bio exam 2
Citric Acid Cycle extracts
1 ATP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH2 per turn
Proton Motive Force and ATP Synthase H+ then moves back across the membrane, passing through____
ATP synthase
isotonic
Equal concentration of water inside and outside cells. iso=the same
Photosystem II absorbs light at a shorter wavelength than Photosystem I.
true
redox potential is expressed as
volts (V)
Which example would have a negative change in entropy?
water freezing
Applying the first and second laws of thermodynamics together allows us to predict
whether any particular chemical or physical reaction will occur without an input of energy
symporter
with gradient
primary active transport
Transport in which the same protein that transports a substance also hydrolyzes ATP to power the transport directly.
The carriers alternate reduced and oxidized states as they
accept and donate electrons
oxygen is the electron ______
acceptor (oxidizing agent)
chemical energy is stored in
sugars and other organic molecules is used for growth, reproduction, and other work of living organisms.
Cellular respiration is part of the carbon cycle, the global cycle of carbon atoms.
true
Endergonic cellular reactions are driven by energy released from the hydrolysis of ATP
true
If an organism's overall metabolic pathways reach equilibrium, the organism will die.
true
ADP can be hydrolyzed further to _______ but this releases
adenosine monophosphate (AMP);somewhat less free energ than the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP.
active transport Moves substances ______ their concentration gradients
against
ATP powers cellular work by
coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions
kelvin =
C + 273.16
Types of metabolisms
Catabolism Anabolism
Regulation of water movement
Cell Wall Vacuoles Transport proteins (Aquaporins)
small hydrophobic
O2, CO2 N2, Benzene
toncity
The effect a solution has on cell volume when the solution surrounds the cell ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water tonos = tension or tone
at dynamic equilibrium, as many molecules
cross the membrane in one direction as in the other
In prokaryotes the initial stages occur in the
cytoplasm
During cellular respiration, most energy flows in this sequence:
glucose ---> NADH ---> electron transport chain ---> proton-motive force ---> ATP
Common Structural States of ATP
greater order lesser order
Heat (thermal energy) is
kinetic energy associated with random movement of atoms or molecules
Energy can be converted from
one form to another
diffusion
the net movement of ions or molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
reactions tend to be spontaneous when
the products are less ordered (more random) than the reactants.
In an exothermic reaction, ____.
the products have less potential energy than the reactants
ETC Multiprotein complexes in
Eukaryotes
ATP
Mediates most energy couplings in the cell always exo to couple with endo
proton pumps (H+ pumps)
Pump that moves hydrogen ions across membranes and pushes hydrogen ions across the plasma membrane from the cytoplasm to the cell exterior. mostly found in bacteria, fungi and plants moves one hydrogen at a time more hydrogen on the outside than inside
active transport
The mechanism by which ions and molecules move against the concentration gradient across a membrane, from the side with the lower concentration to the side with the higher concentration.
Two solutions of differing glucose concentration are placed in a container separated by a selectively permeable membrane that restricts large molecules like glucose, but allows the free diffusion of water. What will be the glucose concentration in the container after dynamic equilibrium has been reached?
The volumes of the solution will be different, with a higher volume on the side that originally contained the higher concentration of glucose.
a molecule with more positive Eo′
accepts electrons (its reduced)
In prokaryotes oxidative phosphorylation occurs
across the plasma membrane
Movement of a substance from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration using energy obtained from ATP is called
active transport
two types of proteins involved in facilitated diffusion
channel proteins and carrier proteins
PE in molecules is reflected through
chemical energy
The more negative the ΔG, the further toward
completion the reaction will move before equilibrium is established.
concentration gradient
concentration difference
KE is molecules above constant zero (-273 celsius) is reflected in their
constant motion
Transport
controlled movement of ions and molecules from one side of a membrane to the other. Typically the movement is directional in that some ions and molecules move into cells, whereas others move out of cells. Transport is also specific in that only certain ions and molecules move directionally across membranes. Transport is critical to the ionic and molecular organization of cells and, with it, the maintenance of cellular life.
