bio
What is the cumulus oophorus?
'mound' formed by granulosa cells that protrudes into middle of the antrum (of dominant follicle) -> mature follicle - as part of development, the cumulus oophorus and the egg separate together from the walls of the follicle and float around the midddle of the antrum -> causing follicle to increase in size (as it gets filled with more and more fluid from antrum) stalk-like structure that connects the primary oocyte to the base of granulosa cells surrounding the inside aspect of the developing follicle. It allows the oocyte to project out into the antrum and to eventually break off and float freely within the antrum prior to ovulation.
myoglobin structure
(Mb) only one heme group. Is a long chain of eight α-helices separated by bends. There are between 7 and 23 amino acid residues per helix. The helices form a crevice in which the heme is bound. Needs to change conformation to take in an O2. Only four H2O can fit in the interior - the protein interior is very like a solid. * Hemoglobin has a quaternary structure composed of two alpha and two beta subunits, whereas myoglobin has a tertiary structure.
GLUT2 transporter
(bidirectional) Beta-islet cells, liver, kidney - Allows rapid and passive diffusion of glucose so the [glucose] in cells mirrors [glucose] in blood. Not sensitive to glucagon or insulin. Helps liver and pancrease function as sensors.
what regulates glucokinase
- G6P y glucagon acts as negative feedback, inhibiting it ⊝ - glucose y F6P y insulin acts as positive stimulator, stimulating it ⊕
what triggers ADH release?
- Increased osmolarity - dictated by osmoreceptors - Low blood volume - dictated by nerves in the venous system (like superior and inferior vena cava) which sense less stretching - Low blood pressure - indicated by baroreceptors in aortic arch and carotid sinus - Antiogenisin 2
Positive selection of T cells
- ensures MHC restriction by testing the ability of MHCI and MHCII to distinguish between self and nonself proteins. - In order to pass the positive selection process -> cells must be capable of binding only self-MHC molecules -- If these cells bind nonself molecules instead of self-MHC molecules, they fail the positive selection process and are eliminated by apoptosis.
How are enzymes regulated?
- feedback inhibition - allosteric interactions - inhibition - competitive, noncompetitive, uncompetitive - enzyme modifications - enzyme levels - enzyme compartmentalization
Mast cells
- found in mucous membranes and connective tissues, - important for wound healing and defense against pathogens via the inflammatory response - When mast cells are activated, they release cytokines and granules that contain chemical molecules to create an inflammatory cascade *mediators, such as histamine, cause blood vessels to dilate, increasing blood flow and cell trafficking to the area of infection; cytokines released during this process act as a messenger service, alerting other immune cells, like neutrophils and macrophages, to make their way to the area of infection, or to be on alert for circulating threats
Eosinophils
- granulocytes target multicellular parasites - secrete a range of highly toxic proteins and free radicals that kill bacteria and parasites -- use of toxic proteins and free radicals also causes tissue damage during allergic reactions, so activation and toxin release by eosinophils is highly regulated to prevent any unnecessary tissue damage *While eosinophils only make up 1-6% of the white blood cells, they are found in many locations, including the thymus, lower gastrointestinal tract, ovaries, uterus, spleen, and lymph nodes
what kind of levels of glucose stimulate glucagon and insulin?
- high levels of glucose stimulate insulin - low levels of glucose stimulate glucagon
Pinocytsosis
- how the cell drinks - not specific to what is carried into the cell - - The liquid medium outside the cell is always filled with dissolved particles and solutes that are handy for the cell, so the cell doesn't need this process to be specific - engulfs dissolved ions and other solutes in the liquid medium surrounding the cell - similar to phagocytosis in the distortion of the cell membrane to engulf
leptin and insulin
- insulin stimulates production of leptin -> encourage satiety - leptin decrease insulin secretion -> enhance tissue sensitivity to insulin -> glucose uptake for energy utilization or storage
EMT (epithelial-mesenchymal transition)
- involves reversal of phenotype the breakdown of epithelium into loosely organized mesenchyme cells, accompanied by changes in cadherin expression - change occurs in cancer cells as they metastasize - epithelial cells that are able to move
skin: cell types
- keratinocytes (produce keratin; come from intermdiate filament, cytokeratin) - melanocytes (produce melanin) - langerhans cells (immune cell looking for pathogens) - merkel cells
3 groups of membrane receptors
- ligand gated ion channel -G protein coupled receptor -enxyme linked recpetor
Na+/H+ exchanger
- location: plasma membrane of animal cells - energy source: Na+ gradient - function: active export of H+ ions; pH regulation it's antiport- transport of H+ in one direction and H+ in opposite direction --no net translocation of charge
What triggers the juxtaglomerular apparatus to release Renin?
- low blood pressure - sympathetic nerve cells - fire (in fight/flight) - low salt in distal convulted tubule: macula dense cells - sense not alot of salt in fluid passing through; thus, sense low blood pressure -> send local messengers, prostoglandin, to juxtaglomerular apparatus
Reasons for oxygen delivery to tissues
- low partial pressure for oxygen - hydrogen compete with oxygen for hemoglobin - CO2 compete with O2 for hemoglobin
lytic vs lysogenic cycle
- lytic- virus enters the cell and immediately breaks down the cell's DNA and takes over the machinery to replicate --phage causes lysis and death of host cell - lysogenic- viruses stay dormant with their DNA attached to the host cell's (these dormant virus is called provirus or prophage) due to repressor gene (if it's not expressed or transcribed the virus will not due anything), when the cell divides, the viral DNA is replicated with the host cell's and passed onto the daughter cells -- Prophage DNA incorporated in host DNA -- when UV light or something weakens the repressor gene -> the cell will repair itself and will excise part of its DNA, which typically includes that viral DNA -> virus is active, makes copies of itself, and lyses the cell
primitive streak
- marks beginning of gastrulation - where epiblast cells start their migration --caused by a piling up of cells as they congregate at the midline before moving into the embryo.
main substances in urine
- metabolic waste products - e.g., urea and creatinine - electrolytes - inorganic compounds (including sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride and bicarbonate) that your body uses to control the fluid content inside your body fluids - water
content released by glands in mouth
- mucinous - mucin content which wet the food, making it easier to swallow - serous - enzyme rich content which cut the food via hydrolysos - release saliva
Why is CO2 more soluble than O2 in water
- no difference in partial pressure - but difference in henry's law constant
endocrine, paracrine, autocrine
- not secreted by neurons or neurotransmitters - bind to receptors - doesn't use ducts * endocurne - released by blood and use blood vessles * paracrine and autocrine -don't use blood
spermatogonia divide into 2 daughter cells in mitosis, but what happens to the 2 daughter cells?
