Bio Unit 3

A steady traffic of _____and ____ move across consider the chemical exchanges btwn a muscle cell and the extracellular fluid thr bathes it: ___,___,____ enter the cell The cell takes in O2 for use in Also, cell regulates its concentration of I'm spite of heavy traffic through them, cell membrane are The cell is able to take up some also, substances that move thru the membrane do so at Nonpolar molecules- such as ___,___,___, are _____ and can therefore However, the hydrophobic interior of the membrane impedes Polar molecules such as ___ and .____ A charger atom or molecule and it's surrounding shell of ____ find the ____interior of the membrane even more furthermore, the ____r is only one aspect of the gatekeeper system responsible for Proteins built into the membrane play Cell membranes ARE permeable to These hydrophillic substances can avoid contact with Some transport proteins, called ____, function by having a hydrophillic For example, passage of water molecules thru plasma membrane or certain cells is greatly facilitated by Most aquaporin proteins consist of The polypeptide making up each subunit forms a channel that allows ____, many more than Other transport proteins, called carrier proteins, hold onto —— and ____ Thus, the selective permeability of a membrane depends on both A transport protein is ____for the substance that jt For example, a specific carrier protein in plasma membrane of red blood cells This "____" transporter is so selective that Thus, the selective permeability of the membrane results from ____and ____. Passive transport is Molecules have a type of energy called____, which is associated with their ___. Diffusion Each molecule moves ____, but diffusion of a POPULATION of molecules Imagine a synthetic membrane separating pure water from a solution of dye in water. Explain the diffusion.

small molecules and ions, plasma membrane in both directions sugars, amino acids, and other nutrients enter cell and metabolic waste products leave it cellular respiration and expels CO2. inorganic ions (na+,Ca2+,K+,Cl-) by shuttling them one way or another across plasma membrane selectively permeable and substances do not cross the barrier indiscriminately. small molecules and ions and exclude others diff rates hydrocarbons, co2, o2, are hydrophobic and can therefore dissolve in the lipid bilayer of membrane and cross easily w/o aid of membrane proteins impedes the direct passage of ions and polar molecules, which are hydrophillic, thru the membrane glucose and other sugars pass only slowly thru a lipid bilayer, and even water, which is very small and polar, not pass v quickly water , hydrophobic, even more difficult to penetrate lipid bilayer , selective permeability of cell key roles in regulating transport specific ions and a variety of polar molecules. lipid bilayer by passing through TRANSPORT PROTEINS that span the membrane channel proteins, function by having a hydrophillic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel thru the membrane channel proteins called aquaporins 4 identical subunits single file passage of up to 3 billion water molecules per second , many more than would cross membrane without aquaporins. hold onto their passengers and change shape in a way that shuttles them across the membrane SPECIFIC!!! for substance it trans located!, allowing only a certain substance (or a small group of related substances) to cross the membrane transports glucose across the membrane 50,000x faster than glucose can pass thru on its own it even rejects FRUCTOSE!! which has the same molecular formula! the discriminating barrier of the lipid bilayer and the specific transport proteins built into the membrane diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment. thermal energy, constant motion (result of this constant motion) it is the movement of particles of any substance so that they tend to spread out in the available space. randomly, may be directional the membrane has pores large enough for molecules of dye to pass thru . random movement of dye molecules will cause some to pass thru pores-this will happen more often on the side with MORE dye molecules. The dye diffused from where it is MORE concentrated to where it is less concentrated(called diffusing down a concentration gradient) This leads to dynamic equilibrium-solute molecules continue to cross the membrane, but at equal rates in both directions. (result both solutions have equal concentrations of the dye molecules) (as many dye molecules crossing membrane each second in one direction as other)

cell fractionation is useful for Explain it- ____ cell's are placed in a ____ that is The liquid above the pellet is this process is ___, resulting in a series of __ that consist of Cell fractionation allows researchers to prepare specific example

studying cell structure and function Broken up cells are placed in a tube that is spun in a centrifuge. resulting force causes largest cells to settle to bottom of tube, forming a pellet poured into a new tube and centrifuged at higher speed for longer time repeated several times, resulting in a series of pellets tht consist of nuclei, mitochondria, (chloroplasts if celle from photosynthetic org) pieces of food, and ribosomes, the smallest components. cell components in bulk and identify their functions ( task not possible w intact cells) in one of the cell fractions resulting from centrifugation, biochemical tests showed presence of enzymes involved in cellular reps and Em revealed large numbers of organelle called mitochondria- site for cellular resp .. thus cytology and biochem complément eachother in correlating cell structure and function

FRQ WHY ARE THE PORES IN THE NUCLEAR ENVELOPE SO SMALL?? FRQQQQQQQQ QUESTION ON TEST THIS CELL HAS WHOLE LOT OF ROUGH ER- ITS JOB IS explain each of big 3 explain why pH 5 ednosymbiont theory nasal body anchorage JUNCTIONS EXPLAIN EX OF FD, D, ACTIVE TRANSPORT

WHY ARE THE PORES IN THE NUCLEAR ENVELOPE SO SMALL?? FRQQQQQQQQ Let in wrong things, damage DNA Let out waste products Ribosomes need to be let out RNA must be let out of nucleus (typically short molecule so easier to let out) Lipid bilayer of pores bc its semi permeable Design Structure and function is conserved and derived from the same cell membrane Our organelles have bilayer PROTEINS SMOOTH ER- JOB IS CARBS & LIPIDS & TRANSPORT -- MADE UP OF FOLDS OF MEMBRANE.. EACH LITTLE POCKET/BUBBLE IS DIFFERENT BC DIFF FUNCTIONS.. ONE DEALING WITH LIPIDS, EXPECT NONPOLAR THINGS.. IF DEALING W CARBS, DEAL WITH POLAR STUFF The smooth ER Synthesizes lipids Metabolizes carbohydrates Detoxifies drugs and poisons Stores calcium ions Made up of folds of membrane ?Why? Because each fold has a different temp, ph, shape has a different function due to different shape The rough ER Has bound ribosomes, which secrete glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates) Distributes transport vesicles, proteins surrounded by membranes Is a membrane factory for the cell Glycoproteins The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae Functions of the Golgi apparatus Modifies products of the ER Manufactures certain macromolecules Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles WHY DO LYSOSOMES PUMP H* INSIDE? THEY LOWER PH AND BECOME MORE ACIDIC AND THEN HYDROLYSIS CAN HAPPEN SO ENZYMES CAN WORK. ENZYMES NEED LOW PH BC THE PH OF YOUR BODY IS 7 SO IF YOU MAKE ENZYMES AT 7 AND WORK AT 7, CELLS WOULD KILL THEMSELVES... WHEN LOWER PH SEE BETTER DIGESTION OF PROTEINS... CAN DIGEST PARTS OF THAT ARE IMPORTANT WORK AT HIGH OR LOW PH SO THAT THEY DON'T DIGEST EVERYTHING ENDOSYMBIONT THEORY -early ancestors of euk cells engulfed a non photosynthetic prok cell which formed an endosymbiont relationship with its host Host cell and endosymbiont merged into single organism, a euk cell with a mitochondria Mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free living bacteria-engulfed by ancestral eukaryote..endosymbiont...cell that lives within another cell (host)- as a partnership, evolutionary advantage for both- one supplies energy and other supplies raw material and protection GOLGI MAKE LYSOSOMES At some point in history large cell w internal membranes ate something and didnt kill it and new thing was safe in it.. Bacteria engulfed couldn't overcome defences of cell but also cell couldn't kill it. We don't need oxygen. Mitochondria needs it. Our cells do anaerobic respiration..but mitochondria takes products and further breaks down using Oxygen. Once that happened and cell had 15x the amount of ATP coming out of one molecule glucose, they were able to become more efficient and grow more membranes and increase SA and volume and led to Euk orgs existing. Also, engulfing photosynthetic organs that didn't die and they couldn't kill it and become chloroplasts and other plastids. Other little non membrane bound organelles that carry diff pigments...grow devidie replicate on own like chloroplasts Organism as it was becoming euk and as engulfed pork had energy to support cytoskeleton and size!!! Must have energy to build organelles and membrane. Mitochondria, chloroplasts... hand in hand with development of euk organisms. In of mitochondria Osmosis tht used aqua orin's 02 sodium potassium pump

Intermediate filaments are named for their Like microfilaments, they are specialized for Each type is constructed from a particular molecular ____belonging to a family of ____ whose Intermediate are more ____fixtures of cells than are mictrotubules or microfilaments, which are often ___ and ___ Even after cells die, intermediate filament networks Intermediate filaments are especially ____ and play an important role in The nucleus sits within a Other intermediate filaments make up the ____which lines rhe In genereal, the various kinds of intermediate filaments seem to Most cells synthesize and secrete materials to the The cell wall is an The wall does what for the plant cell? On the level of the whole plant, the strong ___ of ____hold the plant up against ___,___,___ also have cell walls The exact chemical composition of the well ___ from __ to ___, but What is composition of cell wall? ____ that are made up of —— and are synthesized by an enzyme called ____, and are This combination of materials, strong ___ in a ___, is the same basic architectural design found in A young plant cell first secretes a Between primary walls of adjacent cells is the The middle lamina does what? When a cell matured and stops growing, it Some plant cells do this by simply secreting ___ into the ____ Other cells do this by adding a The secondary wall, often deposited in several ____, has a strong and Wood, for example, consists mainly of Plant cell walls are usually perforated by

diameter-larger than diameter of microfilaments but smaller than microtubules for bearing tension. molecular subunit belonging to a family of proteins whose membranes include the keratins in hair and nails permanent... disassembled and reassembled in various parts of cell often persist (for ex outer layer of skin consists of dead skin cells full of keratin filaments) sturdy, in reinforcing the shape of a cell and fixing the position of certain organelles. cage made of intermediate filaments nuclear lamina, lines interior of nuclear envelope function together as permanent framework of entire cell extra cellular side- outside plasma membrane extracellular structure of plant cells that distinguishes them from animal cells protect, keeps its shape, prevents excess uptake of water strong walls of specialized cells hold plant up against forces of gravity prokaryotes, fungi, some protists caries from species to species and even from one cell type to another in same plant, but basic design of wall is consistent microfibrils made up of polysaccharide cellulose are synthesized by enzyme called cellulose synthase and secreted to extracellular space where they become embedded in matrix of other polysaccharides and proteins strong fibers in a ground substance(matrix), same materials found in steel reinforced concrete and fiber glass relatively thin and flexible wall called primary cell wall middle lamina, a thin layer rich in sticky polysaccharides called pectin glued adjacent cells tg (pectin is thickening agent in jelly) strengthens its wall gardening substances into primary wall secondary cell wall between plasma membrane and primary wall laminated layers, strong and durable matrix tha affords the cell protection and support secondary walls plasmodesmata (channels btwn adjacent cells)

active transport uses ____ to move Despite the help of ____, facilitated diffusion is considered _____ bc the solute is moving _____ Facilitated diffusion ____ transport of a solute by providing ____, but it does NOT ALTER Some transport proteins, however, can move solutes _____, across the plasma membrane from side where To pump a solute across a membrane against This is called ___. It enables For ex, compared w its surroundings, an animal cell has a much higher concentration of As in other types of cellular work, ___ supplies energy needed for ____. One way it can power active transport is by transferring its ___. This can induce the ____ to ___ One transport system that works this way is Explain sodium potassium pump The sodium potassium pump pumps ions _____ Sodium ion concentration is The pump oscillates between two ___in a cycle that moves _____ for every _____ The two shapes have diff ATP does what Passive transport: Substances diffuse diffusion vs FC

energy, move solutes against their gradients transport proteins, facilitated diffusion is considered passive transport bc the solute is moving down its concentration gradient, a process tht requires no energy speeds, providing efficient passage thru membrane , but does not alter direction of transport move solutes against concentration gradient , across the plasma membrane from side where they r less concentrated (whether inside or out) to side where r more concentrated. it's gradient requires work; the cell must expend energy active transport -enables cell to maintain internal concentrations of small solutes that differ from concentrations in its environment. K+and a much lower concentration of na* ions. the plasma membrane helps maintain these steep gradients by pumping Na+ out of cell and K+ into it. ATP, active transport transferring its terminal phosphate group directly to the transport protein This can induce the protein to change its shape in a manner that trans locates a solute bound to the protein across the membrane sodium potassium pump which exchanges Na+ for K+ across the plasma membrane of animal cells in the extracellular fluid, Na+ conc. high and K+ low. in cytoplasm, Na+ low and K+ high. 1.) Cytoplsmic na* binds to sodium potassium pump. The affinity for Na+ is high when the protein has this shape. 2,)Na+ binding stimulates phsophorylation by ATP. 3.)Phosphorylation leads to a change in protein shape, reducing its affinity for Na+ which is released outside. 4.New shape has a high affinity for K+, which binds on the extracellular side and triggers release of the phosphate group 5.)loss of the phosphate group restores proteins original shape which has lower affinity for K+. K+ is released, affinity for Na+ is high again, cycle repeats against steep concentration gradients. high outside cell and low inside-while potassium ion conc is low outside cell and high inside shapes— cycle that moves 3 Na+ out of cell for every 2 K+ pumped in affinities for Na+ and K+ powers the shape change by transferring a phosphate group to the transport protein (phosphorylating the protein) spontaneously down their conc gradients crossing membrane w no energy expenditure and this rate of diffusion can greatly increase w help of transport proteins in membrane Diffusion:hydrophobic molecules and (at slow rate) v small uncharged polar molecules can diffuse thru lipid bilayer...FD:many hydrophobic substances diffuse thru mem with assistance of transport proteins - either channel proteins or carrier