The ultimate fate of the energy used by organisms is ____.
conversion into heat
membrane potential is also known as
electric potential Inside the cell -40 mV to -80 mV
A(n) ____ gradient is created as ions diffuse across membranes.
electrochemical
in reduction there is an
electron acceptor (oxidizing agent)
in oxidation there is an
electron donor (reducing agent)
redox reactions generate
energy
active transport always requires
energy (ATP or membrane potential)
In passive transport move across the plasma membrane without need of
energy input
A living system's free energy (G) is
energy that can do work (when temperature and pressure are uniform, as in a living cell)
Potential energy is
energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure overall structure of the molecule
To preserve homeostasis, cells must
maintain multiple factors in balance inside the cell
mitochondria
membrane bound organelles
Differences in Ion concentrations on opposite side of the plasma membrane lead to the
membrane potential
active transport contributes to the
membrane potential
negative inside to the positive outside
membrane potential (electric potential) (voltage)
molecules responsible for transport.
membrane proteins
in eukaryotes it occurs in the
mitochondria
A hydrogen (H+) gradient is generated from the _____ into the _____
mitochondrial matrix; intermembrane space proton motive force
In Eukaryotes, the Electron Transport Chain is found in the
mitochondrion
large molecules such as polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids and proteins are broken down into smaller units such as
monosaccharides, fatty acids, nucleotides, and amino acids, respectively
Which one contains more potential energy?
more organized (more complex)
two kinds of active transport
primary and secondary
only _____ can have anaerobic
prokaryotes
there is no mitochondria in
prokaryotes
function of cell wall
protects the cell to matter the volume of water
hydrogen ions can talked about in terms of
proteins and pH
a more negative redux potential?? pyruvate or NAD+
pyruvate
In the Electron Transport Chain the proteins are organized based on their
redox potential
Proton motive force drives the formation of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
true
The light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis absorb the energy of sunlight and produce both ATP and NADPH.
true
osmosis is the passive transport of water down its concentration gradient
true
substances are moved from an area if low concentration to an area of high concentration
true
bulk transport
two types: endocytosis exocytosis always requires energy moves a mixture or one big large molecule across the plasma membrane requires the formation of vesicles
Because a single solute is transferred in this carrier-mediated fashion, the transfer is called
uniport transport.
kinetic energy examples
waves in the ocean, a hit baseball, and a falling rock or flow of electrons, photons of light, and heat
secondary active transport
when one transport is dependent on another transport
can potential and kinetic energy be converted into each other
yes
anabolic pathway
(biosynthetic pathways) A metabolic pathway in which energy is used to build complicated molecules from simpler ones; also called a biosynthetic pathway. An individual reaction in an anabolic pathway is an anabolic reaction, also called a biosynthetic reaction. ana = upward EX: photosynthesis
The breakdown of ATP is a _______ reaction and results in the formation of ______
hydrolysis; adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a molecule of inorganic phosphate pi. ATP + H2O -> ADP +Pi delta G = -7.3 kcal/mol
Kinetic energy is energy associated with
motion or heat
he overall ΔG of an anabolic pathway is
positive
hypertonic
If the solution that surrounds a cell contains nonpenetrating solutes at higher concentrations than in the cell, the outside solution is said to be hypertonic (high in solute) hyper= over or above cell becomes shriveled high in solute and low in water
Facilitated Diffusion
Passive transport aided by proteins. requires something to help (proteins)
Endocytosis
The intake of macromolecules by forming vesicles from the plasma membrane (brining things in) vesicle trafficking Endocytosis is a reversal of exocytosis, involving different proteins There are three types of endocytosis: 1. Phagocytosis ("cellular eating") 2. Pinocytosis ("cellular drinking") 3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis dynnase
redox reactions
oxidation and reduction
These two electron carriers donate electrons to the electron transport chain, which powers ATP synthesis via
oxidative phosphorylation
glucose gets ______ snd oxygen gets _____
oxidized; reduced
cellular respiration occurs when
oxygen is present
two types of transport
passive and active
Antiporters
against gradient
some times the _____ and ____ challenges homeostasis
plasma membrane, water movement
Based on the free energy of reactants and products, every reaction can be placed into one of two groups.