- one daughter cell will differentiate into primary spermatocyte - other daughter will revert back to being a germ cell, spermatogonia
selectin
- permit cells to adhere to CARBS in extracellular space - most commonly used in immune system Carbohydrate-binding transmembrane proteins expressed on platelets (P-selectins), leukocytes (L-selectins) and endothelial cells (E- and P-selectins) Allows white blood cells to "anchor" - has arm out to anchor white blood cell to itself; in the injury to fight off germs and cause a blood clot - role is to mediate the first steps of the recruitment of leukocytes from the blood stream in a series of pathologic situations Vascular adhesion molecules that mediate physiological responses such as inflammation, immunity and hemostasis. During cancer progression selectins promote various steps enabling the interactions between tumor cells and the blood constituents, including platelets, endothelial cells, and leukocytes.
Phagocytes
- phagocyte = "eating cell", which describes what role phagocytes play in the immune response - known as antigen presenting cell - circulate throughout the body, looking for potential threats, like bacteria and viruses, to engulf and destroy * can think of phagocytes as security guards on patrol.
2,3-DPG (diphosphoglycerate)
- produced in glycolysis - produced by RBC when O2 levels are low ---increases in response to anaemia/hypoxia and causes a shift of the oxygen dissociation curve, allowing a more effective oxygen delivery. - results: hemoglobin decrease affinity by conformational change --> unloads more O2 stimulates oxygen release from hemoglobin when blood pH is low (hypoxic/acidotic) - acts as a regulator of the allosteric properties of hemoglobin in the RBC. When 2,3-DPG is bound to hemoglobin, it stabilizes the T-state conformation and decreases hemoglobin affinity for oxygen - increases the Bohr effect on Hb-O2 affinity
functions of liver
- production of bile, which helps carry away waste and break down fats in the small intestine during digestion * it also produces albumin and blood clotting factors - metabolism (catabolism and anabolism) -detoxification -- done mostly by cytochrome p450 enzymes *this enzyme isn't exactly specific to certain substrate * this enzyme decreases drug efficacy by breaking them down ---> a specific drug dose must be given to consider for the amount detoxified by the liver * it also converts NH3 to urea - storage of nutrients -- carbs -> glycogen -- lipids/proteins -> lipoproteins -- lipids -> triglycerides * protein isn't exactly stored, instead it's processed into molecules like albumin and cast into the bloodstream - production of certain proteins for blood plasma - production of cholesterol and special proteins to help carry fats through the body; conversion of excess glucose into glycogen for storage (This glycogen can later be converted back to glucose for energy.); regulation of blood levels of amino acids, processing of hemoglobin for use of its iron content (The liver stores iron.); conversion of poisonous ammonia to urea (Urea is one of the end products of protein metabolism that is excreted in the urine.); clearing the blood of drugs and other poisonous substances; regulating blood clotting; resisting infections by producing immune factors and removing bacteria from the bloodstream
Cytokines
- proteins secreted by cytotoxic T cells to aid in antigen destruction - signaling molecules that control proliferation, differentiation, and survival/death of progenitors --maintain steady-state levels - ex_ in blood loss, rbc production is accelerated
repair during DNA replication
- prrofreading: DNA polymerase has a proofreading function and can check that it is not making mistakes - mismatch repair
tissue removal for brain study
- removes only on the surface - surgical removal, surgical aspiration
Volkmann's canals
- run perpendicular to Haversian canals - connect osteons to one another - allow blood vessels to run between marrow cavity and Haversian canals
why can't small intestine passively absorb bile salts? What part of the small intestine absorbs bile?
- salts are charged and low pKa values (acidic)--so they will be deprotonated/negatively charged - pancreatic secretions contain bicarbonate, a base, which raises the pH of the small intestine *ileum, final part of small intestine, absorbs bile
Phagocytosis
- similar to eating - brings full, undissolved or insoluble molecules into the cell - can be highly specific - where the cell engulfs a molecule in order to move it to the interior of the cell - The process starts by the molecule binding to specific receptors on the surface of the cell membrane -> triggering the cell membrane to reshape, surrounding the molecule-> Then, the two ends of the cell fuse, creating a vesicle that surrounds the molecule. Eventually the membrane around the molecule will be digested and its contents will be used - The receptors allow this process to be specific, controlling what can enter the cell.