Some types of cell can ____ another cell by _____- this forms a A lysosome fuses with the ___ and Lysosomes also use enzymes to Lysosomal enzymes work best at —organelle creates —how? - why? - why? why evolve digestive enzymes which function at pH different from cytosol? Diseases of lysosomes are often fatal. why? lysosomal storage diseases - more than__ known diseases • example: Lysosomal storage diseases involving lipids Diseases involving Glycogen & other poylsaccharides Diseases involving Proteins Lysosomes can be used to ___ when they're supposed to Some cells have to die for Two examples? Apoptosis- it is _____... • example: Vacuoles- diverse Vacuoles are large

engulf, phagocytosis; this forms a food vacuole food vacuole and digests the molecules recycle the cell's own organelles and macromolecules, a process called autophagy pH 5- -organelle creates custom pH -proteins in lysosomal membrane pump H+ ions from the cytosol into lysosome -• enzymes are very sensitive to pH enzymes are proteins — pH affects structure digestive enzymes won't function well if some leak into cytosol = don't want to digest yourself! digestive enzyme not working in lysosome - picks up biomolecules, but can't digest one so lysosomes fill up with undigested material and grow larger & larger until disrupts cell & organ function 40 Tay-Sachs disease build up undigested fat in brain cells Gaucher's disease, Niemann-Pick disease, Tay Sachs Glycogen & other poylsaccharides - —Farber disease, Krabbe disease Schindler's disease kill cells when they are supposed to be destroyed proper development in an organism ex apoptosis which is an "auto-destruct" process where lysosomes break open & kill cell ex: tadpole tail gets re-absorbed when it turns into a frog, loss of webbing between your fingers during fetal development programmed destruction of cells in multi- cellular organisms - programmed development, control of cell growth cell grows uncontrollably this self-destruct mechanism is triggered to remove damaged cell • cancer must over-ride this to enable tumor growth maintenance compartments vesicles derived from the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus

Until recently, the ___ barrier prevented scientists from Electron microscopy Resolution is ____ related to Electron beams have much Modern EM can achieve resolution of The transmission electron microscope is The TEM aims an For TEM, specimen has been ___ with The electrons passing thru the specimen are ___ more in denser regions. Instead of glass lenses, TEM used Scanning electron microscope Similarly controlled by____, an electron The beam ___ electrons on the ___,and these ___ are Result is image of specimens Electron microscopes have revealed many ___ and ____ that were But LM offers advantages in Disadvantage of EM Major tech advantages of LM-for example, ___ individual cellular molecules with ___, makes it possible to see In addition, confocal and other new types of finally, new techniques and labeling molecules have allowed researchers to Cytology

resolution, using standard light microscopes to study organelles (membrane enclosed structures within eukaryotes) focuses beam of electrons through a specimen or onto its surface. inversely related to wavelength of the the radiation a microscope uses for imaginf shorter wavelengths than visiblw light .002nm (tho in practice cant resolve structures smaller than 2nm across) which is 100 fold improvement over LM used to study internal structure of cells electron beam thru a very thin section of specimen (much as light LM aim light thru sample on slide) stained w atoms of heavy metals which attach to certain cellular structures and enhance electron density of some parts of the cell more than others scattered-so fewer are transmitted. the image displays pattern of transmitted electrons electromagnets as lenses to bend paths of elecetrons, focusing the image onto a monitor for viewing useful for detailed study of topography of specimen (surface) electromagnet "lenses", electron beams scan surface of sample (usually coated w thin film of gold) exciters electrons on the surface and these secondary electrons are detected by device that translates pattern of electrons into an electronic signal to a video screen surface that appears 3D organelles and other subcellular structures that that were impossible to resolve w LM studying living cells methods used to prepare specimen kill cells (this preparation in any type microscopy introduces artifacts-structural features seen in micro graphs that DNE in living cell) labeling individual cellular molecules or structures w fluorescent markers make it possible to see structures w increasing detail fluorescent Light microscopy have produced sharpened images of 3D tissues and cells break resolution barrier and distinguish subcellklr structures as small as 10-20nm across study of cellular structure -microscopes r most important tool

The plasma membrane is a The general structure of a biological membrane is: _____requirements set _____ The ratio of ___to___ of a cell is critical As the surface area increases by Small cells have a A eukaryotic cell has The plasma membrane and organelle membranes participate The eukaryotic cell's genetic instructions are housed in the The nucleus contains Ribosomes do what?

selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service the volume of every cell a double layer of phospholipids Metabolic , upper limits on the size of cells surface area to volume by a factor of n2, the volume increases by a factor of n3 greater surface area relative to volume internal membranes that divide the cell into compartments—organelles directly in the cell's metabolism nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes most of the DNA in a eukaryotic cell use the information from the DNA to make proteins... they are large subunit and small subunit with instructions to make protein (written on mrna molecule) in between

—To see how two solutions with diff solute concentrations interact, picture a U shaped glass tube with a selectively permeable membrane separating two sugar solutions— Pores in the synthetic membrane are too Two sugar solutions of different concentration are separated by a membrane that the solvent____. Water molecules move ____ and can in osmosis, water moves from a This ____ transport of water ⭐️ ⭐️ You'd think _____, but For a dilute solution like most biological fluids, Instead, EXPLAIN OSMOSIS AGAIN TO BE CLEAR In the end the effect is the same. Water diffuses Osmosis definition To explain behavior of cell in a solution, we must consider both Both these factors are taken into account in concept of ____, The tonicity of a solution depends in part on its concentration of If there is a higher concentration of non penetrating solutes in the surrounding solution, water will If a cell without a wall is placed into an environment that is isotonic to the cell, there will be Water diffuses across the membrane, but In an isotonic environment, volume of animal cell is Hypertonic solution If our cell in this, This is one way an ___ of a lake Hypotonic and what happens

small for sugar molecules to pass thru but large enough for water molecules (water) can pass thru but the solute sugar cannot.Water molecules move randomly and may cross in either direction but overall water diffuses from the solution with LESS concentrated solute(aka higher free water concentration) to the region of more concentrated solute (aka region with lower free water concentration) region of higher to lower free water concentration (lower to higher solute concentration) passive transport- called osmosis- reduces difference in sugar concentrations solutes do not affect the water concentration significantly solution w higher concentration of solute would have lower concentration of water and water would diffuse there for that reason but no!!! tight clustering of water molecules around the hydrophillic solute molecules make some of the water unavailable to cross membrane ! ITS THE DIFFERENCE IN FREE WATER CONCENTRATION THAT IS IMP!!! the side with fewer solute molecules has higher concentration of FREE water molecules bc less tight clustering of water around the molecules so more water free to move and move to side with higher concentration of sugar molecules, aka side with fewer FREE water molecules bc they're attached to sugar molecules! across membrane from the region of lower solute concentration (higher free water concentration) to that of higher solute concentration (lower free water concentration) until solute concentrations on both sides of the membrane are more nearly equal. diffusion of free water across a selectively permeable membrane whether artificial or cellular solute concentration and membrane permeability tonicité, the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water solutes that cannot cross the membrane (non penetrating solutes) relative to that inside the cell. tend to leave the cell and vice versa no net movement of water across the membrane. at same rate both directions more nonpenetrating solutes will lose water, shrivel and die increase in the salinity (saltiness) of a lake can kill animals there- if lake water becomes hypertonic to animals cells, the cells mah shrivel and die (but taking up too much water can be just as bad) less no penetration solute- water will enter cell faster than it leaves and cell will swell and lyse (burst) like an overfilled water balloon

endomembrane system variety of tasks carried out by this system- synthesis of ___,transport of ____, ____of ___, The membranes of this systems are either related through The various membranes are NOT Thickness, molecular composition, and types of chemical reactions carried out in a given membrane are The ER is such an extensive The ER consists of The er membrane separates the BC ER membrane is continous with the nuclear envelope, smooth ER rough ER as already mentions, ribosomes are also attached to The smooth ER functions in diverse Enzymes of smooth ER are important in synthesis id Among the ___ produced by smooth ER in animal cells are the The cells that synthesize and secrete these hormones-in the __ and ___ Other enzymes of smooth ER de- Detoxification usually involves adding ___ barbiturates, alcohol, and many other drugs induce the proliferation of this in turn increases ___ to drugs Bc some of the detox enzymes have relatively ___ action, Barbiturate abusé, for example, can

(many different membranes of euk cell are part of it) nuclear envelope, ensoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, various vesicles and vacuoles, and plasma membrane synthesis of proteins, transport of proteins into membranes and organelles or out of cell, metabolism and movement of lipids, detoxification kf posions direct physical continuity or by transfer of membrane segments as tiny vesicles (sacs made of membrane) identical and structure and function not fixed-may be modified several times network of membranes that it accounts for more than half total mem in euk cells a network. of membranous tubules and sacs called cisternae internal compartment of the ER, called ER lumen (cavity) (gap thiingys) or cisternae space, from the cytosol space btwn two membranes of the envelope is continuous with the lumen of the ER named bc outer surface lack ribosomes studded w ribosomes on outer surface of membrane and appears rough under microscope cytoplasmic side of nuclear envelopes outer membrane which is continuous w rough ER metabolic processes (synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbs, detoxification of drugs and posions, storage of ÇA ions lipids including oils phospholipids and steoirds sex hormones of various vertebrates and various steroid hormones secreted by adrenal glands ovaries and testes for ex - are rich in smooth ER-structural feature that fits function of these cells toxify drugs and poisons- esp in LIVER cells hydroxyl groups to drug molecules, making them moreSOLUBLE and easy to flush from body (ex phenobarbital and other barbiturates .. drugs metabolized in this manner by smooth er in liver cells) smooth ER and it's associated detox enzymes,thus increasing rate of detoxification tolerance-meaning higher doses r required to achieve a particular effect such as sedation broad, the proliferation of smooth er in response to one drug can increase tolerance for other drugs as well decrease effectiveness of certain antibiotics and other useful drugs

Animal Cell vs. Plant Cell

Animal; Centrosomes, with Centrioles flagella Lysosomes Plant; Chloroplasts Cell walls Central vacuole Plasmodesmata

FRQ..enzymes

All of the lysosomal enzymes are acid hydrolases, which are active at the acidic pH (about 5) that is maintained within lysosomes but not at the neutral pH (about 7.2) characteristic of the rest of the cytoplasm (Figure 9.35). The requirement of these lysosomal hydrolases for acidic pH provides double protection against uncontrolled digestion of the contents of the cytosol; even if the lysosomal membrane were to break down, the released acid hydrolases would be inactive at the neutral pH of the cytosol. To maintain their acidic internal pH, lysosomes must actively concentrate H+ ions (protons). This is accomplished by a proton pump in the lysosomal membrane, which actively transports protons into the lysosome from the cytosol. This pumping requires expenditure of energy in the form of ATP hydrolysis, since it maintains approximately a hundredfold higher H+ concentration inside the lysosome.....btw molecules are engulfed into the lysosomes acidic enviroment adn broken down.

Mitochondria generally what size Chloroplasts contain green pigment ___ along with ___ and other ___ that function in Chloroplasts are found in The contents of the chrloplast are partitioned from the cytosol by Inside the chloroplast is another membranous system in the form of In some regions, thylakoids are ___ like stroma The membranes of the chloroplast divide the chloroplast space into 3 compartments: This organization allows as w mitochrondria, their seemingly rigid appearance in micro graphs is Their shape is ____ and they They are MOBILE, and along w mitochrondria and other organelles, they Chloroplast is a speacialized member of a family of Amyloplast Another type of plastid The peroxisome is a specialized Peroxisome contain enzymes that Peroxisomes in liver do what The ____ formed by peroxisomes is itself The enzymes that produce ___ and those that dispose of Peroxisomes grow larger by incorporating

1-10um long chlorophyll, along with enzymes and other molecules tht function in photosynthetic production of sugar.(disk shaped btw 3-6um) leaves and other green organs of plants and in algae envelope consisting of two membranes separated by a vary narrow inter membrane space flattened, interconnected sacs called thylakoids stacked like poker chips-each stack is called a granum. fluid outside thylakoids .. it contains the chloroplast dna and ribosomes as well as many enzymes inter membrane space, the stroma, and the thylakoids space chloroplast to convert light energy to chemical energy during photosynthesis not true to their dynamic behaving in living cell changeable and they grow and occasionally pinch in two-reproducing themselves move around cell along tracks of cytoskeleton. closely related plant organelles called plastids. colorless organelle that stores starch (amylose)particularly in roots or tubers (amyloplast is type of plastid) chromoplast -has pigments that fruits and flowers organe and yellow hues metabolic compartment bounded by a single membrane remove hydrogen atoms from certain molecules and transfer them to oxygen , producing hydrogen peroxide detoxify alcohol and other harmful compounds by transferring hydrogen from the poissons to oxygen H2O2- is itself toxic but organelle also contains enzyme that converts hydrogen peroxide to water h202 and those that dispose of the toxic compound are sequestered from other cellular components that could be damaged proteins made in cytosol and ER, as well as lipids made in the ER and within peroxisome itself

Three important parameters of microscopy ... also Integrins do what LMs can magnify effectively to about Various techniques enhance ___ and enable cell components to most subcellular structures, including _____ are too small to be Two basic types of —— are used to study what are they TEM is used mainly to Recent advances in —- microscopy Labeling molecules or structures with Confocal and other types of microscopy have New techniques and labeling have improved —— so that structures

Magnification, the ratio of an object's image size to its real size... anchor the cell to the extracellular matrix. In addition, they help it sense its environment. They can detect both chemical and mechanical cues from the extracellular matrix and trigger signaling pathways in response Resolution, the measure of the clarity of the image, or the minimum distance between two distinguishable points Contrast, visible differences in parts of the sample 1,000 times the size of the actual specimen contrast, be stained or labeled organelles (membrane-enclosed compartments), resolved by light microscopy electron microscopes (EMs), subcellular structures Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) focus a beam of electrons through a specimen study the internal structure of cells light fluorescent markers improves visualization of details sharpened images of tissues and cells resolution, as small as 10-20 m can be distinguished