exergonic reaction endergonic reaction
all of the reactions in the Citric Acid Cycle are
exergonic
ATP synthase uses the
exergonic flow of H+ to drive phosphorylation of ATP
Sucrose concentration
high inside the cell
H+ concentration
high outside the cell
moving away from equilibrium is not
spontaneous bc it requires energy
two types of bulk transport
Exocytosis Endocytosis
ENZYMES
Speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers help overcome activation energy
redox potential
(Eo′): tendency of a compound to donate electrons or receive electrons
entropy
(thermodynamics) a thermodynamic quantity representing the amount of energy in a system that is no longer available for doing mechanical work entropy = disorder
endergonic
A chemical reaction that requires the input of energy in order to proceed. needs energy how we couple with ATP
electrochemical gradient
A difference in ion concentration and electric charge difference across a membrane.
catabolic pathway
A metabolic pathway in which energy is released by the breakdown of complex molecules to simpler compounds. An individual reaction in a catabolic pathway is a catabolic reaction. cata = downward ex: cellular respiration
simple diffusion
No proteins involved Movement of small, non-polar molecules Hydrocarbons CO2 O2
transport proteins
Non-gated Channel proteins provide corridors that allow a specific molecule or ion to cross the membrane Carrier proteins operate on a bind, flip, release mechanism
private oxidation
Occurs in mitochondria matrix facilitated passive transport all done by one enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenate
membrane potential is generated by
different ion concentrations across the plasma membrane
when a drop of food coloring is placed in a container of clear water, the colored dye molecules ____
diffuse equally throughout the container
isolated system
does not exchange matter or energy with its surroundings. A perfectly insulated Thermos flask is an example of an isolated system.
A molecule with a more negative Eo′
donates electrons (its oxidized)
glucose is the electron _____
donor (reducing agent)
in passive transport substances diffuse
down their concentration gradient (high to low)
what determines if a reaction is spontaneous
entropy and entropy
ion channels
facilitate the transport of ions such as sodium , potassium , calcium , and chlorine . Ion channels occur in all eukaryotes.
aquaporins
facilitated diffusion of water through membranes occurs through specialized water channels. A billion molecules of water per second can move through an aquaporin channel.
carrier proteins
form passageways through the lipid bilayer. Carrier proteins each bind a specific single solute, such as glucose or an amino acid, and transport it across the lipid bilayer.
the one with the most chemical energy is
fructose p-6
> than H =
positive redox potential
on the inside of the cell there is a higher concentration of
potassium ions
Chemical energy is
potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction based on structure of molecule
osmotic pressure
pressure that must be applied to a solution to prevent water movement across a membrane.
This released energy is ultimately used to
synthesize ATP
About 34% of the energy in a glucose molecule is transferred to _____ during _____ making about ____
to ATP during cellular respiration, making about 32 ATP
Complete oxidation of one glucose molecule to CO2 and H2O will yield 30-32 net ATP.
true
In cellular respiration, organic molecules are oxidized by the removal of high-energy electrons, which then drives the synthesis of ATP.
true
In eukaryotic cells, glycolysis occurs in the cytosol.
true
Intensive exercise leads to the buildup of lactate in muscle cells due to a lack of oxygen supply to the muscles, which shunts glucose metabolism to lactate fermentation rather than oxidative phosphorylation.
true
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be transformed from one form to another, but that it cannot be created or destroyed.
true
do molecules have both KE and PE
yes
Energy coupling
ΔG for ATP at cellular conditions -13 kcal/mol
If a reaction is endergonic, what can we infer about the reaction?