what causes lymph movement
- smooth muscle attached to lymphatic vessels that squeeze to move the lymph forward - skeletal muscle moves lymph forward as move the body *exercise can help the lymphatic system flow more effectively
The focal length of a converging lens is
- the distance at which parallel light rays are focused - always positive - no image is formed if the object is at the focal point of the lens 1/f = 1/o + 1/i - o: distance of object/ height of object - i: distance/height of object
components of beta cells of pancreas
- the secretory cells inside will release insulin if there's calcium present; it has calcium receptors - has potassium channels - with potassium leaving via facilitated diffusion; has ATP receptor (at rest more potassium cells higher in pancreas than outside) - has voltage gated calcium channel - open through depolarization
aldosterone vs ADH
- ultimately do the same thing (increase water reabsorption in the kidney) - have different mechanisms of action - triggered by antiogenisin 2 ADH: - directly increases water reabsorption from the nephron's collecting duct - secreted by pituitary - decreases osmolarity - increases water permeability in the collecting duct by locating more aquapornis to the plasma membrane Aldosterone: - indirectly increases reabsorption by increasing sodium reabsorption from the collecting duct - secreted by adrenal cortex - doesn't change osmolarity: increases Na+ reabsorption in the collecting duct AND distal convoluted tubule And because water follows Na+, water is also reabsorbed at these 2 regions. Since both salt and water are being reabsorbed, there is NO change in osmolarity
receptor-mediated endocytosis
- very specific with respect to what is imported into the cell - receptors embedded in the cell membrane that, when bound by molecules with an exact match in shape, size, or other physical attribute, will allow the molecule to enter into the cell through the same engulfment process as phagocytosis or pinocytosis Usually for larger molecules It's not needed for simple, planar, nonpolar molecules
syncytiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblast
- what the invading trophoblast differentiates into cytotrophoblast - maintains trophoblast properties of being outer layer and unicelluler syncytiotrophoblast - multinucleated, large cell conglomerations formed by proliferating trophoblasts that grow into endometrium
what is in an egg cell
- zona pellucida - thick layer of glycoproteins on outside of cell - plasma membrane - mitochondria - nucleus - nuclear material
Neutrophils
-- phagocytic cells that are also classified as granulocytes because they contain granules in their cytoplasm. --These granules are very toxic to bacteria and fungi, and cause them to stop proliferating or die on contact. - when die after consuming bacteria - they become pus *Neutrophils are typically the first cells to arrive at the site of an infection because there are so many of them in circulation at any given time.
structure of antibody
--composed of 2 copies of 2 different polypeptides (light chains and heavy chains) joined by disulfide bonds --has 2 regions: constant region and variable (antigen binding) region
what is charge of free fatty acid
-1 - why fatty acids need to be 'activated'/converted to acetyl coA to be transported
rearrangement for T cells
-> the nearly limitless recombination of a gene that expresses T cell receptors - allows for a lot of binding diversity --this diversity could potentially lead to accidental attacks against self cells and molecules because some rearrangement configurations can accidentally mimic a person's self molecules and proteins *Mature T cells should recognize only foreign antigens combined with self-MHC molecules in order to mount an appropriate immune response.
Inotropy: how to employ more myosin heads during contraction?
-Amount of Calcium: increasing calcium levels - Sensitivity of Troponin C to Calcium: increase sensitivity of Troponin C to calcium
myoglobin vs hemoglobin
-Myoglobin will bind O2 under conditions where hemoglobin releases it. -Myoglobin will bind in hyperbole while Hemoglobin is Sigmoidal due to cooperative binding. -Myoglobin and Hemoglobin are saturated at high levels of O2 in lungs... only hemoglobin releases O2 in tissues in normal pO2. -The oxygen will be released by Hemoglobin and picked up by myoglobin for tissue storage *Myoglobin has higher O2 affinity; stores O2 for when Hb runs out; used by animals who stay underwater for long time - myoglobin is muscle reserve for oxygen
NADPH vs NADH
-NAD⁺ is an energy carrier (electron acceptor) and a potent oxidizing agent -NADH produced from the reduction of NAD⁺ can feed into the electron transport chain to indirectly produce ATP -NADPH is an electron donor and a potent reducing agent; used in biosynthesis, in the immune system, and to help prevent oxidative damage
what 4 cells are impacted by angiotension 2
-smooth muscles in blood vessels all over the body CONTRACT -> increased resistance in the blood vessels - (slow) kidney cells have to hold onto more water and more sodium readsorption -> increasing stroke volume -> increased resistance, increased blood pressure - pituitary gland (rapid) - releases ADH (does same as angiotension 2: increase resistance of the blood vessels and cause kidneys H2O readsorption by increasing volume) - adrenal glands - release aldosterone - which causes kidneys to hold onto more water
What is the troponin complex?
-troponin I inhibits binding of myosin -troponin T binds to tropomyosin -troponin C binds to calcium
where in glycolytic pathway is ATP produced
1,3-bisphosphoglycerateP <-> 1-phosphoglycerateP PEP-> pyruvate
myosin in muscle contraction
1. ATP bind -> release myosin from actin 2. ATP hydrolysis (ATP->ADP) allows myosin to bind - troponin+Ca2+ allows mysoin to also be exposed 3. myosin + actin = muscle contraction
What happens when helper T cells read the antigen presented by B-lymphocyte
1. On binding antigens presented by B lymphocytes, helper T cells release cytokines (signaling molecules) -> stimulate B lymphocyte proliferation 2. This produces many identical B lymphocytes that may differentiate into either of the following cell types: - Short-lived plasma cells secrete antibodies during the immediate immune response - Long-lived memory cells remain in lymphoid tissues for a long time and can recognize the antigen more rapidly in the event of a future infection The question asks for an immune response that would not occur in this scenario
Epidermis layers (superficial to deep)
1. Stratum corneum - 15-20 layers of dead keratinocytes that randomly fall off 2. Stratum lucidum - clear/lucid layer 3. Stratum granulosum - has keratohyalin granules (which help handle keratin); releases lamellar bodies 4. Stratum spinosum -has desmosomes; has langerhans 5. Stratum basale - above dermis, nearer to blood source - has stem cells, involves rapid cell division - where keratinocytes first generated - has melanocytes, so get color from this layer mneumonic: come lets get sun burned
steps of tubular resabsorption
1. The first step is the passive or active movement of water and dissolved substances from the fluid inside the tubule through the tubule wall into the space outside. 2. The second step is for water and these substances to move through the capillary walls back into your bloodstream, again, either by passive or active transport.
how does insulin leave beta cell
1. glucose enter cell - via GLUT2 transporter 2. glucose metabolic reactions -> produce ATP - glycolysis, Krebs cycle 3. once buildup ATP 4. ATP bind to ATP receptor in potassium channel -> prevent potassium leaving 5. potassium levels inside cell skyrocket -> depolarization 6. calcium channels open -> calcium influx 7. calcium binds to secretory insulin cell 8. secretory insulin cell fuses with membrane of beta cell 9. insulin released into bloodstream 10. insulin then binds to receptors of cells in the body (key to the lock) -> allowing glucose to enter those cells
journey of bile from liver
1. liver synthesize bile 2. bile leaves liver through common hepatic duct 3. bile enters through the cystic duct to be stored in gall bladder 4. cholecystokinin causes the bile to leave the gall bladder through cysttic duct to the common bile duct 5. bile enters the duodenum (1st part of small intestine) through common bile duct - where bile emulsifies/organizes the fat, allowing for absorption 6. bile salts travel to illeum of small intestine (last part of small intestine) where fat is absorbed 7. bile salts reabsorbed in ileum before it heads back to liver, where it gets reused
differentiation leading to rbc
1. myeloid progenitor develop surface receptor for erythropoetin aka EPO (stimulating factor for rbc) during differentation process, cells... - reduce in size - increase in number - start making hemoglobin - lose their nucleus
Dermis layers - what are the 2 layers - what type of tissue is found (is it thin, loose, rigid, etc.)