A membrane remains fluid as The temperature at which a membrane solidifies depends on the types of The membrane remains fluid to a lower temp if it is Due to the kinks in The steroid cholesterol, which is wedged between —— in ____ has different At relatively high temps-37 degrees C aka body temp of humans for ex-cholesterol does what? However, bc cholesterol also hinders the Cholesterol reduces ___, but also Thus, cholesterol helps membranes resist Membranes msut be ___ to work properly. When a membrane solidifies, it's ___ changes. However, membranes that are too Variations in the cell membrane ____compositions of many species appear to be ___ adaptations that For instance, fish that live in extreme cold have membranes with At the other hand, some bacteria and archaea The ability to change the ___ composition of cell membranes in response to In many plants that tolerate extreme cold, for ex winter wheat, the percentage of Overall, natural selection has favored organisms whose mix of ____ensures appropriate level of

Temperature decreases until finally the phospholipids settle into a closely packed arrangement and the membrane solidified, (like bacon grease into lard as cools) lipids that is is made of rich in phospholipids with UNSATURATED hydrocarbon tails the tails where double bonds are located, unsaturated hydrocarbon tails cannot pack together as closely as saturated hydrocarbon tails and this looseness makes the membrane more fluid wedged between phospholipid molecules in plasma membrane of animal cells, has different effects on membrane fluidity at diff temps makes the membrane less fluid by restraining phospholipid movement close packing of phospholipids, it lowers the temp required for membrane to solidify (must be cooler to solidif now so this helping fluidity) fluidity at moderate temps by reducing phospholipid movement, but at low temps it hinders solidification by disrupting the regular packing of phospholipids changes in fluidity when temp changes!! fluid to work properly. (usually abt as fluid as salad oil) perméabilité and ENZYMATIC proteins in the membrane may become inactive fluid cannot support protein function either lipid, evolutionary, maintain the appropriate membrane fluidity under specific enviro conditions. a high proportion of unsaturated hydrocarbon tails , enabling membranes to remain fluid thrive at temps greater than 90F in thermal hot springs and gysers- their membranes contain unusual lipids that help prevent excessive fluidity at high temps lipid composition of cell membranes in response to changing temp has evolved in orgs that live where temps vary unsaturated phospholipids increases in automn, keeping membranes from solidifying in winter (bacteria and archaea can also do this but in diff way) mix of membrane lipids ensures and appropriate level of membrane fluidity for their environment

highsa to v

The important point is that the surface area to the volume ratio gets smaller as the cell gets larger. Thus, if the cell grows beyond a certain limit, not enough material will be able to cross the membrane fast enough to accommodate the increased cellular volume must be able to reach all parts of a cell quickly, and when volume is too large relative to surface area, diffusion cannot occur at sufficiently high rates to ensure this. Smaller cells have a much greater surface area to volume ratio allowing material to diffuse

Most membrane proteins are also ___ and reside The fluid mosaic model states that the membrane is a Groups of certain proteins or certain lipids may associate in Most of the lipids and some proteins in a membrane can The lateral movement of phospholipids is ___; Some proteins move in a ___,others seem As temperatures cool, membranes switch from a The temperature at which a membrane solidifies depends on A membrane remains ____ if Membranes must be ___ to work properly The steroid cholesterol has At warm temperatures At cool temperatures, it Variations in ___ of cell membranes of many species appear to be _____s has evolved in organisms that live where temperatures vary A membrane is a collage of Proteins determine

amphipathic and reside in the bilayer with their hydrophilic portions protruding mosaic of protein molecules bobbing in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids long-lasting, specialized patches shift about laterally rapid; proteins move more slowly directed manner; others seem to be anchored in place fluid state to a solid state the types of lipids fluid to a lower temperature if it is rich in phospholipids with unsaturated hydrocarbon tails fluid to work properly; they are usually about as fluid as salad oil has different effects on membrane fluidity at different temperatures (such as 37oC), cholesterol restrains movement of phospholipids maintains fluidity by preventing tight packing lipid composition. adaptations to specific environmental conditions Ability to change the lipid compositions in response to temperature changes collage of different proteins, often grouped together, embedded in the fluid matrix of the lipid bilayer most of the membrane's specific functions

The plasma membrane is the it controls Like all biological membranes, the plasma membrane exhibits The resulting ability of the cell to discriminate in its ____ with its environment is One molecule of the protein aqua potion allows Cellular membranes are ___ of ____ and ____ ___ and ___ are staple ingredients of membranes , tho ___ important too Most abundant lipids in most membranes The ability if phospholipid sto form membranes is inherent in their A phospholipid is an _____ molecule A phospholipid balayer can exists as boundary btwn___ bc the molecular Like phospholipids, most membrane proteins are Such proteins can reside in the phospholipid bilayer with This molecular orientation maximizes contact of the _____ of a protein with ____ while providing its ___ parts with a ____ In the fluid mosaic model, the membrane is a The proteins aren't ___ however Groups of proteins are often associated in Membranes are NOT A membrane is held together primarily by Most of the lipids and some of the proteins can The lateral movement of phospholipids in the membrane is___. Proteins however are much Some membrane proteins seem to move in a However, many other membrane proteins to be held

boundary tht separates living cell from its surroundings traffic into and out of cell it surround selective permeability ..allows some substances to cross more easily than others chemical exchanges with its environment is fundamental to life billions of water molecules to pass thru membrane every second fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins lipids and proteins .. carbs also important phospholipids molecular structure amphipathic-meaning has both hydrophobic and hydrophilic region two aqueous compartments bc the molecular arrangement shelters the hydrophobic tails of the phospholipids from water while exposing the hydrophilic heads to water. amphipathic their hydrophillic regions protruding contact of the hydrophillic regions of a protein with water in the cytosol and extracellular fluid, while providing its hydrophobic parts with a non aqueous environment. mosaic of protein molecules bobbing in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids randomly distributed long lasting, specialized patches, as are certain lipids (in some regions, the membrane may be much more packed with proteins) Static sheets of molecules locked rigidly in place hydrophobic interactions, which are much weaker than covalent bonds shift about laterally-that is, in the plane of the membrane-like partygoers elbowing their way thru a crowded room rapid. larger than lipids and move more slowly , but some membrane proteins do drift highly directed manner, perhaps driven along cytoskeleton fibers by motor proteins. immobile by their attachments to the cytoskeleton or the extracellulr matrix

Collin based signaling is crucial to what Though different in __,___,___, cilia and flagella share Each motile cillium or flagellum has a group of Nine doublets of mictrotubules are arranged in ____ and in the center The arrangement, referred to as the "___" pattern, is found in nearly The microtubule assembly of a cillium or a flagellum is anhored in the cell by In many animals, including humans, the basal body of the ____ enters the ___\ How does the microtubule assembly produce the _____ movements of A typical dyneine protein has one foot maintains The outer doublets and 2 central microtubules are held together by flexible cross linking If the doublets weren't held in place, the ___ action would make them Instead, movements of the dynein feet cause the Microfilaments are they are also called ____bc they are built from A microfilament is a twisted Besides occurring as linear filaments, microfilaments can form Structural role of microfilaments in the cytoskeleton is to A three dimensional network formed by ___ In some kinds of animal cells, such as nutrient_____, Microfilaments are well known for their role in Thousands of ____ and ____interavt to cause ___ of ____cells In the protist ___, and some of our ____cells, localized ___ brought about by___ are involved in the In plant cells, actin-myosin interaction contributes to ⭐️ This movement, common in___ cells, speeds the

brain function and embryonic development length, number, beating pattern.... a common structure mictrotubules sheathed in an extension of the plasma membrane mictrotubules are arranged in a ring, of the ring are two single mictrotubules all euk flagella and motile cilia (nonmotile primary cilia have 9+0 pattern , lacking the central pair of mictrotubules . basal body, which is structurally like a centriole with microtubule triplets in a 9+0 pattern fertilizing sperms flagellum enters the egg and becomes a centriole bending momements of flagella and motile cilia?.. bending involves large motor proteins called dyneins that are attached along each outer microtubule doublet two feet that "walk" along the microtubule of their adjacent double using ATo contact while the other realeases and reattached farther along mictrotubule flexible cross linking proteins walking, slide past eachother mictrotubules and organelle as a whole- to bend thin solid rods actin filaments bc built from molecules of actin, a globular protein double chain of actin subunits structural networks when certain proteins bind along the side of a such a filament and allow a new filament to extend as a branch bear tension (pulling forces) mictrotubules just inside the plasma membrane helps support cells shape nutrient absorbing intestinal cells, bundles of microfilaments make up the core of microvilli , delicate projections that increase SA cell motility actin filaments , and thicker filaments of a motor protein called myosin, interavt to cause contraction of muscle cells amoeba, some of our white blood cells, localized contractions brought about by actin and mysoein are involved in the amoeboid(crawling) movement of the cells CYTOPLASMIS streaming, a circular flow of cytoplasm within cells common in large plant cells, speeds distribution of materials within cell

Cell fractionation Cell components separate based on Cell fractionation enables scientists to determine Biochemistry and cytology help correlate Eukaryotic cells have internal ____that do what? The basic structural and functional unit of every organism is one of two types of cells: Organisms of the domains ___ and ___ consist of prokaryotic cells ____ all consist of eukaryotic cells FEATURES OF ALL CELLS JUST PROK CELLS] euk cells characterized by havin they are generally much _____ than intégrons are in position to

breaks up cells and separates the components, using centrifugation their relative size the functions of organelles cell function with structure membranes, compartmentalize their functions prokaryotic or eukaryotic Bacteria and Archaea Protists, fungi, animals, and plants Basic features of all cells Plasma membrane Semifluid substance called cytosol Chromosomes (carry genes) Ribosomes (make proteins) Prokaryotic cells are characterized by having No nucleus DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid No membrane-bound organelles Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane Eukaryotic cells are characterized by having DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous nuclear envelope Membrane-bound organelles Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma membrane and nucleus Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokaryotic cells transmit signals btwn ecm and cytoskeleton and thus integrate changes occurring in and outside of cell btw intermediate filaments anchor nucleus and other organelles and r nuclear lamina

Smooth ER also stores In muscle cells, smooth Er When a muscle cell is stimulated by a nerve impulse, calcium ions Many types of cells secrete proteins produced by Pancreatic cells synthesis the protein As a polypeptide grows from a As new polypeptide enters ER lumen, it Most secretory proteins are____. The carbohydrates are attached to the After secretory proteins are formed, ER membrane keeps them separated from Secretory proteins depart from ER wrapped in Transport vesicles In addition to making secratrory proteins, rough ER is a ____factory for the cell. it ... As polypeptides destined to be membrane proteins grow from Like smooth er, rough er also makes membrane ____. The ER membrane expands, and portions of it are After leaving the ER, many transport vesicles travel to the sWe can think of the Golgi as a warehouse for ___,____,____ Here, products of the ER, such as ____, are ____ Not surprisingly, the Golgi apparatus is especially extensive in cells specialized for .Golgi consists of The membrane of each cisterna in a sac separates Vesicles concentrated in the vicinity of the golgi are engaged in the Stacks of the golgi, unlike ER, A Golgi stack has a structural and functional directionality, with a cis face that ___ and a ___ face that

calcium ions membrane pumps Ca ions from cytosol into ER lumen rush back across ER membrane into cytosol and trigger contraction of muscle cell ribosomes attached to rough ER insulin in the ER and secrete this hormone into the bloodstream bound ribosome, chain is threaded into ER lumen through a pore formed by a protein complex in the ER membrane. folds into functional shape glycoproteins- proteins w carbs covalently bonded to them proteins in the ER by enzymes built into the ER membrane proteins tht are produced by free ribosomes and that will remain in the cytosol. the membranes of vesicles that bud like bubbles from a specialized REGION CALLED transitional ER vesicles in transit from one part of cell to other rough ER is membrane factory for the cell- it grows in place by adding membrane proteins and phospholipids to its own membrane. ribosomes, they are inserted into ER membrane itself and ANCHORED BY HYDROPHOBIC portions!!! 🌟 phospholipids (enzymes built into the ER membrane assemble phospholipids from precursors in cytosol) are transferred in form of transport vesicles to other components of endomem system Golgi apparatus re- ceiving, sorting, shipping, and even some manufacturing. proteins, are modi ed and stored and then sent to other destinatiosn secretion flattened membranous sacs-cisternae- it's internal space from cytosol transfer of material btwn parts of golgi and other structures cisternae, are not physically connected receives vesicles containing ER products and atrans face that dispatches vesicles.( move from cis to trans while carrying protein)