ΔG must be positive
how do enzymes speed of metabolism
lower activation energy
on the outside of the ions there is a higher concentration of
sodium and chlorine ions
Electron transfer allows proteins to ____ from the _____ to the ______
H+, mitochondrial matrix, intermembrane space
Small uncharged polar
H2O, glycerol, ethanol
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Harvesting energy from organic molecules to make ATP
electrogenic pumps
Help store energy that can be used for cellular work
Channel proteins
form hydrophilic channels in the membrane through which water and ions can pass
the 1st law of thermodynamics
- energy cannot be created or destroyed -only transformed -total amount of energy in a system and its surroundings remains constant. -This law is also called the principle of conservation of energy.
The free energy of ATP hydrolysis is -31.0 kJ/mol. The free energy of glucose phosphorylation by hexokinase is +14.3 kJ/mol. These two reactions are coupled to allow them to proceed spontaneously. What is the overall free energy associated with this coupled reaction?
-16.7 kJ/mol
Not all exergonic reactions occur spontaneously
-Activation energy is required -There is still a net gain in energy -There is still an increase in entropy - for the reactants to become products there needs to be a transition (activation energy)
What makes a reaction spontaneous?
-If the change in free energy of the reaction is negative (ΔG < 0) then it will occur spontaneously -increased disorder -reactants have more energy than the products
the 2nd law of thermodynamics
-the entropy (disorder) of the universe is always increased -in any process in which a system changes from an initial to a final state, the total disorder (entropy) of a system and its surroundings always increases - if reaction is going to release energy it has to increase entropy (disorder)
Answer the question using the accompanying graph. Which portion of the graph shows the activation energy in the absence of enzyme?
A
potential energy example
A boulder on the top of a hill has potential energy because of its position in Earth's gravitational field
Citric Acid Cycle
A chemical cycle involving eight steps that completes the metabolic breakdown of glucose molecules to carbon dioxide; occurs within the mitochondrion; the second major stage in cellular respiration.
Large uncharged polar
Amino acids, Glucose, Nucleotides
membrane potential
An electrical voltage that measures the potential inside a cell membrane relative to the fluid just outside; it is negative under resting conditions and becomes positive during an action potential.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Binding of ligands to receptors triggers vesicle formation A process for the specific uptake of certain substances required by the cell clathrin-dependent endocytosis cholesterol is important for the cell receptors brought in with the vesicle
catabolic reaction
Cellular reaction that breaks down complex molecules such as sugar to make their energy available for cellular work.
Regulation of enzyme activity helps control metabolism
Chemical chaos would result if a cell's metabolic pathways were not tightly regulated A cell does this by switching on or off the genes that encode specific enzymes or by regulating the activity of enzymes
forms of potential energy
Chemical energy, nuclear energy, gravitational energy, and stored mechanical energy
spontaneous reactions
Chemical or physical reaction that occurs without outside help. Spontaneous reactions may proceed very slowly, such as the formation of rust on a nail, or very quickly, such as a match bursting into flame.
exergonic
Chemical reactions that release energy give off energy makes ATP
redox reactions are
Chemical reactions that transfer electrons between reactants
redox potentail is compared to _____
Compared to hydrogen
Complex III
Cytochrome b Cytochrome c1
Complex IV
Cytochrome c oxidase
Which statement is a part of the first law of thermodynamics?