1. papillary layer - thin loose connective tissue -- move around, change shape -- most superficial skin layer with blood vessels that nourish the stratum basale along with papillary layer (since thin layer, able to sufficiently be nourished) -- has nerve endings 2. reticular layer - thick dense connective tissue -- stay still, anchoring -- has glands (sweat and exocrine) -- has emerging hair follicles with 'anchoring muscle' arrector pili both are connective tissue in dermis * epidermis = epithelial (come in different shapes like simple squamous, cuboidal, transitional, etc. )
Activation of B lymphocytes by helper T cells
1. pathogen binds to B receptor->pathogen endocytized -> presented on MHC II 2. helper T cells bind foreign antigen -> releases cytokines -> B lymphocyte activated 3. activated B lymphocyte divides into many clones ->clones differentiate into plamsa or memory cells
how are blood clots made?
1. platelet plugs - collagen interacts with platelets at site of damge 2. fibrinogen circulating in blood -> fibrin - polymerize (like to stick together) - not able to stick together as fibrin - so turns to fibrin at site of damage - tissue factors spark and call thrombin interact with fibrinogen to convert fibrin 3. prothrombin activated -> thrombin
responsibilities of stomach
1. recieve bolus/sphere of food from esophagus 2. churn the bolus through muscular walls of stomach 3. hydrolysis of food via pepsin enzyme -> chyme 4. stores chyme
which has increased stability: RNA or DNA
DNA - RNA is susceptible to alkaline hydrolysis due to the presence of hydroxyl group
Telemeres
DNA at the tips of chromosomes - capping ends at DNA that protect it during replication and prevent its degradation
embryonic stem cells
During days 3-5 following fertilization and prior to implantation, the embryo (at this stage, called a blastocyst), contains an inner cell mass that is capable of generating all the specialized tissues that make up the human body - supply new cells for embryo as it grows and develops into baby - pluripotent, which means they can change into any cell in the body
what is involved in body mass
Energy In: - diet - ghrelin - insulin - leptin Energy Out: get rid - basal metabolic rate (2000 calories) - actvity - to use energy in a task (typically 500 calories) - diet induced thermogenesis - energy used to store energy (10%)
restriction enzyme
Enzyme that cuts DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides - used in recombinant dna - they cut palindromic sequences
hormones and enzymes present in duodenum
Enzymes in Duodenum: - disaccharidases: Brush-border enzymes that break down maltose, somaltose, lactose, and sucrose into monosaccharides - aminopeptidase & dipeptidase: Brush-border peptidases - enteropeptidase: Activates trypsinogen and procarboxypeptidases Hormones in Duodenum: - secretin: Peptide hormone -- Stimulates release of pancreatic juices and slows motility --Regulates gastric acid secretion and pH levels -- Stimulates the flow of bile from the liver to the gallbladder - cholecystokinin: Stimulates bile release from gallbladder, release of pancreatic juices. Increases satiety. --Stimulates the gallbladder to contract, causing bile to be secreted into the duodenum (gallbladder -> duodenum)
Where in the human male reproductive system do the gametes become motile and capable of fertilization?
Epididymis - located at back of testis and connects to vas deferens - where sperm fully matures and becomes motile - stores and carry sperm
epimer vs anomer
Epimer: stereoisomers which differ in the configuration at only one chiral carbon atom Anomer: those which differ in configuration at acetal or hemiacetal carbon (the anomeric carbon)
Epithelial vs connective tissue
Epithelial •Poor blood supply •Lots of cells, little matrix •Basement membrane •Derived from all 3 germ layers Connective •Good blood supply •Lots of matrix, few cells •No basement membrane •Derived from mesoderm only
what is the most powerful regulator of PFK-1
F-2,6-BP - stimulates PFK-1
what does F-2,6BPase do
F-2,6-BP -> F-1,6P
What channels open causing further depolarization?
Fast calcium channels
how are water soluble and fat soluble vitamins absorbed, which is more necessary in body
Fat-Soluble: Only A,D,E,K; enter lacteal - need protein carriers to travel and less needed (more likely to become toxic levels through supplements Water-Soluble: All others; enter plasma directly. - travel freely and more needed
if the last period is week 0, when does fertilization occur? what about embryogenesis?
Fertilization - week 2 Embryogenesis - week 2 to week 10, with organogensis at the end of it *Fetal development after emyrbogenesis * 24 weeks - odd chance of surving *39 week (around 37-40 weeks)- full term -- before that = pre-term -- after that = post-term complication arise both preterm and post term
septum primum
First section of the interatrial septum to form in the embryo - flap of tissue in the fetus that covers the foramen ovale within a few seconds after birth - first part of the atrial septum to grow from the dorsal wall of the primitive atrium; fuses with the endocardial cushions a thin, crescent-shaped membrane that grows down from the roof of the primitive atrium, towards the developing endocardial cushions. It partially divides the single primitive atrium into left and right halves.