Endocytosis Although the proteins involved in the two processes r diff, the events of endocytosis look like A small area of plasma membrane sinks 3 types Humans use receptor mediated endocytosis to take in Cholesterol travels in blood in particles called ___, each a complex of ___ and ___. LDLS bind to___ on plasma membrane and enter thru In inherited disease hypercholesterolemia, LDLS can't Consequently in ppl with the disease, there is a large amount of ____ where it contributes to ____, the buildup of Endo and exocytosis also provide mechanisms for These processes occur ___ in most ___ cells, yet the amount of ____ in a non growing cell the addition of membrane by one process... Phagocytosis Pinocytosis- cell continually _____into tiny ____. .in this way the cell obtains _____ in the droplets. because ___ and ____ solutes r taken into the cell, pinocytosis as shown here is ____ for substances it's ____. in many cases as above the parts of the plasma membrane tht form vesicles r ___ on their ___ side with Receptor mediated endocytosis is a specialized type of ____ that enables the cell to acquire Embedded in the plasma membrane r proteins with

cell takes in molecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles from plasma membrane reverse of exocytosis inward to form a pocket- as pocket depends, or punches in, forming a vesicle containing material that had been outside the cell phagocytosis (cellular rating), pinocytosis (cellular drinking) and receptor mediated endocytosis cholesterol for membrane synthesis and the synthesis of other steroids low density lipoproteins (LDLS), each a complex of lipids and a protein LDL receptors on plasma membranes and then enter the cells by endocytosis enter cell bc LDL receptor proteins r defective or missing large amntecholesterol accumulated in blood where it contributes to athersclerosis , the buildup of lipid deposits within the walls of blood vessels . this narrows space in vessels and impedes blood flow rejuvenating or remodeling plasma membrane continually in most euk cells , plasma membrane in a non growing cell remains fairly constant offsets loss of membrane by other cell engulfs particle by wrapping psuedopodia around it and packaging it within a membrane sac called a good vacuole. particle will be digested after food vacuole fuses w a lysosome containing hydrolic enzymes cell continually gulps droplets of extracellular fluid into tiny vesicles.in this way the cell obtains molecules dissolved in the droplets. because any and all solutes r taken into the cell pinocytosis as shown here is nonspecific for substances it transports in many cases as above the parts of the plasma membrane tht form vesicles r lined on their cytoplasmic side by a fuzzy layer of coat protein; the "pits" and resulting vesicles r said to be "coated" pinocytosis that enables cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances even tho those substances may not be v concentrated in the extracellular fluid receptor sites exposed to extracellular fluid. specific solutes bind to the sites.The receptor proteins then cluster in coated pits and each coated pit forms a vesicle containing the bound molecules . notice that there are relatively more bound molecules inside the vesicle but other molecules r also present After the ingested material is liberated from the vesicle the emptied receptors r recycled to the plasma membrane by same vesicle

All organisms are made of The cell is the simplest collection of l All cells are related by their Though cells can differ substantially from one another, they Most cells are between____ in diameter, too small to be seen by the unaided eye Therefore, Scientists use e In a light microscope (LM), BTW OSMOSIS IS Lenses ____) the light, so that the image is ____

cells matter that can be alive descent from earlier cells share common features equalizes the concentration of particles by the movement of water molecules 1 and 100 micro métrées microscopes to visualize cells too small to see with the naked ey visible light is passed through a specimen and then through glass lenses refract (bend magnified

All organism are made of ___. They are the Many firms of life can be Larger, more complex organisms their bodies Even when cells are arranged into higher levels of organization, such as tissues and organs, the cell All cells are related by Cell walls first seen by but who crafted lens Microscope used in renaissance and what we use In a light microscope, The lenses then Three important parameters of microscopy- Explain eacg Light microscope can't resolve detail finer than Improvements in light microscopy have included

cells. simplest collection of matter that can be alive single celled (single celled eukaryotes called paramecium) such as plants and animals-are multicellular are coopératives of many kinds of specialized cells that couldn't survive long on their own re- mains the organisms basic unit of structure and function. their descent from earlier cells (but have been modified in various ways by evolutionary history of life on earth) robert hooke as he looked thru a microscope at dead cells from tree bark anton van leeuwenhoek light microscope visible light is passed through the specimen and then thru glass lenses. refract (bend) the light in such a way that the image of the specimen is magnified as it is projected into the eye or into a camera. magnification, resolution, contrast Magnification- ratio of an object's image to it real size (LM can magnify effectively to about 1,000x actual size of specimen-(greater mag is greater detail) Resolution-measure of clarity of image-minimum distance two points can be separated and still be distinguished as two points (ex telescope can see two stars but eye see one) Contrast-accentuates differences in parts of sampl .2 micrometer , regardless of magnification new methods for enhancing contrast- such as staining!!! or labeling cell components to stand out visually (to have contrast must be stained.. can label w fluorescent dyes)

The cytosol often only occupies a thin layer between In euk cells, mitochondria and chloroplasts are Mitochondria Chrlorolasts- found in __and___-are sites of ___.These organelles convert Mitochondria and Chloroplasts display similarities with bacteria that led to ____theory Eventually, the engulfed cell formed a Over the course of evolution, the host cell and its endosymbiont At least one of these cells may have then taken up a This theory is consistent with many____,for example Chloroplasts also have an internal system of There is evidence that the ancestral engulfed prokaryotes had Like prokaryotes, mitrochrondria and chloroplasts contain The Dna in these organelles programs the Also consistent with their probable evolutionary origins as cells, mitochondria and chloroplasts are Each of the two membranes enclosing a mitochondrion is a The outer membrane is __, but the inner membrane The inner membrane divides the mitochondrion into Mitochondrial matrix ___ in the matrix catalyze As highly folder surfaces, the cristae give the inner mitochondrial membrane Mitochondria are found in nearly Some cells have a single

central vacuole and plasma membrane , ap ratio of plasma membrane surface to cytosolic volume is sufficient even for large plant cell organelles that convert energy to forms that cells can use for work site of cellular resp..the metabolic process tht uses oxygen to generate ATP by extracting energy from sugars fats and other fuels found in plants and algae-sites of photosynthesis-concert solar energy to chemical energy by absorbing sunlight and using it to drive synthesis of organic compounds such as sugars from CO2 and water endosymbiont theory-an early ancestor of euk cells engulfed an oxygen-using non-photosynthetic prokaryotic cell with the host cell in which it was enclosed becoming an endosymbiont (a cell living within another cell) merged into a single organism- a eukaryotic cell with a mitochondrion photosynthetic prokaryote, becoming the ancestor of eukaryotic cells that contain chloroplasts. structural features of mitochondria and chloroplasts-rather than bound by single membrane like organelle of endomembrane system, mitochondria and chloroplasts have two mems surrounding them membranous sacs two outer membranes ..which became double membranes of mitochondria and chloroplasts ribosomes as well as multiple circular DNAmolecules attached to their inner membrane synthesis of some of their own proteins which are made on the ribosomes in the organelles autonomous (somewhat indep) organelles that grow and reproduce within cell phospholipids bilayer with a unique collection of embedded proteins smooth, is convoluted with infoldings called cristae two internal compartments —inter membrane space aka narrow region between inner and outer membranes and mitochondrial matrix enclosed by inner membrane-contains many diff enzymes and mitochondrial dna and ribosomes. enzymes-catalyze some of steps of cellular resp and other proteins that function in respiration, including enzyme that makes ATP, are built into the inner membrNe a large surface area , enhancing productivity of cellular resp all euk cells including plants animals fungi protists large mitochondrion but more often a cell has hundreds or thousands of mitochondria- THE NUMBER CORRELATES WITH THE CELLS LEVEL OF METABOLIC ACTIVITY!! (cells that move or contract have proportionally more mitochondria per volume than less active cells)

Plasmodesmata are Through plasmodesmata, Animal cells have three main types of cell junctions The cell: Cellular functions arise from For example, a macrophage's ability to ____ involves the ____ The plasma membrane separates the___ from its ___. The plasma membrane exhibits ____, allowing some Cellular membranes are ____ full of ___ and ___ Phospholipids are the most Phospholipids are ___ molecules, containing ___ and ____ regions A phospholipid bilayer can exist as a

channels that perforate plant cell walls water and small solutes (and sometimes proteins and RNA) can pass from cell to cell Tight junctions, Desmosomes, Gap junctions, All are especially common in epithelial tissue A Living Unit Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts cellular order destroy bacteria involves the whole cell, coordinating components such as the cytoskeleton, lysosomes, and plasma membrane living cell from its surroundings selective permeability, allowing some substances to cross it more easily than others fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins abundant lipid in most membranes amphipathic, hydrophobic and hydrophilic stable boundary between two aqueous compartmentalism

In long-distance signaling, plants and animals use In hormonal signaling in animals (called ____), what happens? Hormones vary widely in__ and ___ Earl W. Sutherland discovered how the Sutherland suggested that cells receiving signals undergo Reception, is rhe The binding between a ___ and a ___ is highly specific Ligand binding generally causes a Many receptors are directly Most signal receptors are ___. Most water-soluble signal molecules bind to There are two main types of membrane receptors G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are ___ that work with the help of G proteins bind to the molecule ____. The G protein acts as an___ Many G proteins are very GPCR pathways are extremely A ligand-gated ion channel receptor acts as a " When a signal molecule binds as a ___ to the ___, the gate allows Ligand-gated ion channels are very important in the The diffusion of ____ may trigger

chemicals called hormones endocrine signaling), specialized cells release hormone molecules that travel via the circulatory system size and shape hormone epinephrine acts on cells three processes (Reception,Transduction ,Response) Binding of a Signaling Molecule to a Receptor Protein signal molecule (ligand) and receptor is highly specific shape change in the receptor activated by this shape change plasma membrane proteins specific sites on receptor proteins that span the plasma membrane G protein-coupled receptors,Ligand-gated ion channels plasma membrane receptors that work with the help of a G protein energy-rich molecule GTP on-off switch: If GTP is bound to the G protein, the G protein is inactive similar in structure diverse in function gate" for ions when the receptor changes shape ligand, receptor, specific ions, such as Na+ or Ca2+, through a channel in the receptor nervous system ions through open channels may trigger an electric signal

Microtubules control the beating of Flagella are limited to___while Cilia and flagella also differ in their How dynein "walking" moves flagella and cilia Dynein arms The outer ___ and ____ are held together by Movements of the ____cause ___ Microfilaments are____ built from The structural role of microfilaments is to Bundles of microfilaments make up the core Microfilaments that function in cellular motility interact with For example, ___ and ___interact to cause ____ Intermediate filaments are ____than ____ but ____ than ____ They support ____ and _____ Intermediate filaments are more____than t he other two Extracellular components and connections between cells help c Most cells synthesize and secrete These extracellular materials are involved in many The cell wall is an ___,___,___ also have cell walls The cell wall does what? Plant cell walls are made of Plant cell walls may have multiple layers such as

cilia and flagella, microtubule-containing extensions projecting from some cells one or a few per cell, while cilia occur in large numbers on cell surfaces beating patterns alternately grab, move, and release the outer microtubules doublets and central microtubules are held together by flexible cross-linking proteins doublet arms cause the cilium or flagellum to bend thin solid rods, built from molecules of globular actin subunits bear tension, resisting pulling forces within the cell of microvilli of intestinal cells the motor protein myosin actin and myosin interact to cause muscle contraction, amoeboid movement of white blood cells, and cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells larger than microfilaments but smaller than microtubules cell shape and fix organelles in place permanent cytoskeleton elements than the other two classes coordinate cellular activities materials that are external to the plasma membrane cellular functions extracellular structure that distinguishes plant cells from animal cells Prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water cellulose fibers embedded in other polysaccharides and protein primary cell wall, middle lamella, secondary cell wall

These components are either ___ or connected through The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more than The ER membrane is continous with There are two distinct regions of ER Functions smooth ER Rough ER has___, which secrete it distributes it is a ___ for the cell The Golgi Apparatus: The Golgi apparatus consists of Functions of the Golgi apparatus? Lysosomes are ___ components A lysosome is a Lysosomal enzymes can Lysosomal enzymes work best in the

continuous, transfer by vesicles half of the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells continuous with the nuclear envelope -Smooth ER: lacks ribosomes -Rough ER: surface is studded with ribosomes synthesize lipids, metabolize carbs, detoxify drugs and poison, stores calcium ions Has bound ribosomes, which secrete glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates) Distributes transport vesicles, proteins surrounded by membranes Is a membrane factory for the cell Shipping and Receiving Center flattened membranous sacs called cisternae Modifies products of the ER, Manufactures certain macromolecules, Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles digestive membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that can digest macromolecules hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids acidic environment inside the lysosome

Intracellular receptor proteins are found in the Small or hydrophobic chemical messengers can Examples of hydrophobic messengers are the Testosterone behaves similarly to Only cells that contain receptors for The hormone binds the ___ and ___it. The active form of the receptor enters the ___, acts as a ____, and activates the ___ Signal transduction usually involves Multistep pathways can _____ a ____- a few Multistep pathways provide more opportunities for The molecules that relay a signal from receptor to response are mostly Like falling dominoes, the receptor ___,which___,which.. At each step, the signal is Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation are a widespread cellular mechanism for Protein kinases transfers The addition of ___ groups often changes the ___ of a ___ from ___TO ____! Protein phosphatases remove the Phosphatases provide a mechanism for turning They also make protein kinases ____,enabling

cytosol or nucleus of target cells readily cross the membrane and activate receptors steroid and thyroid hormones of animals and nitric oxide (NO) in both plants and animals other steroid hormones testosterone can respond to it receptor protein and activates it nucleus, acts as a transcription factor, and activates genes needed for male sex characteristics multiple steps amplify a signal: A few molecules can produce a large cellular response coordination and regulation of the cellular response than simpler systems do proteins activates another protein, which activates another, and so on, until the protein producing the response is activated transduced into a different form, usually a shape change in a protein regulating protein activity phosphates from ATP to protein, a process called phosphorylation phosphate form of a protein from inactive to active phosphates from proteins, a process called dephosphorylation off the signal transduction pathway available for reuse, enabling the cell to respond to the signal again

A membrane is a collage of Phospholipids form the___,but proteins Different types of cells contain different sets of ___ and the various membranes within a cell each hve a ____ Two major populations of membrane proteins: Integral proteins penetrate The majority are ____ proteins The hydrophobic regions of an integral protein consist of The hydrophillic parts of the molecule are exposed to Some proteins also have one or more hydrophillic Peripheral proteins r not On the cytoplasmic side of plasma membrane, some membrane proteins are held in place by And on extracellular side, certain membrane proteins are These attachments combine to give animal cells a ____ than the ___ could provide 6 main functions of membrane proteins

different proteins embedded in the fluid matrix of the lipid bilayer (for ex more than 50 proteins been found so far in plasma membrane of red blood cells) main fabric of the membrane , but proteins determine most of membranes functions diff sets of membrane proteins, and the various membranes within a cell each have a unique collection of proteins integral and peripheral the hydrophobic interior of lipid bilayer transmembrane—which span the membrane ; other integral proteins extend only partway into the hydrophobic interior one or more stretches of NONPOLAR AMINO ACIDS usually coiled into helixes the aqueous solutions on either side of the membrane channels that allow passage of hydrophillic substances (even water itself) embedded in the lipid bilayer at all!!! they are appendages loosely bound to surface of the membrane, often to exposed parts of integral proteins held in place by attachment to cytoskeleton attached to fibers of extracellular matrix stronger framework than the plasma membrane alone could provide transport, enzymatic activity, attachment to cytoskeleton and ecm, cell to cell recognition,intercellular joining, signal transduction

When a cell is not dividing, stained chromatin appears as a As a cell prepares to divide, however, the chromosomes l .Eacheukaryotic species has a characteristic number of_____ . For ex- ample, a typical human cell has ____ in its nu- cleus; the exceptions are the____ which have only __ chromosomes in humans. A fruit fly cell has

diffuse mass in micrographs, and the chromosomes cannot be distinguished from one another, even though discrete chromo- somes are present. coil (condense) further, becoming thick enough to be distinguished as separate structures chromosomes 46 chromosomes sex cells (eggs and sperm), 23 8chromosomes in most cells and 4 in the sex cells.