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed
Catabolism
Energy-releasing metabolic reactions large molecules and breaking them down which releases energy
Anabolism
Energy-requiring metabolic reactions small molecules into large molecules Examples: Synthesis of amino acids Glycogenesis (making glucose) Any biosynthetic pathway use monosaccharides to create polysaccharides
Enzymes lower the activation energy
Enzymes catalyze reactions by lowering the EA barrier Enzymes do not affect the change in free energy (∆G); instead, they hasten reactions that would occur eventually
Spontaneous Reactions Typically Reach ________ rather than _______
Equilibrium Point; Going to Completion
examples of catabolism
Examples: Glycolysis Citric acid cycle Fermentation Respiration (both aerobic and anaerobic respiration)
G =
Free Energy That form of energy which can be used to do work
Ions
H+, Na+, HCO3- Cl-, Ca2+, Mg 2+
LEO goes to
GER
GER stands for
Gaining Electrons is Reduction
plasmolysis
In plants, the shrinkage and loss of internal osmotic pressure under these conditions causes stems and leaves to wilt. In extreme cases, plant cells shrink so much that they retract from their walls, a condition known as plasmolysis
Phagocytosis
Internalization of large solid particles The vacuole fuses with a lysosome to digest the particle Not all cells can perform phagocytosis Important process of immune cells "Cell eating" A type of endocytosis in which a cell engulfs large particles or whole cells not all cells can undergo phagocytosis cell walls prohibit this plans cells and most bacteria do not undergo this but many animals do A type of endocytosis in which a cell engulfs large particles or whole cells
Citric Acid Cycle also goes by
Kreb's cycle or Tricarboxylic Cycle
Two different structural states of the very same matter
Less Organized (simpler) More Organized (more complex)
Phosphorylated intermediates
Less stable than original unphosphorylated molecule
LEO stands for
Losing Electrons is Oxidation
facilitated diffusion.
Many polar and charged molecules such as water, amino acids, sugars, and ions diffuse across membranes with the help of transport proteins. The transport proteins enable polar and charged molecules to avoid interaction with the hydrophobic lipid bilayer
selectively permeable
Membranes that affect diffusion i.e: Hydrophobic (nonpolar) molecules are able to dissolve in the lipid bilayer of a membrane and move through it freely. By contrast, the hydrophobic core of the membrane blocks or slows the movement of hydrophilic molecules such as ions and polar molecules.
anabolic reaction (biosynthetic reaction)
Metabolic reaction that requires energy to assemble simple substances into more complex molecules.
Complex I
NADH dehydrogenase Ubiquinone (Q)
Electron carriers and Oxidative phosphorylation following glycolysis and the citric acid cycle ____ and _____ account for most of the energy extracted from _____
NADH, FADH2, food
two major functions of membrane potential
Provides energy to perform work Can be used to transmit signals throughout a cell
sodium-potassium pump
Pump that pushes 3NA+ out of the cell and 2K+ into the cell in the same pumping cycle. Also referred to as the sodium-potassium pump or as Na+/K+ -ATPase. mostly found in animals
(Ca2+ pump) calcium pump
Pump that pushes Ca2+ from the cytoplasm to the cell exterior, and also from the cytosol into the vesicles of the endoplasmic reticulum
endergonic reaction
Reaction that can proceed only if free energy is supplied. flip of the protein
exergonic reaction
Reaction that has a negative ΔG because it releases free energy.
endothermic
Referring to a reaction that absorbs energy, that is, a reaction in which the products have more potential energy than the reactants.
exothermic
Referring to a reaction that releases energy, that is, a reaction in which the products have less potential energy than the reactants.
cotransport
Secondary active transport mechanisms that move both ions and organic molecules across membranes. The two types of cotransport are symport and anti port. Couple the favorable movement of one molecule with its concentration gradient and unfavorable movement of another molecule against its concentration gradient Energy comes from concentration gradient of the ions/molecules across the membrane Example: Sucrose-Proton pump Sodium-Calcium pump
How the cell achieves homeostasis?
Semi-Permeable cell membrane Controls ion concentration. Same number of water molecules that are coming out are coming in.
types of passive transport
Simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion Osmosis
What happens when the concentrations of a solute that can freely diffuse across a membrane are equal inside and outside the cell?
Solute molecules continue to diffuse across the membrane.
Complex II
Succinate dehydrogenase
two types of cotransporters
Symporters and Antiporters
Chemiosmosis:
The Energy-Coupling Mechanism the use of energy in a H+ gradient to drive cellular work
hypotonic
The effect a solution has on cell volume when the solution surrounds the cell hypo= under or below less solute on outside of cell than on inside. water comes into the cell
Which statement is true for exergonic reactions?