nucleoplasm
Fluid inside the nucleus - within the nucleoplasm where chromosomes (tightly packed strands of DNA containing all our blueprints) are found
camp involves what kind of receptor
G-protein coupled
higher GC content, what does that mean in terms of stability and denaturation
GC - 3 H bonds so less likely to denature and more stable
GLUT 2 vs GLUT 4
GLUT-2: - in liver (for glucose storage) - has ↑Km (lower binding affinity) --respond proportionally to concentration of glucose levels --only shuttles when glucose levels are high (because of its low affinity, high Km) - like after a meal - INSULIN INDEPENDENT - bidirectional - It, as well as glucokinase, serve as a glucose sensor for insulin release GLUT-4: -found in adipose tissue and muscle - stimulated by insulin - Has ↓Km (higher binding affinity) --always works at/near Vmax and has a low Km, so whatever level of glucose concentration doesn't really matter, it will keep shuttling glucose in towards the cell --saturated at anything above normal levels - unidirectional
GPCR singaniling - epinephrine
GPCR = adrenergic receptor ligand = epinephrine 1. epinephrine binds to the adrenergic, GPCR receptor 2. adrenergic receptor undergoes conformational change 3. the conformational chnage causes alpha subunit to swap out GDP for GTP 4. alpha subunit dissociates from other subunits of G protein 5. alpha subunit seeks out adenylate cyclase, which gets stimulated (and is regulated by alpha subunit through GTP hydolysis) 6. adenylate cyclase, which is now stimulated, will take ATP and produce cAMP, making the ATP a monophosphate 7. cAMP - a second messenger- will tell cell to increase heart rate, breakdown glycogen to glucose, dilate the skeletal mucsles (fight/flight) * binding of epinephrine, a signal, is transformed into another signal through cAMP
Biosynthesis of isoprene
1.isoprene bound to pyrophosphate (OPP) - pyrophosphate = good leaving group - electrons of a pi bond act as nucleophile and attack carbon 2. nuceophilic rxns continue till triprne 3. cyclization reactions allow for cholestrol to be made
how does an oocyte get ejected out of ovary
1.mature follicle starts to balloon out of side of ovary and push against edge of ovary 2. since edge of ovary and wall of follicle is in close contact -> enzymes within follcile break down the common wall between them 3. the wall broken -> egg pops out into surface of ovary (day 14)
How does fat enter the blood circulation?
1.packaged into chylomicrons - hold fats together - but too big to enter capillaries 2. lymphatic vessels are easier to enter than capillaries - so chylomicrons enters the blood stream through the lymphatic vessels in small intestine (these lmypahtic vessels are called lacteal) *A lacteal is a blunt-ended, long, tube-like lymphatic vessel located in the center of each intestinal villus that provides a unique route for drainage of absorbed lipids from the small intestine.
Zygote transformation
1.zygote -> (16 cells) morula -> blastula (100 cells) (cleavage stage - cell divides without growing) 2. differentiation - cells able to tell apart - tropblasts - on outside - embyroblast - on inside 3. blastulation - blastocyst - inner cell mass - cells compact - zone of plecida - breaking down 4. - amniotic cavity - hypoblast 5. bilaminar disk
palmitoyl coA - has how many carbon? is it saturated or unsaturated?
16 carbon saturated fatty acyl CoA
if there are 1800 bases in a RNA, what is the maximum number of amino acids it can encode? (aa)
1800/3 = 600 3 bases contribute to 1 amino acid *number of bases/3 = number of possible amino acids
what kind of burn goes into dermis? what about hypodermis?
1st degree - just epidermis 2nd degree - partially dermis 3rd degree - dermis and partially hypodermis - can involve lack of pain/oss of nerve endings * if don't feel pain, then possibly burned/killed the nerve endings that allow pain simulation
What does oogonia undergo?
1st part of oogenesis: 1. oogonia (2n) undergo mitotic divisions 2. around 7 month of development, the divisions stop - the oogonia produced till then (2-4 million) are the eggs that the female will have for the rest of the life
how many blood supplies does the liver have?
2 blood supplies - portal venous system -- from the intestinal tract -- supplies liver with nutrient rich blood - proper hepatic artery -- arterial blood that supplies oxygen rich blood --- where liver primarily gets its oxygen from
exocrine vs endocrine pancreas
2 different components of pancreas exo-pass through duct into duodenum - takes salts/enzymes and releases them into duodenum endo-pass directly into blood - release hormones (not enzymes or salts) to bloodstream -- part of endocrine signaling * they're organized into islets
Cofactor Vs Coenzyme vs. Prosthetic group:
2 types of cofactors: -coenzymes and prosthetic groups - chemical compounds that are bound to proteins. *A cofactor is a non-protein chemical compound, while a coenzyme is a non-protein molecule. Coenzymes (heme in Hb) *activate* enzyme, alter structure/ form - are organic molecules and quite often bind loosely to the active site of an enzyme and aid in substrate recruitment - complex organic molecule (e.g. Vitamin) Prosthetic groups are enzyme partner molecules that bind tightly to an enzyme Cofactors do not have to bind the enzyme. Cofactors are "helper molecules" and can be inorganic or organic in nature. - Non-protein component (e.g. metals)
How many spermatids result from one spermatogonium?
4 - two spermatids per secondary spermatocyte * spermatogonium mitotically divides into 1 spermatogonium and another primary spermatocyte 1 primary spermatocyte -> 2 secondary spermatocyte -> 4 spermatids with each spermatocyte forming 2 spermatids * 1 primary spermatocyte gives rise to 4 sperm
how many chromosomes do humans with trisomy have?
47: 2n + 1 - we have 23 pairs, so n = 23, so trisomy of our chromosomes would be 47 (1 more than the normal 46 chromosomes) - people with down syndrome, klinefliter's, turners all have 47 chromosomes
if a protein is made up of repeating 3 residues, if terminal proteases were and the protein were involved in a chemical rxn, how many of residues will most amino acids consist of?
3 - the amino acids that are not terminal will involve 3
flavoproteins, cytochromes, ubiquinones
3 classes of carrier molecules in ETC
how many codons in mRNA
64
in what direction is phoshodiester bonds in dna formed? (aa)
5' to 3' - sugar of the 5' base (3' Oh at the 5' base) interacts with the phosphate group of the 3' base * deoxyribose has 3'oh and H at 2'
In what direction is DNA synthesized?
