous Population Populated Island ~35kya 1642: Dutch arrive and name it, "Van Diemen's Land" after the CEO of Dutch East India Co. 1803: British convict colony British slaughter the Tasmanian people -Land colonized by military, administrators, and convicts (65,000 Europeans) -1803-1830: "Black War of Van Diemen's Land" --Native population drops from 5,000 to 75 -Hunted and randomly killed Tasmanian men, women, and kids (done legally under "marital law") -Bounties were paid -Genocide—because all people are being targeted William Laney: "The Last Tasmanian" -Placed in a concentration camp -"Human relic" and object of study -After death, rumored his bones were stolen Europeans tried to justify their actions by asking "were aboriginal Tasmanians fully human" Darwin's evolutionary theory was (wrongly) invoked to support policies of exploitation and extermination -Killing them because they were weaker—"survival of the fittest"
What do the genetic data for Mitochondrial DNA suggest regarding this debate?
Testing for ancient interbreeding by: Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Short strand: ~16,000 bp Many copies in a cell High and steady mutation rate Maternally inherited This technique found NO relatedness between the two
Did Neanderthals bury their dead? Were these burials associated with "religious" rituals?
The abundance of complete Neanderthal skeletons suggest that they frequently buried their dead; however, it is not clear whether these burials had a religious nature or if Neanderthals buried their dead just to dispose of the decaying bodies Shanidar Burial 4: there was wildflower pollen near its head This could suggest a ceremonial burial, intentional burial associated with a ceremony/ritual activity OR it could have just randomly been there
"Racialized Genetics and Study of Complex Diseases: Thrifty Genotype Revisited" What are the critiques of this concept as it relates to using it to explain the high prevalence of Type II diabetes in certain populations?
The assumption is that groups with high levels of T2 diabetes have the "thrifty genotype", but there is no consistent evidence to suggest that minority populations are especially genetically susceptible Only a very small proportion of total genetic variation is even potentially relevant to disease prevalence, or other health-related differences, between groups of individuals classified by ethnorace Not genetic at all
"How Races Becomes Biology: Embodiment of Social Inequality"
The author summarizes the research that shows how social inequalities are a key factor in the development and maintenance of racial health disparities, and he argues "that the debate over racial inequalities in health presents an opportunity to refine the critique of race in three ways:" Be able to briefly explain one of those points in your own words. To reiterate why the race concept is inconsistent with patterns of global human genetic diversity To refocus attention on the complex, environmental influences on human biology at multiple levels of analysis and across the life course To revise the claim that race is a cultural construct and expand research on the sociocultural reality of race and racism
What data supports the interpretation that the "Human Revolution" came about as a result of cultural changes ("a cultural revolution")?
The discovery of art in the Blombos Cave that was dated 70kya Concentration of art was right where Neanderthals were being replaced—Modern Humans were finding a way to make a statement and mark their territory
What does David de Gusta argue regarding Neanderthal language? What data does he rely on to support his assertion?
The hypoglossal canal is not significant and not important and instead focuses on the basicranium. He says that the Neanderthal basicranium was too flat and that their vocal tract was incapable of speech production It is unknown whether Neanderthals had language—probably did not
"Science and Race:" What is the evidence for a biological difference in cognitive ability in human populations? In this regard, what is the distinction Marks makes between performance and ability?
The mental development possible for a person under optimal circumstances We can NOT establish that abilities are different, we have no reliable way to even measure such an innate property in the first place We can test people on performance on tests or just in life—but even this is very dependent on other factors and a result of many other things Innate ability can not be measured
Among the ancient Wari society of the Peruvian Andes, what skeletal evidence suggests that the trophy heads were standardized in style?
The war heads are remarkably standardized—89% display a hole on the superior of the cranium, apparently a design feature that displays the trophy head upright and facing forward when suspended by a cord Drilled hole at apex 75% exhibit a hole on occipital Holes on ascending ramidus All of this suggest a standardized preparation showing cultural production of state sanctioned violence and ritual exceptionalism
Know one defining trait of the Neanderthal body
Thick limb bones, barrel chest, robust heavily muscled body Short and stocky
Peoples from the continent of Africa show more genetic variation relative to populations from other geographical areas. What does this suggest? Refer to lecture and the Boyd and Silk textbook, esp. Figs. 13.13; 13.15; 13.16
This shows that Africa is the origin of Homo Sapiens Suggests that Homo Sapiens spent the most time in Africa Genetic variation increased with time This supports the Out of Africa Theory because the amount of genetic variation within populations decreases as distance from Africa increases. This makes sense because at each stage of emigration, the emigrants carry only a fraction of genetic variation present in their natal home.
Describe two skeletal features that can be examined to address questions regarding the origin and antiquity of language?
Using skeletal analysis and study of anatomy Endocranial casts or impressions Soft tissue analysis Is human language linked to our brains? Broca's Area and Wernicke's Area Height of the Larynx Basicranium: whether it was rounded or flat Data seems to show that Neanderthals did not have language because their basicranium is too flat The Neanderthal vocal tract would be incapable of speech production Neanderthal Cranial Base Shape Flatter cranial base, more room for larynx in superior region Modern Humans Cranial Base Shape Flexed cranial base, less room for larynx, so pushed downward
What is BioVU?
Vanderbilt's biorepository of DNA extracted from patient blood samples and linked to de-identified electronic medical records (EMRs) Used BioVU to find out if Neanderthal DNA has an effect on Modern Human traits Phoneme-wide Association Studies We expected to find influence on traits involved in interactions with the environment Immune system, skin, metabolic, maybe skeletal We actually found disease association, coagulation (early stage of immune response) Neanderthal DNA influences an evolutionarily relevant phenotype in way that now leads to disease
"Racialized Genetics and Study of Complex Diseases: Thrifty Genotype Revisited" What is the Thrifty Genotype?
We adapted to a life of food uncertainty Natural Selection traits that stored sugars, fat needed for survival We now have plentiful (processed) food & a sedentary lifestyle This is when we start to see an increase in diabetes
How is research in epigenetics helping to clarify our understanding of the social determinants of health?
We are starting to understand that health is not just biological or hereditary or caused by genes Social factors and stressors play a major role in health We are beginning to understand how racism, and other factors, can be detrimental to health
Did Neanderthals have language? What does Matt Cartmill argue (See article "Gift of Gab" and lecture), and what data does he rely on to support his assertion?
YES FOXP2 gene is related to language Humans have the FOXP2 gene Neanderthals have FOXP2 Modern hypoid Some representational art...some symbolic thought NO Hypoglossal canal is unimportant They have a flat basicranium Other genes are needed for language No representational art No symbolic thought Matt Cartmill Neanderthals had fully developed language because they had a human sized canal for the hypoglossal nerve and they also had brains larger than modern humans Neanderthals had language
According to Dr. Tony Capra's guest lecture, why might some parts of our genome retain Neanderthal DNA relative to other parts of our genome?
~1.5% of modern Eurasian genomes are derived from Neanderthal DNA Different people have a different 1.5% Some parts of our genome are more likely to retain Neanderthal DNA than others Admixture = Interbreeding = Introgression This suggests that Neanderthal DNA had an effect on our ancestors