The products have less free energy than the reactants
phosphorylation
The metabolic process of introducing a phosphate group into an organic molecule. addition of phosphate to a carrier protein increases order and adds potential chemical energy which will convert to mechanical work and the protein will be flipped and them phosphate will be released
The more complex (ordered, organized) a structure is . . . (i.e., the more parts there are, or the more intricate the relationship between the parts),
The more potential energy that structure will tend to contain.
enthalpy
The potential energy in a system. symbolized by H
turgor pressure
The resulting osmotic pressure that pushes the cells tightly against their walls and supports the softer tissues against the force of gravity
reversible
The term indicating that a reaction may go from left to right or from right to left, depending on conditions. (double arrow)
antiport
The transport of two molecules in the same direction across a membrane. Also referred to as cotransport.
symport
The transport of two molecules in the same direction across a membrane. Also referred to as cotransport.
What can be inferred from the accompanying graph?
This reaction is endergonic, with a positive ΔG.
secondary active transport
Transport indirectly driven by ATP hydrolysis.
Exocytosis
Transport of intracellular vesicles across the plasma membrane Vesicles from several sources Endosomes ER and Golgi Lysosomes regulated secretion- fuse with plasma membrane and secrete what is inside Secretory cells Mucus cells (snot) Pancreatic cells (insulin) Synaptic vesicles (transmitters) Immune cells (antibodies) cynase waste - constantly present has to have a protein on the outside of the cell - constantly present insulin
The three main functions of active transport are:
Uptake of essential nutrients from the fluid surrounding cells even when their concentrations are lower than in cells; Removal of secretory or waste materials from cells or organelles even when the concentration of those materials is higher outside the cells or organelles; and Maintenance of essentially constant intracellular concentrations of Na+. K+, H+, Ca2+
Pinocytosis
Uptake of extracellular fluids and associated molecules into the cell Already-dissolved molecules Vesicle fuses with lysosome Non-specific
reduction
a substance gains electrons, or is reduced
oxidation
a substance loses electrons, or is oxidized
simple diffusion
depends solely on molecular size and lipid solubility
respiration can be
anaerobic or aerobic
A transport system in which the transport of an ion in one direction provides the energy for active transport in the opposite direction is known as ____.
antiport
Carrier molecules are utilized for ____.
both active and passive transport
The movement of water across a membrane from an area of high to low water concentration is an example of ____
both diffusion and osmosis
open system
can exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings All living organisms are open systems.
closed system
can exchange energy but not matter with its surroundings. Earth is a closed system. It takes in a great amount of energy from the Sun and releases heat, but essentially no matter is exchanged between Earth and the rest of the universe (barring the odd space probe).
Anabolism is powered by
catabolism
animal cells do not have
cell walls
prokaryotes and eukaryotes can have
cellular respiration
delta H =
change in enthalpy
delta S =
change in entropy
delta G
change in free energy is the energy in the products minus the energy in the reactant
Although the forms of energy are different, energy can be
converted readily from one form to another. chemical energy is transformed into electrical energy in a flashlight battery
osmosis
dedicated to the movement of water across the plasma membrane (passive transport of water) The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane Water diffuses across a membrane down its concentration gradient until it reaches a dynamic equilibrium always goes from high concentration to low concentration (concentration of solute)
Transport of a molecule across a cell membrane by facilitated diffusion ____.
depends on a concentration gradient
Passive transport
depends on concentration differences on the two sides of a membrane (concentration = number of molecules or ions per unit volume) Passive transport moves ions and molecules across the membrane with the concentration gradient, meaning from the side with the higher concentration to the side with the lower concentration. The difference in concentration provides the energy for this form of transport. high concentration to low concentration
According to the second law of thermodynamics, the disorder of a system always decreases.
false
At the end of pyruvate oxidation, acetyl-CoA is phosphorylated into ATP.
false
In eukaryotes, photosynthetic reactions take place in the plasma membrane and cytosol
false
In glycolysis, ATP is synthesized by releasing free energy from glucose to generate an H+ gradient.
false
The breakdown of one glucose molecule by glycolysis yields a net gain of 16 ATP.
false
The chloroplast stroma is made up of large complexes of light-trapping pigments.
false
The end products of glycolysis include water, carbon dioxide, and ATP.