5'-to-3' direction DNA is always synthesized in the 5'-to-3' direction, meaning that nucleotides are added only to the 3' end of the growing strand. - the incoming nucleotide undergoes nucleophilic attack by the 3' hydroxyl group of the growing strand at the alpha phosphorus of the 5' phosphate group. DNA polymerase can therefore only add nucleotides to the growing chain and cannot initiate the replication.
Blood vs Glomerular filtrate vs. Urine
Glomerural filtrate vs Blood: blood plasma contains suspended cells, proteins, and large molecules while the glomerular filtrate, generally, contains neither of these - blood plasma and glomerular filtrate mostly have the same composition except for large molecules that cannot pass the filtration membrane of the glomerular capillaries Glomerural filtrate vs urine: filtrate is the liquid filtered out from the blood into Bowman's capsule whereas urine is the nitrogenous liquid formed by the nephron, the functional unit of the kidney - glomerular filtration is the first step in making urine. It is the process that your kidneys use to filter excess fluid and waste products out of the blood into the urine collecting tubules of the kidney, so they may be eliminated from your body -- The filtrate becomes urine in the collecting ducts The filtrate is similar in composition to the blood plasma without globular proteins and other large molecules while urine contains water, urine, creatinine, electrolytes including sodium, potassium, and chloride, and other small organic molecules
glucokinase vs hexokinase
Glucokinase = In Liver Hexokinase = Non-liver cells Glucose to glucose 6 is a process that any cell uses the trap glucose inside of the cell and not let it diffuse out of the cell. Km of hexokinase is low as the cell NEEDS to trap this glucose in it to be used for energy. Pretty much always a high rate of reaction. Km of glucokinase is much higher (slower rate of rxn) and thus will ramp up it's reaction when there is more glucose around (higher substrate concentration).
what molecule from glycolysis is shuttled from glycolysis
Glucose-6-phosphate
What protects the stomach epithelium from damage from the acidic environment of the gastric lumen
Goblet cells produce the mucous lining of the stomach that protects the stomach epithelium from damage from the acidic environment of the gastric lumen.
Where are steroid hormones synthesized?
Gonads, Adrenal cortex, Placenta, Brain cells, Fat cells (cholesterol) - Smooth ER and in mitochondria - made from cholestrol
somatotropin-releasing factor
Growth-hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH, somatoliberin) is the hypothalamic peptide hormone that specifically stimulates synthesis and release of growth hormone (GH, somatotropin) by somatotrope cells of the anterior pituitary gland
What's in sweat?
HOlocrine (aka sebacous glands)- wHOle cell breaks down to release sebum (oily substance) -- lubricate skin (slows bacterial growth) -- found in (face, chest, back) APocrine - APex/top of cell breaks off to release proteins, lipids, steroids -- release contents into hair follicle -- found in armpits, groin, nipples -- release secretions only once puberty hits; emotional sweating (releasing hormones, pheromones common in animals) Merocrine - release watery sweat via exocytosis -- help us cool down through evaporative cooling -- eliminate waste products -- releases lysozyme (enzymes that lyse bacteria) and antibodies (tag pathogens)- great protection! -- found in palms, soles of feet, and everywhere
Hayflick limit
Hayflick limit -the number of times a human cell is capable of dividing into two new cells. The limit for most human cells is approximately 50 divisions, an indication that the life span is limited by our genetic program.
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Hormone produced by the neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus that stimulates water reabsorption from kidney tubule cells into the blood and vasoconstriction of arterioles. controls concentration of urine helps kidneys to conserve water - increase water permeability in the late distal tubule and collecting ducts *increases water permeability, but not urea permeability in the cortical and outer medullary collecting ducts, causing urea to concentrate in the tubular fluid in this segment - increase active transport of sodium chloride in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle - enhance countercurrent multiplication and urea recycling, all of which increase the size of the osmotic gradient
platelets formation
Hormone thrombopoeitin stimulates PSC via negative feedback (where it is stimulated by low platelet levels) to develop into huge megakaryocytic which fragments as they move into the bloodstream from the bone marrow platelets = fragments of megakaryocyte as they bud off from it
what happens to I and A bands during contraction - what happens to length of sarcomere during contraction
I bands (made up of actin, not myosin) shorten - z lines get closer, shortening the length of sarcomere * during contraction, everything gets corded - since pulled towards the center A bands do not change since it involves how far the myosin spreads
normal genetic cross ratio - dihybrid
9:3:3:1 - 9 dominant form of both genes expressed - 3 one donimant and other recessive - 3 one donimant and other recessive - 1 recessive of both expressed
Lb contain a larger amount of covalently-linked phosphate compared to normal glycogen. This extra presence of PO4 has been linked to a mutation in the gene for la, a phosphatase specific to carbohydrates. How would addition of laforin change a 32 phoshorus blot?
Lb have a lot of phosphate due to a mutation in laforin - if la is linked to phosphatase which removes the phosphate - a mutation in it must mean that the phosphatase isn't working properly Anyways, laforin is linked with phosphatase and removing the phosphate sooo if quest asking what happens to the intensity fo a band in 32 P blot for UDP ( aglycogen related molecule) - the intensity of band in 32 P decreases - since less P as laforin has phosphatase removing the phosphate
Loop of Henle structure
Longest tube of the nephron Starts in renal cortex, extends down into renal medulla, then back to renal cortex Descending limb, Dives into medulla, ascending limb -medulla is more salty than cortex
Where does the "lub-dub" sound come from?
Lub: 1st sound/S1. The lub portion of the sound comes when the Ventricles are full. As the AV valves close they make the "lub" sound. - tricuspid and mitral valves close shut - pulmonary and aortic valve opened Dub: 2nd sound/ S2. The Semilunar Valves then open to allow the blood to exit the heart as the ventricles contract. When the Semilunar Valves close to prevent backflow of blood, the "Dub" sound is heard. - pulmonary and aortic valve close shut - tricuspid and mitral valve open
lymphatic vessels vs blood vessels
Lymphatic capillaries are similar to blood capillaries, but they are larger in diameter and have closed ends. Unlike blood capillaries, fluid can flow into lymph capillaries but can't flow out through the cell walls. It can only move forward - moves in one direction - carry white blood cells, fluids and waste. But not rbc - their main function is to remove excess fluid from tissues.
if X is a eznyme that recognizes Y, and if M is a molecule that mimics Y and binds to active site of X, what would M be?