Passive transport is Diffusion is the tendency for molecules to Although each molecule moves ____, diffusion of a population of___ At dynamic equilibrium, Substances diffuse down their ____, from where'd it ___ to ___ to move substances down the concentration gradient The diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane is Osmosis is the Water diffuses across a membrane from the region of____ to the ___ until Tonicity is the ability of a Isotonic solution: Hypertonic solution: Hypotonic solution: Hypertonic or hypotonic environments create Osmoregulation, the ___, is a The protist___, which is___to its pondwater environment, has a ___ that can pump

diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment spread out evenly into the available space randomly, of molecules may be directional as many molecules cross the membrane in one direction as in the other concentration gradient, from where it is more concentrated to where it is less concentrated No work must be done passive transport because no energy is expended by the cell to make it happen diffusion of free water across a selectively permeable membrane lower solute concentration to the region of higher solute concentration until the solute concentration is equal on both sides surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water Solute concentration is the same as inside the cell; no net water movement across the plasma membrane Solute concentration is greater than that inside the cell; cell loses water Solute concentration is less than that inside the cell; cell gains water osmotic problems for organisms the control of solute concentrations and water balance, is a necessary adaptation for life in such environments Paramecium caudatum, which is hypertonic to its pondwater environment, has a contractile vacuole that can pump excess water out of the cell

A Golgi stack has a distinct structural ____, with the membranes of cisternae on _____of the stack dif- fering in __ and ___ The two sides of a Golgi stack are referred to as the cis face is usually located near ___bc A vesicle that buds from ER can The trans face gives rise to ___ Products of ER are usually __ during their transition from For example, glycoproteins formed in ER have their ____ modified Membrane ___ may also be modified in Golgi. In addition to finishing work, golgi also manufactures Many ___ secreted by cells are golgi products. for example Like secretory proteins, non protein Golgi products that will be secreted depart from Golgi manufactures and refines in stages, with cisternal maturation model Before a golgi stack dispatches its products by budding Molecular identification tags, such as ___, aid in Finally, transport vesicles budded from the golgi may hve external explain golgi process Whereas membrane-bound ribosomes produce

directionality, opposite sides , thickness and molecular composition. cis and trans face-these act as receiving and shipping depts of golgi ER, transport vesicles move material from er to golgi add its membrane and contents of its lumen to the cis face by fusing w a Golgi membrane vesicles that pinch off and travel to other sites mmodified during their transition from cis region to trans region of golgi carbs modified first in ER, then as pass thru golgi. it removes some sugar monomers and substitués others , producing large variety of carbs phospholipids macromolecules polysaccarides-pectin and other non cellulose polysaccarides are made in golgi of pont cells and then incorporated along with cellulose into their cells walls. trans face of golgi inside transport vesicles that will eventually fuse w plasma membrane different cisternae containing UNIQUE teams of enzymes cisternae of golgi progress forward from cis to trans face carrying and modifying cargo as they move budding vesicles from trans face, it sorts these products and targets them for various parts of cell phosphate groups added to Golgi products, aid in sorting by acting like ZIP codes molecules on their membranes that recognize "docking sites" on the surface of specific organelles or on plasma membrane, thus targeting the vesicles appropriately. 1.) vesicles move from ER to golgi, 2.)vesicles coalesce to form new cis Golgi cisternae, 3.)cisternal maturation-golgi cisternae move in a cis to trans direction, 4.) vesicles form and leave golgi, carrying specific products to other locations or to plasma membrane for secretion. (cis receive trans ship)..5.)vesicles transport some proteins backward to less mature golgi cisternae where they function 6.)vesicles also transport certain proteins back to ER their site of function proteins that are exported from the cell to be used elsewhere, free ribosomes produce proteins used inside the cell itself.

Cell to cell recognition, a cell's ability to it's important, for example in the sorting of ____ into ____ and __ It is also the basis for Cells recognize other cells by binding to Membrane carbohydrates are usually short, some are covalently bonded to ____, forming However, most are covalently bonded to The carbohydrates on the extracellular side of the plasma membrane vary from The ___ of the molecules and their location on ___enable membrane carbs to function as ___ that distinguish For ex, human blood A membrane has two distinct The two lipid layers may differ in specific How membrane sidedness arises—the asymmetric ____ of ____,_____, and ____ in the plasma membrane is determined as Synthesis of membrane components 1. 2 3 etc biological membrane is perfect example of a ____ structure with ____ properties Most important property- ability to regulate

distinguish one type of neighboring cell form another, is crucial to functioning of an organism cells into tissues and organs in an animal embryo the rejection of foreign cells by the immune system , an important line of defense in vertebrate animals binding to molecules, often containing carbohydrates, on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane. branches chains of fewer than 15 sugar units lipids, molecules called glycolipids proteins, called glycoproteins species to species among same species and even from one cell type to another in an individual diversity, location on cells surface enable membrane carbs to function as markers that distinguish one cell from another!! A, AB, B and O reflect variation in the carbohydrates part of glycoproteins on the surface of red blood cells faces lipid composition, and each protein has differential orientation in the membrane The asymmetric arrangement of proteins lipids and their associated carbohydrates in the plasma membrane is determined as the membrane is being built by the ERand golgi. 1.) Membrane proteins and lipids are synthesized in ER. carbs are added to the transmembrane proteins making them glycoproteins. the carbohydrates portions may then be modified 2.)inside golgi, the glycoproteins undergo further carb modification and some lipids acquire carbs becoming glycolipids 3.)glycoproteins,glycolipids and secretory proteins are transported in vesicles to the plasma membrane 4.) as vesicles fuse w plasma membrane, outside face of the vesicle becomes continuous w the inside (cytoplasmic) face of the plasma membrane. This releAses tbe secretary proteins from the cell , process called exocytosis, and positions the carbs of membrane glycoproteins and glycolipids on the outside (extra cellular)face of plasma membrane supramolecular - many molecules ordered into a higher level or organization- with emergent properties beyond those of the individual molecules transport across cellular boundaries , function essential to cells existence

plasma membrane and the membranes of organelles consist of a ____of ____ with various ____ attached to or embedded in it. The hydrophobic parts, including ___and ____, are found in the _____. The hydrophilic parts, including ___,___and____, are in ___eith the ____ ____ side chains may be attached to ____or ___ on the

double layer (bilayer) of phospholipids with various proteins attached to or embedded in it. The hydrophobic parts, including phospholipid tails and interior portions of membrane proteins, interior of the membrane. Carbohydrate, proteins or lipids on the outer surface of the plasma membrane.

All three types of junctions are common in ___ are most like plasmodesmata in plants At tight junctions, Tight junctions prevent ____ by forming For ex, right junctions between ___ cells make us Desmosomes , also called ____, function like ____, fastening Intermediate filaments made of Desmosomes attach ___ to eachother in a Gap junctions (also called ____), provide _____ from one cell to an —- and in this way are similar in function to Gap junctions consist of what Gap junctions are necessary for ___ btwn cells and in many type of ____ such as macrophage macrophage crawls along a surface and reaches ___ interact with other elements of the cytoskeleton during these movements After macrophage engulfs bacteria, The digestive enzymes of lysosomes and the proteins of ___ are all made and the synthesis of these proteins is programmed by all these processes require Cellular functions arrive from ___ ...the cell is a living unit ___than the

epithelial tissue which lines external and internal surfaces of body gap junctions ...although gap junctions pores not lined w memebrane plasma membrane of neighboring cells are very tightly pressed against eachother, bound tg by specific proteins leakage of extracellular fluid across a layer of epithelial cells by forming continous seals around the cells (prevent fluid from moving across a layer of cells) skin cells make us watertight by preventing leakage between cells in our sweat glands anchoring junctions) , function like rivets, fastening cells together into strong sheets sturdy keratin proteins anchor desmosomes in the cytoplasm muscle cells to eachother in a muscle (some muscle tears involve rupture of desmosomes communicating junctions-provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to an adjacent cell and in this way are similar in their function to plasodesmada of plant cells. membrane proteins that surround a pore through which ions, sugars, amino acids and other small molecules may pass communication between cells in many types of tissues such as heart muscle and in animal embryos large cell that helps defend mammalian body against infections by ingesting bacteria(smaller cells) into phagocytotic vesicles. out to the bacteria with thin cell extensions called psuedopodia (specifically filopodia) actin filaments destroyed by lysosomes proteins of the cytoskeleton are all made on ribosomes programmed by genetic messages dispatched form the dna in the nucleus energy which mitochondria supply in form of ATP cellular order greater than the sum of its parts

Although animals cells lack _____akin to those of plant cells, they do have an elaborate Main ingredient of ECM Most abundant glycoprotein in ECM of most animal cells It accounts for ___% of protein in human body The collagen fibers are embedded in a network of A proteocglycan molecule consists of Large proteoglycan complexes can form when hundreds of proteiglycan molecules Some cells are attached to ECM by Fibronectin and other ECM proteins bind to____proteins called ___ that are Integrins span the Integrins are in a position to _____between the ECM and ____, and this to integrate ____ How can ECM regulate a cells behavior? Extracellular matrix around a cell can also influence the activity of Information about the ECM probably reaches the nucleus by a combination of ___and____ Mechanical signaling involves Changes in cytoskeleton may then trigger ____ inside the cell, leading to changes in the set of ____ being made by cell and therefore____ In this way, the ecm of a particular tissue may help Neighboring cells in an animal or plant often adhere, interavt, and Cell walls are perforated with Plasmodesmata unify ___ by The plasma membrane of each adjacent cell What can pass between these channels, The macromolecules transported to neighboring cells appear to reach In animals, three main types of cell junctions

extracellular matrix (ECM) glycoproteins and other carbohydrate containing molecules secreted by cells collagen, which forms strong fibers outside the cells 40 secreted proteoglycans small protein with many carbohydrate proteins covalently attached (may be up to 95percenr carb) molecules become noncovalently attached to a single large polysaccharide molecule ECM glycoproteins such as fibeonectin cell surface receptor proteins called INTEGRINS that are built into plasma membrane membrane and bind on their cytoplasmic side to associated proteins attached to microfilaments of the cytoskeleton transmit signals between ECM and cytoskeleton and thus to integrate changes occurring inside and outside the cell by communicating with a cell thru integrins (for ex some cells in developing embryo mitigate along specific pathways by matching the orientation of microfilaments to the "grain" of fibers in ecm) genes in the nucleus. mechanical and chemical signaling pathways fibronectin, integrins, and microfilaments off the cytoskeleton chemical signaling pathways inside the cell, leading to changes in the set of proteins being made by the cell and therefore changes in cells function coordinate behavior of all cells of that tissue communicate via sites of direct physical contact. (btw cell walls r nonlivimg) plasmodesmata, membrane lined channels filled with cytosol most of a plant into one living continuum by adjoining adjacent cells line the channel of each plasmodesmata and thus are continuous water and small solutes can pass freely from cell to cell and in some cases, certain proteins and rna molecules plasmodesmata by MOVING ALONG FIBERS OF CYTOSKELETON tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions

The ____is a pathway's "first messenger" Second messengers are ___and ___are common second messengers ____ is one of the most widely used second messengers Adenylyl cyclase, does what? The immediate effect of cAMP is usually the Ultimately, a signal transduction pathway leads to The response may occur in the ___or___. Many signaling pathways regulate the synthesis of The final activated molecule in the signaling pathway may function as a Other pathways regulate the activity of ____rather than their Biologists have discovered some ___,evidence of Scientists think that signaling mechanisms first evolved in These mechanisms were adopted for

extracellular signal molecule (ligand) that binds to the receptor small, nonprotein, water- soluble molecules or ions that spread throughout a cell by diffusion Cyclic AMP and calcium ions Cyclic AMP (cAMP) an enzyme in the plasma membrane, rapidly converts ATP to cAMP in response to a number of extracellular signals activation of protein kinase A, which then phosphorylates a variety of other proteins regulation of one or more cellular activities cytoplasm or in the nucleus enzymes or other proteins, usually by turning genes on or off in the nucleus transcription factor enzymes rather than their synthesis, such as the opening of an ion channel or a change in cell metabolism universal mechanisms of cellular regulation, evidence of the evolutionary relatedness of all life ancient prokaryotes and single-celled eukaryotes new uses in their multicellular descendants

