Bio Ch. 7: The Cardiovascular System

Opening another capillary bed will ________ vascular resistance (like adding another resistor in parallel) and, assuming the body can compensate, increase cardiac output

Decrease

A normal PaO2 is around _______ mmHg

70-100

_______ ________ describes a decrease in the oxygen affinity in the oxyhemoglobin curve and is seen as a right shift

Bohr Effect

_______ is an accumulation of too much fluid in the intersitium

Edema

The muscle cells are connected by ____ ___, which contain many gap junctions directly connecting cytoplasm of adjacent cells. This allows for...

Intercalated discs; coordinate ventricular contraction

There are three _______ systems in the body, in which blood will pass through two capillary beds in series before returning to the heart

Portal

When CO2 enters a _______ _______ cell, it encounters the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which catalyzes the combination reaction between carbon dioxide and water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3)

Red blood

Pathway of electrical impulse in the heart in order of excitation:

Sinoatrial (SA) node, the atrioventricular (AV) node, the bundle of His (AV Bundle) and its branches, and the Purkinje fibers

Most ventricular filling is passive (blood moves from the atria to the ventricles based solely on ventricular relaxation), atrial _____ (contraction) results in an increase in atrial pressure that forces a little more blood into the ventricles -Additional volume of blood is known as the _____ ___ and accounts for 5-30% of cardiac output

Systole -Atrial kick

______ are thin walled structure where blood is received from either the venae cavae (deoxygenated blood entering the right heart) or the pulmonary veins (oxygenated blood entering the left heart) -This contracts to push blood into the _________, which can then fill and contract to send blood to the lungs (right ventricle) and the systemic circulation (left ventricle)

Atria -Ventricles

Next, the signal reaches the AV node, which sits at the junction of the ____ and ____. -The signal is delayed here to allow the ventricles to fill completely before they contract. -The signal then travels down the ____ ____ and its branches, embedded in the interventricular septum (wall), and to the _____ ____, which distribute the electrical signal through the ventricular muscle.

Atria and ventricles -Nothing -Bundle of His, Purkinje fibers

When BP is too high, specialized atrial cells are able to secrete a hormone called _____ (___). This hormone aids in the loss of salt within the nephron, acting as a natural diuretic with loss of fluid

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) -Pretty weak effects, however

Atria are separated from the ventricles by the ____ ______. Likewise, the ventricles are separated from the vasculature by the _____ ________. These valves allow the heart muscle to create the pressure within the ventricles necessary to propel the blood forward within the circulation, while also preventing backflow of the blood.

Atrioventricular valves; semilunar valves

Veins carry _____ blood to the heart, while ______ are smaller venous structure that connect capillaries to the larger veins of the body -Larger veins contain _______; as blood flows forward in the veins, they open, but they will slam shut if blood tries to flow backward

Deoxygenated, venules -Valves

All blood vessels are lined with ____ cells -May release chemicals aiding in ___ or ____ -Also, allow _____ ____ cells to pass through the vessel wall and into the tissues during an inflammatory response

Endothelial -Vasodilation and vasoconstriction -White blood cells

__________ is the liquid portion of blood, an aqueous mixture of nutrients, salts, respiratory gases, hormones, and blood proteins

Plasma

The valve that separates the right ventricle from the pulmonary circulation is known as the _____ valve, while the valve that separates the left ventricle from the aorta is known as the ________ valve.

Pulmonary; aortic

______ is a measure of force per unit area exerted on the wall of blood vessels and is measured with a __________ -They function by measuring ____ pressure

BP; sphygmomanometer -Gauge

BP is regulated using ______ in the walls of vasculature -_________ can sense when the osmolarity of the blood is too high, which could indicate dehydration; promotes the release of ______ (____), a peptide hormone made in the hypothalamus but stored in the posterior pituitary, which increase the reabsorption of water, thereby increasing blood volume and pressure (while also diluting the blood) -Low perfusion to the juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney stimulates ______ release through the renin-angiotensis-aldosterone system; aldosterone increase the reabsorption of sodium and, by extension, water, thereby increasing the blood volume and pressure

Baroreceptors -Chemoreceptors; vasopressin (ADH) -Aldosterone

_________ are composed of both coagulation factors (proteins) and platelets, and they prevent (or at least minimize) blood loss -When the endothelium of a blood vessel is damaged, it exposes the underlying connective tissue, which contains collagen and a protein called _____ _____---when platelets come into contact with exposed collagen, they sense this as evidence of injury -In response, they release their content and begin to aggregate, or clump together -Simultaneously, ___ ______, most of which are secreted by the liver, sense tissue factor and initiate a complex activation cascade -The endpoint of the cascade is the activation of ______ to form ________ by thromboplastin -This last molecule is capable of converting fibrinogen to ________