M is a competeive inhibitor of enzyme of X
Capillaries
Microscopic vessel through which exchanges take place between the blood and cells of the body
Mitochondria and its role in apoptosis
Mitochondria play key roles in activating apoptosis in mammalian cells. Bcl-2 family members regulate the release of proteins from the space between the mitochondrial inner and outer membrane that, once in the cytosol, activate caspase proteases that dismantle cells and signal efficient phagocytosis of cell corpses - releases cytochrome c and caspase
FADH2 vs NADH - what is derived from - how many H does it recieve - how much atp does it produce? what's behind the difference in ATP production?
NADH - a coenzyme derived from vitamin B3 or niacin - recieves one H - yields 3 ATP - produces more ATP because has more energetic electrons -> produces a larger proton gradient for ATP synthase FADH2 - a coenzyme derived from Vitamin B2 or riboflavin - recieves 2 hydrogens - yields 2 ATP - FADH2 produces less ATP then NADH because FADH2 is reduced more -> so electrons are in more bonds -> meaning more stable and less reactive-> so less likely to donate
what are example of soluble electron carrier in human body
NADH carrying electrons to ETC - Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide - Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide. - Coenzyme Q - Cytochrome C
RBC breakdown
Old RBCs lose elasticity. Trapped in vessels and spleen. Removed by reticuloendothelial cells, especially in liver and spleen. Most hemoglobin recycled. Some bilirubin secreted in bile. Most iron recycled. Some lost in feces, urine, menses. during breakdown...heme, iron, and globin are separated Iron binds to ferridin or hemosiderin and is stored for reuse Heme is degraded to yellow pigment bilirubin -Liver secretes bilirubin (in bile) into intestines, where it is degraded to pigment urobilinogen -Urobilinogen is transformed into brown pigment stercobilin that leaves body in feces Globin is metabolized into amino acids Released into circulation breakdown occurs in liver and spleen monocyte - agranular leukocyte that is able to migrate into tissues and transform into a macrophage. - in spleen, phagocyte old rbc so it along with iorn can be reused
how do you tell in a pedigree if the trait is autosomal recessive
In autosomal inheritance, each offspring receives one allele from the father and one from the mother. You can tell that this disorder is autosomal because there are no sex preferences for the disease. You can tell that this disorder is autosomal recessive because it skips parents, who then pass the disease to their offspring. --A carrier of an autosomal recessive disorder possesses one diseased allele and one normal allele. -People with the disease are homozygous and must therefore pass a diseased allele to their children. --Children who have the disease must also have received a mutated copy from each parent. So both of their parents must either be carriers or have the disease
Fibroblasts
In connective tissue, cells that secrete the proteins of the fibers. - generate any connective tissue that the cell needs; can move throughout the body and undergo mitosis to create new tissue
Gene repression in bacteria
Operons have a binding site for regulatory proteins that turn expression of the operon "up" or "down." Some regulatory proteins are repressors that bind to pieces of DNA called operators. When bound to its operator, a repressor reduces transcription (e.g., by blocking RNA polymerase from moving forward on DNA)
what strutuctures pivotal for countercurrent multiplication?
Osmotic gradient <- loops of henle + specialized blood capillary network (the vasa recta) that surrounds the loops Vasa recta capillaries are long, hairpin-shaped blood vessels that run parallel to the loops of Henle. The hairpin turns slow the rate of blood flow, which helps maintain the osmotic gradient required for water reabsorption.
4 types of bone cells and their functions
Osteogenic cells (osteogenitors): precursor to osteoblasts, mature to osteoblasts under influence of growth factors Osteoblasts: (mature osteogenitors) synthesize collagen and proteins (osteocalcin and osteoprotin) - aka synthesize osteoids -- form alakaline phosphatase (which form hydroxyapatite) * once osteoblasts have synthesized enough components of organic and inorganic portion -> they mature to osteocytes Osteocytes: mature osteoblasts that occupy lacunae and has a star like apearance due to the presence of arms that act as sensors and help it to reach out and communicate with other osteocytes/osteoblasts Osteoclasts: derived from monocyte cell line that and are responsible for bone resorption - so break bone down again through tartrate resistant acid phosphatase
medulla oblongata
Part of the brainstem that controls vital life-sustaining functions such as heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, and digestion * hypothalamus, primialry, but also medulla helps maintain homeostasis
what regulates phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1)
Phosphofructokinase-1 catalyzes the rate-limiting step of the where F6P -> F1,6BP irreversibly, using ATP Phosphofructokinase-1: - AMP/ADP ⊕ -F2,6 bisphosphate ⊕. - ATP ⊝ - citrate ⊝.
if spermatogonia is diploid, how are sperm haploid cells
In spermatogenesis, diploid spermatogonia go through mitosis until they begin to develop into gametes; eventually, one develops into a primary spermatocyte that will go through the first meiotic division to form two haploid secondary spermatocytes
bipolar cells
In the retina, the specialized neurons that connect the rods and cones with the ganglion cells. - eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells *glutamate has an inhibitory effect on bipolar cells
distal tubule
In the vertebrate kidney, the portion of a nephron that helps refine filtrate and empties it into a collecting duct. -between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct; Selective reabsorption and secretion occur here, most notably to regulate reabsorption of water and sodium - selectively and absrbs different ions to maintain pH and electrolyre balance
spherical aberration
Inability of spherical mirror to focus all parallel rays to a single point; a blurring of the periphery of an image as a result of inadequate reflection of parallel beams at the edge of a mirror or inadequate refraction of parallel beams at the edge of a lens <- due to the geometry of a spherical lens - Light rays near the edge of a spherical lens refract more than predicted for an ideal lens * all frequencies of light are affected by spherical aberrations
outbreeding vs inbreeding
Inbreeding refers to mating of related individuals - results in a decline in survival and reproduction (reproductive fitness), known as inbreeding depression, in most species of plants and animals. Outbreeding refers to matings between individuals from different populations, subspecies, or species
types of teeth and their functions
Incisors (chisels), canines (puncture and shred), premolars and molars (crush and grind) 4 central inscisor - cut (*4 inc top and bottom) 4 lateral inscisor - cut 4 canine - gripping/pulling, puncture/shred 8 premolar - come before molar teeth; like grindstone, aka grinds (*2 premolars on left and right side - so 4 on top and bottom, totalling to 8) 12 molar - grinds (*3molars on left and right, so 6 on bottom y top; totalling to 12)
does decrease in the length of depolarization allow a cell to have increased or decreased action potential?