The cytoskeleton is a network of In the early days, scientists thougt Roles of cytoskeleton Most obvious function of cytoskeleton is to give This is especially important for ___ cells Remarkable resilience and strength of cytoskeleton is based on The cytoskeleton provides ___ for The cytoskeleton is more dynamic thN Several types of cell ___also involve it Cell motility Cell motility generally requires the interaction of the Cytoskeletal éléments and ____ proteins work together with Inside the cell, The vesicles that bud off from ER also travel The cytoskeleton can manipulate the ___ so that it Three main types of fibers that make it up

fibers that organizes structures and activities in cell organelles of euk cells float freely in cytosol.—but reveal cytoskeleton, network of fibers extending thru cytoplasm support and motility mechanical support to cell and maintain its shape animal-which lack cell wall it's architecture. it is stabilized by a balance between opposing forces exerted by its elements anchorage for many organelles and even cystolic enzyme molecules an animal skeleton-it can be quickly dismantled in one part of the cell and reassembled in a new location , changing shape of cell motility/movement encompasses both changes in cell location and more limited movements of parts of the cell the cytoskeleton w motor proteins motor , plasma membrane molecules to allow whole cells to move along fibers outside of the cell vesicles and other organelles often use motor protein "feet" to "walk" along track provided by the cytoskeleton (for ex this is how vesicles containing neurotransmitter molecules migrate to the tip of axons, the long extensions of nerve cells that release these molecules as chemical signals to adjacent nerve cells along cytoskeletal tracks as they make their way to golgi plasma membrane so that it bends inward to form food vacuoles or other phagocytic vesicles mictrotubules are thickest, microfilaments (actin filaments) are thinnest, and intermediate filaments are fibers w diameter in medium range

thus, a smaller object has The need for a surface area ____ to accommodate the ____ helps explain Larger organisms do not generally have A high ratio of ___:___ is esp important in Such cells may have many thin ____ from their surface called ____ In addition to the ____at its outer surface, a euk cell has These membranes divide the cell into The cells compartments provide different The plasma membrane and organelle membranes also participate directly in Basic fabric of most biological membranes is Embed to this ____ or the __ are Each type of membrane has a unique For example, enzymes embedded in

greater ratio of surface area of volume. sufficiently large to accommodate the volume helps explain the microscopic size of most cells and the narrow, elongated shapes of others such as nerve cells larger cells than smaller organisms-simply just have more cells Sa:V esp important in cells tht exchange a lot of material w surroundings, such as intestinal cells. projections from their surface called microvilli, which increase SA w/o an appreciable increase in volume. plasma membrane, a euk cell has extensive and elaborately arranged internal membranes compartments -organelles local environments that facilitate specific metabolic functions so incompatible processes can go on inside a single cell the cells metabolism, bc many enzymes are built right into the membranes double layer of phospholipids and other lipids in this lipid bilayer or attached to its surface are diverse proteins composition of lipids or proteins suited to that membranes specific functions membranes of organelle called mitochondria function in cellular resp

Transport function of membrane protein: A protein that spans the membrane may provide a ____ across the membrane that is ___ Other transport proteins ___ a substance from one ____by ___. Some of these proteins hydrolyze ___ as an Enzymatic activity: A protein built into the membrane may be an in some cases, several enzymes in a membrane are organized as a Attachment to cytoplasm and ECM: _____ or other elements of the cytoskeleton mau be ___ bound to ___, a function that helps maintain _____ and stabilizes the Proteins that can bind to ECM molecules can coordinate Cell-Cell recognition: Some glycoproteins serve as____ that are specially ____ by This type of cell binding is usually Intercellular joining: Membrane proteins of adjacent cells may This type of binding is Signal transduction: A membrane protein (___) may hve a binding site with a The external messenger (_____) may cause the protein to ____, allowing it to A single cell may have membrane proteins carrying out In this way, the membrane is a functional mosaic as well as a structural one.

hydrophillic channel across the membrane that is selective for a particular solute shuttle a substance from one side to other by changing shape. atp as an energy source to actively pump substances across the membrane enzyme with its active site exposed to substances in the adjacent solution team that carries out sequential steps of a metabolic pathway microfilaments or other elements of cytoskeleton may be noncovalently bound to membrane proteins, a function that helps maintain cell shape and stabilized location of certain membrane proteins extracellular and intracellular changes identification tags that are specially recognized by membrane proteins of other cells. short lived compared to intercellular joining hook tg in various kinds of junctions such as gap or tight more long lasting than the above receptor-may have a binding site with a specific shape that fits the shape of a chemical messenger such as hormone signaling molecule-may cause protein to change shape allowing it to relay the message to the inside of the cell , usually by binding to a cytoplasmic protein several of these functions, and a single membrane protein may have multiple functions

Integral proteins penetrate the transmembrane proteins- The hydrophobic regions of an integral protein consist of Peripheral proteins are Six major functions of membrane proteins The Role of Membrane Carbohydrates in Cells recognize each other by Membrane carbohydrates may be Carbohydrates on the external side of the plasma membrane vary among Membranes have distinct ___ and ___ The ____ distribution of __,___,__ in the plasma membrane is determined when the membrane is Membrane structure results in A cell must regulate ___ of substances Plasma membranes are ____ and the do what? Hydrophobic (nonpolar) molecules, such as hydrocarbons, can Polar molecules, such as ____, Transport proteins allow passage of Some transport proteins, called channel proteins, have a Channel proteins called aquaporins Other transport proteins, called carrier proteins, A transport protein is __ for the ____ it moves

hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer Integral proteins that span the membrane one or more stretches of nonpolar amino acids, often coiled into helices loosely bound to the surface of the membrane Transport, Enzymatic activity, Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM), Cell-cell recognition, Intercellular joining, Signal transduction Cell-Cell Recognition binding to surface molecules, often containing carbohydrates, on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane covalently bonded to lipids (forming glycolipids) or, more commonly, to proteins (forming glycoproteins) species, individuals, and even cell types in an individual inside and outside faces asymmetrical proteins, lipids, and associated carbohydrates.. built by the ER and Golgi apparatus selective permeability transport of substances across cellular boundaries selectively permeable, regulating the cell's molecular traffic dissolve in the lipid bilayer of the membrane and cross it easily sugars, do not cross the membrane easily hydrophilic substances across the membrane hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or ions can use as a tunnel facilitate the passage of water bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across the membrane specific for the substance it moves

Eukaryotic cell's have Two types cells All cells share certain Also, inside all cells is All cells contain___ whcih carry___, and ALL cells have Major difference btwn prokaryotic and eukaryotic is location of ___- which is located in ____, a In prokaryotic cell, DNA is ___ evolves before ___ The interior of either type of cell is called in euk cells, this term refers only to the region within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell, suspended in These membrane bounded structures are __\ in ___ Euk cell's are generally much Size is a The ______of _____sets limits on cell size Smallest cells These are the smallest package w enough Typical bacteria are what size? metabolic requirements also impose At the boundary of every cell, the ____ functions as For each square micrometer of membrane, only a limited ___ can ___, thus,___ is critical As a cell increases in size,

internal membranes tht compartmentalize their functions prokaryotic and eukaryotic (bacteria and archaea are P, protists fungi plants animals are euk) basic features-all bounded by a selective barrier called the plasma membrane cortisol (semifkuid and jelly like), in which sub cellular units are suspended chromosomes, genes in the form of DNA, ribosomes-tiny complexes tht make proteins according to instruction from genes their DNA. in euk cell, most of dna is in an organelle called the nucleus which is bounded by a double membrane concentrated in the nucleoid, a region that is not bounded by membrane projaryots b4 eukaryotes cytoplasm—between nucleus and plasma membrane cytosol, are variety of organelles of specialized form and function absent in PROKS ..we know they have no nucleus larger than prokaryotic cell's a general feature of cellular structure tht relates to function logistics of carrying out cellular metabolism bacteria called mycoplasma dna to program metabolism and enough enzymes and other cellular equipment to carry out activités necessary for cell to sustain itself and reproduce 1-5 micrometers in diameter . euk cell's typically 10-100 micrometers in diameter theoretical upper limits on the size that is practical for a single cell plasma membrane- functions as a selective barrier that allows passage of oxygen nutrients and waste to serve the entire cell only a limited amount of a particular substance can cross per second, so ratio of SA:V is critical it's volume grows proportionately more than its surface area (area is proportional to linear dimension squared whereas volume is proportional to linear dimension cubed)

Vacuoles are Thus, vacuole are an integral part of the Like all cellular membranes, vacuoles membrane is Food vacuoles, formed by ___ Many freshwater protists have ___vacuoles In plants and fungi, certain vacuoles carry out enzymatic ____, In plants, small vacuoles can hold reserves of ____ Vacuoles may also help protect Some plant vacuoles contain pigments such as ___ and ___ that help Mature plant cells generally have a large The solution inside central vacuole, called ___, is the plants main Central vacuole plays major role in ___, whcih enlarge as

large vesicles derived from the ER and Golgi apparatus endomembrane system. selective in transporting solutes ..as a result the solution inside of a vacuole differs in composition from cytosol phagocytosis contractile that pump excess water out of cell, thereby maintaining a suitable concentration of ions and molecules inside cell hydrolysis, a function shared by lysosomes in animal cells (some biologists consider the hydrolytic vacuoles to be type of lysosome) reserves of important organic compounds such as the proteins stockpiled in the storage cells in seeds. plant cells against herbivores by storing compounds that are poisonous or unplayable to animals red and blue pigments of petals-help attract pollinating insects to flowers central vacuole which develops coalescence of smaller vacuoles cell sap, repository of inorganic ions (ex K and Cl) growth fo plant cells which enlarge as vacuole absorbs water , enabling cell to become larger w a minimal investment in new cytoplasm

Chloroplasts:: capture of Chloroplasts contain the ___ pigment ___ as well as Chloroplasts are found in Chloroplast structure The chloroplast is one of a group of plant organelles called plastids Peroxisomes: Peroxisomes are specialized Peroxisomes produce Peroxisomes perform reactions with The cytoskeleton is a network of The cytoskeleton is a network of It does what? Roles of the Cytoskeleton: The cytoskeleton helps to ___ the cell and __ It interacts with ___ to produce___ Inside the cell, vesicles and other organelles can Three main types of fibers make up the cytoskeleton Microtubules are the Microfilaments, also called ___ are Intermediate filaments are 🌟 microtubules are —— constructed from -FUNCTIOND? Centrosomes and Centrioles In animal cells, microtubules The centrosome is a The centrosome has a pair of ___, each arranged with

light energy green pigment chlorophyll, as well as enzymes and other molecules that function in photosynthesis leaves and other green organs of plants and in algae Thylakoids, membranous sacs, stacked to form a granum Stroma, the internal fluid.. also DNA and ribosomes and inner and outer membranes plastids oxidation metabolic compartments bounded by a single membrane hydrogen peroxide and convert it to water many different functions network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm organizes the cell's structures and activities, anchoring many organelles Support and Motility support the cell and maintain its shape motor proteins to produce motility walk" along the tracks provided by the cytoskeleton microtubules, microfilsments, intermediate filaments thickest of the three components of the cytoskeleton actin filaments, are the thinnest components fibers with diameters in a middle range Microtubules are hollow rods constructed from globular protein dimers called tubulin - Shape and support the cell - Guide movement of organelles - Separate chromosomes during cell division grow out from a centrosome near the nucleus microtubule-organizing center" centrioles, each with nine triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring

Small solutes and water enter or leave the cell through the Large molecules, such as polysaccharides and proteins, however, Bulk transport requires In exocytosis, transport vesicles do what?? Many ____ cells use exocytosis to ____ In endocytosis, the cell does what? Endocytosis is a There are three types of endocytosis: The plasma membrane plays a key role in In multicellular organisms, cell-to-cell communication allows the cells of the body to Communication between cells is also essential for Eukaryotic cells may communicate by Animal and plant cells have ____ that directly These are called ___is a type of local signaling In many other cases of local signaling, messenger molecules are These messenger molecules, called ____, travel One class of these, _____, stimulates This type of local signaling in animal cells is called Another more specialized type of local signaling occurs in the This synaptic signaling consists of an ___ moving along a ___ that These diffuse across the space between the ____ and ___, triggering a

lipid bilayer or by means of transport proteins cross the membrane in bulk by means of vesicles energy migrate to the membrane, fuse with it, and release their contents secretory, export products takes in molecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane reversal of exocytosis, involving different proteins Phagocytosis ("cellular eating") Pinocytosis ("cellular drinking") Receptor-mediated endocytosis most cell signaling coordinate their activities many unicellular organisms direct contact junctions connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells gap junctions (animal cells) and plasmodesmata (plant cells) The free passage of substances in the cytosol from one cell to another secreted by a signaling cell local regulators, travel only short distances growth factors, stimulates nearby cells to grow and divide paracrine signaling animal nervous system electrical signal moving along a nerve cell that triggers secretion of neurotransmitter molecules nerve cell and its target, triggering a response in the target cell

Smooth ER function Rough ER Golgi microtubules vs filaments vs intermediate filaments explain microscopes

lipid synthesis, detoxification, calcium storage, metabolism of macromolecules studded by bound ribosomes so protein synthesis (usua ally secretory proteins called glycoproteins) , foldin. proteins into their functional shape, membrane factory, synthesis of some membrane phospholipids, forms vesicles to transport substances to golgi or out of cell products if ER such as proteins modified, stored, sent to other destinations..modify carbs on glycoproteins (first in ER itself then as pass thru golgi), synthesizes macromolecules (produces variety of carbs as take away some sugar monomers of carbs on glycoproteins and substitutes others), modifies membrane phospholipids , sorts products and targets them for specific places Microtubules- thickest, made of dîner tubulin, maintenance and organization of cell shape, cell motility, chromosome movements in cell division, organelle movements Mixrofilaments: thinnest, two intertwined chains of actin, bear tension, maintenance of cell shape, changes in cell shape, muscle contraction, cytoplasmic streaming (plant), cell motility, cell division (animals) Intermediate: in between thickness- fibrous proteins cordes into cables, more permanent, maintenance cell shape, anchorage of nucleus and other organelles, formation nuclear lamina The compound microscope has two systems of lenses for greater magnification, 1) the ocular, or eyepiece lens that one looks into and 2) the objective lens, or the lens closest to the objec : Usually you will find 3 or 4 objective lenses on a microscope. They almost always consist of 4x, 10x, 40x and 100x powers. When coupled with a 10x (most common) eyepiece lens, we get total magnification of 40x (4x times 10x), 100x, 400x, and 1000x. To have good resolution at 1000x, you will need a relatively sophisticated microscope with an Abbe condenser. The shortest lens is the lowest power, the longest one is the lens with the greatest power.