Clots -Tissue factor -Coagulation factors -Nothing -Prothrombin; thrombin -Fibrin

A clot in the deep veins of the leg is called a ___ ___ ___ (___) -It may become dislodged and travel through the right heart to the lungs, where it can cause a life-threatening condition called a pulmonary embolus

Deep vein thrombosis (DVT)

_______ forms small fibers that aggregate and cross-link into a woven structure, like a net, that captures red blood cells and other platelets, forming a stable clot over the area of damage

Fibrin

The cardiovascular system consists of a muscular four-chambered _____, ______ ______, and _____

Heart, blood vessels, and blood

_____ is a measure of how much of the blood sample consists of RBCs, given as a percentage

Hematocrit

________ _____ is the force per unit area that the blood exerts against the vessel walls. This is generated by the contraction of the heart and the elasticity of the arteries, and can be measured upstream in the large arteries as blood pressure

Hydrostatic pressure

In the __________ portal system, blood leaving capillary beds in the hypothalamus travels to a capillary bed in the anterior pituitary to allow for paracrine secretion of releasing hormones

Hypophyseal

________ are agranulocytes that phagocytize foreign matters such as bacteria, renamed macrophages once they leave the bloodstream and enter an organ

Monocytes

_____ _____ is the "sucking" pressure generated by solutes as they attempt to draw water into the bloodstream. Because most of this is attributable to plasma protein concentration, it is usually called ____ ____.

Osmotic pressure; oncotic pressure

In the ______ portal system, blood leaving the glomerulus travels through an efferent anteriole before surrounding the nephron in a capillary network called the vasa recta.

Renal

_____ ______ is also a surface protein expressed in RBCs. When left unmodified, + or - refers to the presence or absence of a specific allele called D

Rh Factor

The ___ vena cava returns blood from the portion of the body above the heart, while the ____ vena cava returns blood from the portions of the body below the heart

Superior, inferior

Only the ____ and _____ arteries carry deoxygenated blood

Pulmonary and umbilical

All veins carry deoxygenated blood except ____ and ___ veins

Pulmonary and umbilical veins

Blood travels away from the heart in _____, the largest of which is the ______ (in the system circulation)

Arteries, aorta

BP is expressed as a ratio of ________ (ventricular contraction) to _________ (ventricular relaxation) pressures

Systolic; diastolic

The right side of the heart (first pump) accepts _____ blood returning it from the body and moves it to the lungs by way of the ____ ______; the second pump is the left side of the heart, which receives _____ blood from the lungs by way of the ____ ____ and forces it out to the body through the ______.

Deoxygenated blood, pulmonary arteries; oxygenated, pulmonary veins, aorta

The valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle is known as the _____ ___ (three leaflets), while the valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle ____ or _____ valve (two leaflets)

Tricuspid valve; mitral or bicuspid

The granular leukocytes or _________ are so named because they contain cytoplasmic granules that are visible by microscopy -Compounds released through excocytosis

Granulocytes

At the arteriole end of a capillary bed, _______ pressure (pushing fluid ______) is much larger than ________ pressure (drawing fluid _____), and there is a net efflux of water from the circulation -As fluid moves out of the vessels, the ______ pressure drops significantly, but the ______ pressure stays about the same -Therefore, at the venule end of the capillary bed, ______ pressure has dropped below ______ pressure, and there is a net influx of water back into circulation

Hydrostatic (out), oncotic (in) -Hydrostatic; oncotic -Hydrostatic; oncotic

Carbohydrates and amino acids are absorbed into the capillaries of the ____ ____ and enter _____ circulation via the _______ portal system

Small intestine; systemic; hepatic

Cardiac Output (CO) =

Heart rate (HR, beat per minute) x Stroke Volume (SV, volume of blood pumped per beat)

_______ is the production of blood cells and platelets -_______ is secreted by the kidney and stimulates RBC development -___________ is secreted by the liver and kidney and stimulates mainly platelet development

Hematopoiesis -Erythropoietin -Thrombopoietin

All blood cells form from _______ stem cells, which originate in bone marrow.

Hematopoietic

In the _____ portal system, blood leaving capillary beds in the walls of the gut passes through the hepatic portal vein before reaching the capillary beds in the liver

Hepatic

RBCs express surface proteins called ______ that are in general, any specific target (usually a protein) to which the immune system can react -Two major families for blood groups are ______ and ______

Antigens -ABO antigens and the RH factor

_______ or ____ ____ cells are a crucial part of the immune system, acting as our defenders against pathogens, foreign cells, cancer, and other materials not recognized as self

Leukocytes or WBCs

_____ are important in the specific immune response, the body's targeted fight against particular pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria -Cells play an important role in memory recognition of foreign pathogens

Lymphocytes

What happens when blood reaches the capillaries?