false
The oxygen released by photosynthesis is derived from CO2.
false
The two factors that determine whether a reaction is spontaneous are the heat and energy associated with the reaction.
false
active diffusion occurs when polar and charged molecules are moved by transport proteins across a membrane along their concentration gradient
false
channel proteins create hydrophilic environments through which any hydrophilic substance can be transported
false
protein pumps move any positively changed ions across membranes
false
ATP consists of the
five-carbon sugar ribose linked to the nitrogenous base adenine and a chain of three phosphate groups Removal of one or two of the three phosphate groups is a spontaneous reaction that releases large amounts of free energy.
most ion channels are
gated channels
two types of channel proteins
gated or not gated
Building of complex molecules from simpler ones. These processes produce
growth and differentiation of cells and increase in body size
chemical equilibrium
he reaction does not stop, but the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction
Energy can exist in many different forms, including
heat, chemical, electrical, mechanical, and radiant energy
Reactions tend to be spontaneous
if the products have less potential energy than the reactants.
when ATP is hydrolyzed
inorganic phosphate release
channel is an
integral protein that is negative and allows positive molecules to flow through bc made from amino acids
Osmoregulation
is necessary for organisms without cell walls
Metabolism
is the totality of an organism's chemical reactions
of isocitrate, NAD+, and a-Ketogluterate which one has the most negative
isocitrate
three types of systems
isolated closed open
carrier proteins are specific because
it requires binding and creates a conformational change of the protein (change in structure) when the flip occurs.
which statement best describes what would happen to the sodium potassium pump under these circumstances? (sodium is moving from inside the cell to the outside)
it will pump the same amount of sodium outside the cell. ion channel will go from high concentration to low concentration. then the sodium potassium pump can maintain.
Energy transformation is ruled by the
laws of thermodynamics
positive molecule
left
Movement of H+ down a concentration gradient allows the
movement of sucrose up a concentration gradient
Active transport
moves ions or molecules against the concentration gradient, meaning from the side with the lower concentration to the side with the higher concentration. Active transport uses energy obtained directly or indirectly by breaking down ATP. protein pumps
For a reaction to be spontaneous, ΔG must be
negative
The overall ΔG of a catabolic pathway is
negative
< than H =
negative redox potential
The Na+/K+ pump creates a ____ charge inside the cell and a ____ charge outside the cell.
negative; positive
the transfer of electrons during redox reactions_____
releases energy stored in organic molecules
negative molecule
right
plasma membrane is a
semipermeable barrier
metabolic pathway
series of reactions in which the products of one reaction are used immediately as the reactants for the next reaction in the series
Energy is released by breaking down complex molecules into
simpler compounds
active transport is performed by
specific proteins embedded in the membranes
Energy is release based on changes in
structural states
everything outside of the system is its
surroundings
When discussing thermodynamics, scientists refer to a
system. a system can be a molecule, planet, or a cell. (whatever we define it to be)
T=
temp in kelvin
Chemical energy is stored in
the bonds between atoms.
Two factors related to the first and second laws of thermodynamics must be taken into account to determine whether a reaction is spontaneous:
the change in energy content of a system; its change in entropy.
Diffusion depends on
the constant motion of ions or molecules at temperatures above absolute zero (-273 celsius)
In a redox reaction, a larger amount of energy will be released the
the farther apart the molecules are in the redox tower
When an enzyme-catalyzed reaction reaches equilibrium ____.
the rate of the forward and reverse reactions are equal
what is important about the kinetic and potential energy in a roller coaster
the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy remains constant
ultimate source of energy for all organisms
the sun example: Plants capture the kinetic energy of light radiating from the Sun by absorbing it and converting it to the chemical energy of complex organic molecules—primarily sugars, starches, and lipids
the study of energy and its transformation
thermodynamics.
gated channels
they switch between open, closed, or intermediate states. For instance, the gates may open or close in response to changes in voltage across the membrane, or by binding signal molecules. The opening or closing involves changes in the protein's three-dimensional shape.