A lysosome is Lysosomes work best in If a lysosome breaks open or leaks it's contents, the released enzymes are However, excessive leakage from large number of lysosome can Hydrolytic enzymes and lysosomal membranes are made by Some lysosomes probably arise from budding of How are the proteins of the inner surface of the lysosomal membrane and the digestive enzymes themselves spared from destruction? Lysosomes carry out intracellulair Amoebas and many protists eat by The ____ formed in this way then Digestive products, including __,___,__, pas into the___and become ___ for the cell human cells that carry out phagocytosis Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to recycle during autophagy what happens the lysosomal enzymes dismantle the___and the resulting small ___ are With the help of lysosomes, the cell continually ___itself!!!!!!!! The cells of people with inherited lysosomal storage disease lack a The lysosomes become engorged with ___, which begins to interfere with Tay sachs disease

membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes than an animal cell used to digest (hydrolyze) macromolecules acidic environment found in lysosomes not very active bc citasol has neutral pH!! destroy a cell by self digestion Rough ER and then transferred to Golgi for further processing from trans face of Golgi 3D shape fo these lysosome protect vulnerable bonds from enzymatic attack digestion engulfing smaller organisms or food particles , a process called phagocytosis (some human cells can do this) food vacuole , then fuses with a lysosome whos enzymes digest the food simple sugars amino acids and other monomers pass into the cytosol and become nutrients for cell macrophages, type white blood cell that helps protect body by engulfing and destroying bacteria and invaders cells own organic material, a process called autophagy damaged organelle or small amnt of cytosol becomes surrounded by a double membrane and a lysosome fused w the outer membrane of this vesicle enclosed material and the resulting small organic compounds are released to cytosol for reuse renews (human liver cell recycled half its macromolecules a week) functioning hydrolytic enzyme normally present in lysosomes indigestible material which begins to interfere with other cellular activities lipid digesting enzyme is missing or inactive and brain becomes impaired by an accumulation of lipids in cells (these diseases r rate)

all euk cells have this type of cytoskeleton each tubulin protein is a ____,a molecule made up of A tubulin dimer consists of two slightly different Microtubules grow in length by Microtubules ___ and ___ the cell Microtubules are also involved with ___during _____ In animal cells, microtubules grow out from a These mictrotubules function as compression-_____ Within the centrosome is a pair of Before an animal cell divides, the centrioles Although centrosomes with centrioles may help organize ____they are not In eukaryotes, a speacialized arrangement of mictrotubules is responsible for the beating of many unicellular eukaryotes are propelled through when cilia or flagella extend from cells that are held in place as part of a tissue layer,they can for example, the ciliated lining of the Motile cilia usually occur in ____,while flagella Flagella and cilia also differ in their A flagellum has a ___ motion while A cilia make also act as a ___ for the cell. Cilia that hve this function are generally In ____ animals, almost all cells have such a ____, which is called a ____ Membrane ___ on this kind of cillium transmit molecular ___ from the cell's ____ to its ____

microtubules -hollow rods constructed from globular protein called tubulin. dimer, molecule made up of two subunits polypeptides —alpha tubulin and beta tubulin adding tubulin dimers ; they can also be disassembled and their tubulin used to build microtubules elsewhere in the cell shape and support cell and serve as tracks along which organelles equipped with motor proteins can move separation of chromosomes during cell division. centrosome- a region that is often located near the nucleus and is considered a "mictrotubules organizing center" compression resisting gliders of the cytoskeleton centrioles each composed of 9 sets of triplet microtubules arranged in a ring replicate mictrotubules assembly in animal cells, they are not essential for this function in all euks!! plants and fungi lack centrosomes with centrioles but have well organized mictrotubules flagella and cilia, mictrotubule- containing extensions that project from some cell water by cilia or flagella that act as locomotor appendages, and the sperm of animals,algae, and some plants have flagella move fluid over surface of tissue trachea sweeps mucus debris out of lungs and in woman's reproductive tract cilia lining oviducts help move egg towards uterous large numbers on cell surface , flagella limited to just one or a few per cell and are longer than cilia beating patterns undulating motion like tail of fish while cilia work more like oars with alternating recover and power strokes signal recieiving antenna nonmotile and there is only one per cell! vertebrate, such a cillium, which is called a primary cillium molecular signals from the cells environment to its interior, triggering signaling pathways that may lead to changes in the cells activities.

ANIMAL CELL Flagellum Centrosome Cytoskeleton (3 things) Microvilli Peroxisome Mitochondrion Lysosome Golgi apparatus Ribosomes plasma memebrane Endoplasmic Reticulum Nucleus composed of theee things and describe

motility structure present in some animal cells, composed of a cluster of microtubules within an extension of the plasma membrane region where the cells microtubuolws are initiated- contains pair of centrioles reinforces cells shape, functions in cell movement, components made of protein ..consist of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules projections that increase cells SA organelle w various speacialized metabolic functions-produces hydrogen peroxide as by product then converts it to water organelle where cellular respiration occurs and Atp generated digestive macromolecule where macromolecules are hydrolized organelle active in synthesis modification sorting and secretion of cell products complexes that make proteins -free in cytosol or or bound to rough ER or nucleus envelope membrane enclosing the cell network of membranous sacks and tubes, active in membrane synthesis and other synthetic and metabolic processes-has rough (ribosome studded) and smooth ER [(nuclear envelope-double membrane enclosing nucleus, perforated by pores, continous w ER Nucleolus-nonmembranous structure involved in production of ribosomes ..nucleus has one or more nucleoli chromatin-material consisting of Zdna and proteins , visible in a dividing cell as individual condensed chromosomes )]

A cell without rigid walls can tolerate This problem of dna lance is automatically solved if such a cell Seawater is ____ to many The cells of most land dwelling animals In hypertonic or hypotonic environments however, organisms that lack rigid cell walls must hve For ex, the unicellular protist paramecium candatum lives in pond water which is____ to cell. Water continually____, but An animal cell (no cell wall) fares best in Plant cells r ____ and generally healthiest in The cells of plants, prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists are When such a cell is immersed in a hypotonic solution, Consider a plant cell. Like an animal cell, the plant cell _____ as water____. 🚨 however, the relatively inelastic wall will At this point, the cell is Plants that are not woody, such as houseplants, depend for If a plants cells and their surroundings are isotonic, there is no However, a wall is no advantage if the cell is immersed in In this case, the plant cell will As the cell shrivels, it's plasma membrane The walled calls of ___ and ____ also experience

neither excessive uptake or excessive loss of water lives in isotonic surroundings isotonic to many marine invertebrates are bathed in extracellular fluid that is isotonic to the cells other adaptations for osmoregulation- the control of solute concentrations and water balance hypotonic to cell- water continually enters cell. but the cell doesn't burst bc it is equipped w a CONTRACTILE vacuole, an organelle that functions as a bilge pump you force water out of the cell as fast as it enters by osmosis isotonic environment unless it has special adaptations that offset the osmotic uptake or loss of water 😂turgid (firm) and healthiest in hypotonic environment where the uptake of water .is eventually balanced by the wall pushing back of the cell. surrounded by cell wall for ex rainwater-the wall helps maintain the cells water balance. the plant cell swells as water enters by osmosis . wall will expand only so much before it EXERTS A BACK PRESSURE on the cell, called turgor pressure, that OPPOSES further water uptake! turgid (very firm) which is the healthy state for most plant cells mechanical support on cells kept turgid by a surrounding hypotonic solution net tendancy for water to enter and the cells become flaccid (limp) hypertonic environment lose water to its surroundings and shrink pulls away from the wall. this is called PLASMOLYSIS and causes the plant to wilt and can lead to plant death walled; plasmolysis in hypertonic environment

Primary cell wall: Middle lamella: Secondary cell wall Plasmodesmata are c Animal cells lack___ but are covered by The ECM is made up of ECM proteins___ to ____proteins ---Cell junctions--- Neighboring cells in There are several types of intercellular junctions that facilitate this All are especially common in

relatively thin and flexible thin layer between primary walls of adjacent cells (in some cells): added between the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall channels between adjacent plant cells cell walls but are covered by an elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM) glycoproteins such as collagen, proteoglycans, and fibronectin bind to receptor proteins in the plasma membrane called integrins an animal or plant often adhere, interact, and communicate through direct physical contact --- Plasmodesmata ---Tight junctions ---Desmosomes ---Gap junctions epithelial tissue

Each chromosome contains Some of the proteins help Chromatin A prominent structure within the nondividing nucleus is ___, which appears thru microscope as Here, a type of RNA called Also in the nucleolus, _____ imported from the cytoplasm These subunits then exit The nucleus directs ____ by synthesizing MRNA is then once mrna reaches cytoplasm Ribosomes: ___factories Ribosomes are Cells that have high rates of protein synthesis Ribosomes build ___ in two Bound and free ribosomes are structurally Most of the proteins made on free ribosomes function in bound proteins generally make Cells that specialize in protein secretion

one dna molecules associated w proteins coil the DNA molecule of the chromosome, reducing its length and allowing it to fit into the nucleus complex of Dna and proteins making up chromosomes. nucleolus - which appears thru microscope as mass of densely stained granules and fibers adjoining part of the chromatin ribosomal rna is synthesized from instructions in DNA proteins imported from cytoplasm r assembled w rRNA into large and small subunits of ribosomes nucleus thru nuclear pores to cytoplasm where a large and small subunit can assemble into a ribosome (btw can be two or more nucleoli) protein synthesis, synthesizing messenger RNA according to instructions from DNA. transported to cytoplasm via nuclear pores ribosomes translate mrnas message into primary structure of specific polypeptide (transcribing and translating) protein factories complexes made of ribosomal rna and protein and carry out protein synthesis have particularly large numbers of ribosomes proteins- cytoplasmic locale —free ribosomes are suspended in cytol and bound ribosomes are attached to outside of ER or nuclear envelope the same and ribosomes can alternate between the two roles cytosol ( ex enzyme tht catalysés first step of sugar breakdown make proteins tht are destined for insertion into membranes, for packaging w certain organelles such as lysosomes, or for export from cell (sevretion) for ex cells of pancreas that secrete digestive enzymes- frequently have high proportion of bound ribosomes

Simple rule for diffusion: In the absence of Any substance will diffuse down its No ___ must be done to ___. Diffusion is a ____ process Each substance diffusés down it's ___, unaffected by Much of the traffic across cell membranes occurs by When a substance is more concentrated on one side of membrane than other, there is a tendency for One important ex is the uptake of As long as ___ consumes the ___ as it enters, Diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane is called ____ bc the cell The concentration gradient itself represents ___ and drives ____ Remember, however, that membranes are _____ and therefore have different effects on the In the case of water, ____allow water to diffuse bery Explain diffusion of 2 solutes btw

other forces, a substance will diffuse from where it is more concentrated to where it is less concentrated concentration gradient , the region along which the density of a substance increases or decreases (in this case decreases) work— to make this happen .. spontaneous ..needs no input of energy own concentration gradient , unaffected by concentration gradients of other substances diffusion. there is a tendency for the substance to diffuse across the membrane down its concentration gradient (assuming the membrane is permeable to tht substance) oxygen by a cell performing cellular respiration. dissolved oxygen diffuses into cell across plasma membrane. cellular resp, o2, diffusion into cell will continue bc concentration gradient favors movement in that direction passive transport- the cell doesn't have to expend energy to make it happen potential energy, drives diffusion selectively permeable, on rates of diffusion of various molecules. aquaporins, very rapidly across membranes of certain cells solutions of two diff dyes are separated by a membrane that is permeable to both. each dye diffuses down its own concentration gradient. there will be a net diffusion of purple dye towards left even though TOTAL concentration was initially greater on left side.

facilitated diffusion Many polar molecules and ions impeded by the lipid bilayer of the membrane diffuse ___ with help of This is called Most transport proteins are very Two types of transport proteins Channel proteins simply provide The ___ passageways provided by these proteins can allow ___molecules or ____ to Aquaporins, the ____proteins, facilitate the massive amounts of Certain ___ cells have many aquaporin molecules Ion channels Many ion channels function as ____ channels For some gated channels, the stimulus is Certain ion channels in ___ cells for example Other gated channels open or close when a specific substance... Carrier proteins, such as _____, seem to undergo a subtle Such a change in shape may be triggered by the ___ and ____ of the Like ion channels, carrier proteins involved in facilitated diffusion results in the A carrier protein alternates between in both types of transport proteins,

passive transport aided by proteins passively with the help of transport proteins that span the membrane facilitated diffusion specific ..transport some substances but not others channel and carrier corridors that allow specific molecules or ions to pass membrane hydrophillic- allow water molecules or small ions to diffuse quickly from one side of membrane to other water channel proteins, facilitate the massive amounts of diffusion that occur in plant cells and in animal cells such as red blood cells kidney- allowing them to reclaim water from urine before it is excreted (if kidneys didn't do this u would excrete about 180 L a day and have to drink an equal volume of water!!) channel proteins that's transfer ions. gated channels, which OPEN OR CLOSE in response to a STIMULUS electrical nerve- open in response to an electrical stimulus, allowing K+ ions to leave cell other than the one to be transported binds to the channelz. both types of channels important for nervous sys!! glucose transporter, seem to undergo a subtle change in shape that somehow trans locates the solute-binding site across the membrane binding and release of the transported molecule net movement of a substance down its concentration gradient . no energy input required. this is passive transport . two shapes, moving a solute across. the membrane during the shape change (BTW FACILITATED DIFFUSION W AID OF PROTEINS REQUIRES NO ENERGY AND JS PSSIVE) the protein can transport the solute in either direction but the net movement is down the concentration gradient of the solute