Oxygen and nutrients diffuse out of the blood tissues, while waste products like carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions, urea, and ammonia diffuse into the blood

______ is easily measured using a finger probe, and it is the percentage of hemoglobin molecules carrying oxygen

Oxygen saturation

Deoxygenated blood enters the ___ ____, travels through the ____ valve, and enters the _____ _____. -On contraction, the blood from the right ventricle passes through the ____ valve and enters the _____ arteries, where it ravels to the lungs and breaks up into continuously smaller vessels. -Once the blood reaches the capillaries that line the ______, it participates in gas exchange with CO2 leaving the blood and O2 entering the blood -The blood then travels into _____ venules and into the _____ veins, which carry the blood to the left side of the heart -Oyxgenated blood enters the left ______, travels through the mitral valve, and enters the left _______. On contraction , the blood from here passes through the _____ valve and enters the ________. -From here, blood enters the arteries, then the arterioles, and then the capillaries. After gas exchange occurs at the capillaries, the blood enters the _____, which lead to larger _______. -These then enter the SVC or IVC, which return blood to the right side of the heart

Right atrium, tricuspid, right ventricle -Pulmonary x 2 -Alveoli -Pulmonary x 2 -Atrium, ventricle, aortic, aorta -Venules, veins

Blood first returns to the _____ ___. Blood returns to the heart from the body via the _____ ____, which are divided into the SVC and IVC.

Right atrium, venae cavae

Impulse initiation occurs at the ______ ___, which generates 60-100 signals per minute without requiring any neurological input. This small collection of cells is located in the wall of the right atrium. -Depolarization causes the two ____ to contract simultaneously

SA Node -Atria

______ or _______ are cell fragments or shards released from cells in bone marrow known as megakaryocytes

Thrombocytes or platelets

______ formation, or blood clotting, occurs when blood vessels are injured -Ultimately, the clot will have to be broken down; this task is accomplished predominantly by _______, which is generated from ________

Thrombus -Plasmin; plasminogen

Autonomic control via sympathetic and parasympathetic regulation affects the heart. Parasympathetic signals provided by the ___ ___, slow down the heart

Vagus nerve

______ are vessels with a single endothelial cell layers and are so small that red blood cells must pass through in a single-file line -Thin wall of this structure allows easy diffusion of gases, nutrients, and waste -What happens when they are damaged?

Capillaries -Nothing -Blood can enter the intersitial space. If this occurs in a closed space, it may result in a bruise

Arteries branch into arterioles, which ultimately lead to _______ that perfuse the tissues -On the venous side of a capillary network, the capillaries join together to into venules, which join to form _______.

Capillaries -Veins

_______ enzyme is used to catalyze the rxn for the bicarbonate buffer system

Carbonic anhydrase

The _______, which do not contain granules released by exocytosis consist of _____ and _______.

Agranulocytes; lymphocytes/monocytes

At the lungs: once the blood reaches the capillaries that line the ________, it participates in gas exchange with ____ ____ leaving the blood and ____ entering the blood. -The blood then travels to the ____ ____ and into the ____ ____, which carry blood to the left side of the heart. -Oxygenated blood enters the _____ ____, travels through the ____ ______, and enters the ____ ______. -On contraction, the blood from the left ventricle passes through the _______ _______, enters the _____. -From the aorta, blood enters the ______, then the ________, and finally the _________. -After gas and nutrient exchange occurs at the capillaries, the blood enters the ________, which lead to the larger _______.

Alveoli, carbon dioxide, oxygen -Pulmonary venules; pulmonary veins -Left atrium, mitral valve (bicuspid valve), left ventricle -Aortic valve, aorta -Arteries, arterioles, capillaries -Venules, veins

______ forces are those that describe the opposing pressures of hydrostatic and osmotic pressures; they're essential for maintaining proper fluid volumes and solute concentrations inside and outside the vasculature

Starling forces

Blood returns to the heart via the ____ _____ _____ from the portions of the body above the heart and the ____ _____ ____ from the portions of the body below the heart -Deoxygenated blood enters the _______ ____, travels through the ____ ______, and enters the ______ ______. -On contraction, the blood from the right ventricle passes through the ____ ______ and enters the _____ ____, where it travels to the lungs and breaks up into continuously smaller vessels.

Superior vena cava (SVC); Inferior vena cava (IVC) -Right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle -Pulmonary valve, pulmonary arteries

During, ____, ventricular contraction and closure of the AV valves occurs and blood is pumped out of the ventricles. During _____, the ventricles are relaxed, the semilunar valves are closed, and blood from the atria fills the ventricles.

Systole; diastole