Food vacuoles are formed by Contractile vacuoles, found in many ___, Central vacuoles, found in many___, Certain vacuoles in plants and fungi carry out The endomembrane system is a Mitochondria and chloroplasts change___from Mitochondria are the sites of Chloroplasts, found in ___and___, are site of Peroxisomes are Mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities with __! The endosymbiont theory -An early ancestor of ____did what? - then The host cell and -At least one of these cells may have Mitochondria & chloroplasts were once —-they were Endosymbiont -there is ___ for both Mitochondria are in nearly all They have a smooth The inner membrane creates some ___ are ____ in the mitochondrial matrix Cristae present a large

phagocytosis freshwater protists, pump excess water out of cells mature plant cells, hold organic compounds and water enzymatic hydrolysis like lysosomes complex and dynamic player in the cell's compartmental organization energy from one form to another cellular respiration, a metabolic process that uses oxygen to generate ATP plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis oxidative organelles bacteria- Enveloped by a double membrane, Contain free ribosomes and circular DNA molecules, Grow and reproduce somewhat independently in cells eukaryotic cells engulfed a nonphotosynthetic prokaryotic cell, which formed an endosymbiont relationship with its host endosymbiont merged into a single organism, a eukaryotic cell with a mitochondrion taken up a photosynthetic prokaryote, becoming the ancestor of cells that contain chloroplasts free living bacteria- -engulfed by ancestral eukaryote cell that lives within another cell (host) as a partnership.. —there isevolutionary advantage for both (one supplies energy the other supplies raw materials and protection) eukaryotic cells outer membrane and an inner membrane folded into cristae two compartments: intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix (they also hsve dna and free ribosomes ) Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are catalyzed i surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP

A proton pump trans locates ____ chargé in the form of The voltage and H* conc gradient represent a ____ that can drive other processes such as ____. Cotransport: ___ transport by a A single ATP powered pump that transports a specific A substance that has been pumped across a membrane can do work as it ______ by ____ analogous to Another transport protein, a ______ from the pump For example, a plant cell uses the gradient of _____ generates by its ___to drive the One transport protein couples the return of This protein can translocate ____, but only only if the The hydrogen ion uses the transport protein as an Plants use ___-____ cotransport to load The __ tissue of the plant What we know about cotransport proteins in animal cells has helped us find more effective Normally sodium in waste is réabsorbes in the colons, maintaining constant To treat this life threatening condition, patients are given a The solutes are taken up by___ on the surface of ___ cells and passes thru ____ So basically—- a cartier protein such as the____in the plant cell is able to use the diffusion of ____ down it's ___ into the cell to drive uptake of Bulk transport across plasma membrane occurs by Water and small solutes enter and leave cell by ___ or by being moved across membrane by ____ However, ___ molecules such as __ and ___generally cross the membrane Exocytosis A transport ___ that has budded from the ___moves along When vesicle membrane and plasma membrane come into contact, specific proteins _____ so that the two The contents of the vesicle then Many ___ cells use exocytosis to export products For example, the cells in the pancreases thag make ___ Also, never cells When plant cells are making walls

positive, hydrogen ions aka protons a dual energy source that can drive other processes such as uptake of nutrients. most proton pumps powered by ATP coupled transport by a membrane protein solute can indirectly drive the active transport of several other solutes in a mechanism called cotransport loves back across. memebrane by diffusion, analogous to water that has been pumped uphill and performs work as it flows back down. cotransporter separate from the pump, can couple the "downhill" diffusion of this substance to the "uphill" transport of a second substance against its own concentration (or electrochemical) gradient H* generated by its proton pumps to drive the active transport of sugars, amino acids, and several other nutrients into the cell. H* to the transport of sucrose into the cell sucrose into the cell against a conc gradient, but only if the sucrose molecule travels in company of a HYDROGEN ion avenue to diffuse down the electrochemical gradient maintained by the protein pump Sucrose-H+, load sucrose produced by photosynthesis into cells in the veins of leaves vacular -can them distribute the sugar to nonphotosynthetic organs such as roots treatments like diarrhea , serious problem in developing countries ... levels in body, but diarrhea expels waste so rapidly that réabsorption isn't possible and sodium levels fall precipitously solution to drink containing high concentrations of salt (NACL) and glucose. sodium-glucose coteansporters on the surface of intestinal cells and passed thru the cells into blood (this has lowere infant mortality world wide) sucrose-H+ cotransporter in pant cell, is able to use diffusion of H* down its electrochemical gradient into the cell to drive uptake of sucrose.The H* gradient is maintained by an ATP driven protein pump that concentrated H+ outside of cell this storing potential energy that can be used for active transport in this case of sucrose. Thus, atp indirectly provides energy needed for cotransport endo or exocytosis diffusing through the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane or by being moved across the membrane by transport proteins large molecules and particles such as polysaccharides and proteins, cross membrane by bulk in mechanisms that involve packaging in vesicles (like active transport this requires energy) cell secretes certain biological molecules by fusion of vesicles w plasma membrane vesicle, golgi, moves along microtubules of the cytoskeleton to the plasma membrane. specific proteins rearrange the lipid molecules of the two bilayers so that the two membranes fuse spill to outside of cell , and vesicle membrane becomes part of plasma membrane secratory insulin secrete it into extracellular fluid by exocytosis use exocytosis to release neurotransmitters that signal other neurons or muscle cells exocytosis delivers proteins and carbs from golgi vesicles to outside of cell

-plant cell- central vacuole still has chloroplast plasmodesmata cell wall the eukaryotic cell's gentil instructions are housed in the two cellular components involved in genetic control of cell The nucleus contains most of the it is generally the most ___ in the nuclear envelope each membrane is It is perforated by at the lip of each pore, the pore complex except at the pores, nuclear side of envelope is lined by the .there is also much evidence of a nuclear matrix, a framework The nuclear lamina and matrix may help Within thenucleus, DNA organized into discrete

prominent organelle in older plant cells ..functions include storage, breakdown of waste products, hydrolysis of macromolecules, enlargement of vacuole is major mechanism of plant growth!! cytoskeleton-microfilaments intermediate filaments mictrotubules but no centrosomes or centrioles or flagella photosynthetic organelle converts energy of sunlight to chemical energy stored in sugar molecules channels thru cell walls that connect the cytoplasms of adjacent cells outer layer that maintains cell shape and protects cell from mechanical damage -made of cellulose, other polysaccharides and protein nucleus, carried out by ribosomes nucleus, which houses most of cells dna, and ribosomes, which use info from the dna to make proteins genes in the euk cell (some genes r in mitochondria or chloroplasts) conspicuous organelle in a euk cell,about 5um in diameter envelopes nucleus: separated contents from cytoplasm . it is a double membrane lipid bolayer w associated proteins pore structures tht r 100nm in diameter inner and outer membranes of the nucleus are continous intricate protein structure lines each pore and plus an important role in cell by regulating entry and exiting of proteins and RNAs as well as large complexes of macromolecules nuclear lamina —a netlike array of protein filaments that maintains shape of nucleus by mechanically supporting nuclear envelope protein fibers extending throughout the nuclear interior. organize the genetic material so it can function efficiently . units called chromosomes -carry genetic info

active transport: some transport proteins act as ___ moving substance across a membrane ____ their All cells have ___ across their membranes Voltage is The cytoplasmic side of the membrane is ____ in charge relative to the ____ side bc Membrane potential Membrane potential acts like a ___, an energy source that affects the Bc inside of cell is ____ compared w outside, the membrane potential favors Thus, two forces drive ____. A ____force and a ____force. Electrochemical gradient In the case of ions then we must refine our concept of pssive transport: An ion diffuses not simply For example, consider cation Na*. The conc of Na+ inside a resting nerve cell is much ____. When the cell is stimulated, gated channels Sodium ions then "____ ___" their ____, driven by the In this example, both the ___ and ____ contributions to the ____ gradient act in the In cases where electrical forces due to the _____ opposé the simple diffusion of an ion down its ___, ___ may be necessary Electrochemical gradients abd membrane potentials are important in Some membrane proteins that actively transport ____ contribute to the ____ For ex, ___. It doesn't translocate ___ to ____, but pumps ____ for every ___ With each crank of the pump, there is a net transfer of ____, a process that does what to energy? Electrogenic pump Major electrogenic pump of animals The proton pump is The pumping of H* transfers By generating voltage across membranes, ____ help One important use of proton gradients in cell Proton pumps are ___ pumps that store

pumps moving substance across a membrane against their conc gradient (or electrochemical) gradients. energy for this work supplies by ATP voltages electrical potential energy - a separation of opposite charges negative in charge, extracellular side, bc of an unequal distribution of anions and cations on the two sides. voltage across a membrane ..ranges from -50 to -200microvolts (the minus sign indicates that the inside of the cell is negative relative to outside) battery; the traffic of all charged substances across the membrane negative-the membrane potential favors the passive transport of cations into cell and anions out of cell the diffusion of ions across a membrane- a chemical force (ions conc hradient) and electrical force (effect of membrane potential on ions movement) combination of forces acting on an ion down its conc gradient but more exactly down its ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENT much lower than outside of it. open that facilitate Na+ diffusion electrochemical gradient, driven by concentration gradient of fall down their electrochemical gradient , driven by concentration gradient of na+ and ATTRACTION of these cations to the negative side (inside) of membrane electrical and chemical contributions to the electrochemical gradient act in same direction across the membrane .but this isn't always so membrane potential oppose the simple diffusion of an ion down its conc gradient, active transport may be necessary transmission of nerve impulses ions contribute to to the membrane potential sodium potassium pump. it doesn't trans locate na+ for K+ one to one, but pumps THREE sodium ions out of the cell for every two potassium ions it pumps into the cell. there is a net transfer of one positive charge from the cytoplasm to the extracellular fluid, a process that STORES ENERGY AS VOLTAGE a transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane sodium potassium main electrogenic pump of plants, fungi, bacteria ... it actively transports protons (or H+ ions) out of cell positive charge from cytoplasm to extracellular solution. electrogenic pumps help store energy that could be tapped for cellular work for ATP synthesis during cellular RESP!!⭐️ (another is a type of membrane traffic called cotransport ) electrogenic, store energy by generating voltage (charge sepeRion across membranes)

Active transport moves Active transport ___ , usually in form of Active transport allows cells to maintain ____ is one type of active transport system Ion pumps maintain Membrane potential is the Voltage is created by differences in Two combined forces, collectively called the ____,drive the ___ of ____ What are these two forces? An electrogenic pump is a ____is the major electrogenic pump of animal cells The main electrogenic pump of plants,___,___ is a Electrogenic pumps help Cotransport occurs when Plant cells use the gradient of _____ to drive _____ of nutrients into cell Bulk transport across the plasma membrane occurs by

substances against their concentration gradients requires energy, usually in the form of ATP concentration gradients that differ from their surroundings The sodium-potassium pump Membrane potential voltage across a membrane the distribution of positive and negative ions across a membrane electrochemical gradient, diffusion of ions across a membrane 1.) A chemical force (the ion's concentration gradient) 2.) An electrical force (the effect of the membrane potential on the ion's movement) transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane The sodium-potassium pump i fungi, and bacteria is a proton pump store energy that can be used for cellular work active transport of a solute indirectly drives transport of other solutes hydrogen ions generated by proton pumps to drive active transport of nutrients into the cell exocytosis and endocytosis

The nucleus contains most of The nuclear envelope The nuclear membrane is a Pores The shape of the nucleus is maintained by the In the nucleus, DNA is organized into discrete Each chromosome is What is chromatin? Chromatin condenses to form discrete The nucleolus is located within the Ribosomes: ___ Ribosomes are Ribosomes carry out ____ in two locations The endomembrane system regulates ___ and performs Components of the endomembrane system

the cell's genes and is usually the most conspicuous organelle encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm double membrane; each membrane consists of a lipid bilayer regulate the entry and exit of molecules from the nucleus nuclear lamina, which is composed of protein units called chromosomes one long DNA molecule associated with proteins The DNA and proteins of chromosomes are together called chromatin (dna wound around proteins and then form chromosome) chromosomes as a cell prepares to divide nucleus and is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis protein factories complexes of ribosomal RNA and protein protein synthesis( In the cytosol (free ribosomes), and on the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)) protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell Nuclear envelope Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Lysosomes Vacuoles Plasma membrane

Cell walls help maintain A plant cell in a hypotonic solution ___until If a plant cell and its surroundings are isotonic, there is no In a hypertonic environment, plant cells Facilitated Diffusion: In facilitated diffusion, what happens? Channel proteins provide ___ that allow a Channel proteins include Carrier proteins undergo a subtle ___ that ___ across the membrane The shape change may be triggered by No ____ is required Active transport uses energy to Facilitated diffusion ___ transport of a solute by providing Some transport proteins, however, can move solutes

water balance swells until the wall opposes uptake; the cell is now turgid (very firm) net movement of water into the cell; the cell becomes flaccid (limp), and the plant may wilt lose water; eventually, the membrane pulls away from the wall, a usually lethal effect called plasmolysis Passive Transport Aided by Proteins transport proteins speed the passive movement of molecules across the plasma membrane corridors that allow a specific molecule or ion to cross the membrane Aquaporins, for facilitated diffusion of water, and Ion channels that open or close in response to a stimulus (gated channels) change in shape that translocates the solute-binding site across the membrane binding and release of the transported molecule net energy input i move solutes against their gradients speeds efficient passage through the membrane but does not alter the direction of transport against their concentration gradients