Increase - allow for increased frequency of firing - neuron fire much more quickly so decreased depolarization length
genomic instability
Increase tendency of an organism's DNA to acquire mutations - DNA lacks the ability to be stable
Is a cell with decreased permeability to anions going to have increased or decreased action potential?
Increased - anion influx - hyperpolarizes (makes the cell mor negative) -> making cell less likely to fire action potential By decreasing anion influx -> more action potential
does sodium influx allow a cell to have increased or decreased action potential?
Increased flux of cations - threshold reached more quickly -> cell fires more
Leukotrienes
Increased permeability of blood vessels, phagocytic attachment - Leukotrienes contract pericytes to cause increased vessel permeability (LTC4, LTD4, LTE4)
if blood pH is low, what would help return to normal: - Decreased reabsorption of HCO3- ions in the kidney - Increased respiratory rate - Decreased respiratory rate
Increased respiratory rate - blood pH is low -> the body would drive towards expelling as much CO2 as possible by hyperventilating - Decreased respiratory rate - retain CO2 and further decrease the pH through increase formation of carbonic acid (H2CO3) in blood - decreasing the reabsorption of bicarbonate ion - increase formation of carbonic acid (H2CO3) in blood, decreasing pH; increasing bicarbonate reabsorption would help inc pH
steps for countercurrent multiplcation
It is a continual process but can be thought of in 2 steps: 1. The single effect - driven by active transport of sodium chloride out of the tubular fluid in the thick ascending limb into the interstitial fluid, which becomes hyperosmotic. -> As a result, water moves passively down its concentration gradient out of the tubular fluid in the descending limb into the interstitial space, until it reaches equilibrium 2. Fluid flow - as urine is continually being produced -> new tubular fluid enters the descending limb -> which pushes the fluid at higher osmolarity down the tube and an osmotic gradient begins to develop. As the fluid continues to move through the loop of Henle, these two steps are repeated over and over, causing the osmotic gradient to steadily multiply until it reaches a steady state.
what does reduction of temp typically do to an enzyme? what about increase in temp? - Enzyme activity normally __increases/decreases__ with increased temperature (up to a point) and __increases/decreases__ with decreased temperature
It would impair catalase activity - Enzyme activity normally increases with increased temperature (up to a point) and decreases with decreased temperature -- there is a temp range in which enzyme work the best - below or above that range typically impairs its activity
Semantic vs. syntactic information
John thanked Mary vs. Mary was thanked by John - convey similar ideas, semantic is similar - but syntax is totally different (active vs. passive voice) - words are different for syntactic reasons - they typically won't remember the syntax, but they'll remember the core ideas/semantic (hard time distinguishing how it was worded) *semantic> syntax - semantic is remembered more than the way the words are worded
Does the liver produce digestive enzymes?
Just lipase to digest fats. It does not make protein digesting enzymes...they are made by the stomach and pancreas only.
kinesin vs dynein
Kinesin is for anterograde transport (away) -towards plus end Dyenin is for retrograde transport (towards the cell body) - towards minus end
in the case of lactase persistance (associated with SNP) which allows for intake of lactose without experiencing much symptoms ...would such phenotype be present in enhancer, stop codon, or coding region
LP<- lactase produced even in adulthood since lactate expression is altered and enzyme isn't exactly mutated.. can't be coding region or stop codon - which would have been tied to mutated enzyme - enhancer or promoter is affected- able to bind transcriptional activators in order to increase the expression of a particular gene -- such binding between the activator and enhancer region might be affected by mutation
Ig superfamily
Large family of proteins that contain immunoglobulin domains. Most are involved in cell-cell interactions or antigen recognition
fluorophore
A fluorescent molecule used to stain specimens for fluorescence microscopy - includes fluroescent tags
motor unit recruitment
A mechanism for increasing tension (contractile length) in a muscle by activating more motor units - the stimulation of more motor units allow for stronger contraction *each motor unit is made up of the muscle cells controlled by a single neuron
Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
A molecule that stores energy for harvest by the electron transport chain.
Esophagus
A muscular tube that connects the mouth to the stomach - passage of food - conducts peristalsis - wavelike propulsion of food -- contraction of esophagus in one area relaxes it in another area
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. - memory encoding
Hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. - fighting, fleeing, feeding, and fornication and homeostasis
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction - released by basalis nuclei and septal nuclei - involved in autonomic nervous system
adrenal gland - where - function
A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress. - secrete either glucocorticoids or mineralocorticoids -- glucocorticoid- ex_ Cortisol- decrease immune response inc WBC; to stimulate gluconeogenesis (formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources) in the liver<- by activating DNA transcription to produce liver enzymes and by mobilizing amino acids from muscle tissue (protein .degradation) - mineralocorticoid- ex_ Aldosterone maintains ionic balance by causing conservation of Na+, bicarbonate (HCO3^2-) and excretion of K+.
Chemiosmosis
A process for synthesizing ATP using the energy of an electrochemical gradient and the ATP synthase enzyme. Also used in light reaction of photosynthesis to harness energy of sunlight
Glucagon
A protein hormone secreted by pancreatic endocrine cells that raises blood glucose levels; an antagonistic hormone to insulin - releases glucose from storage
Insulin
A protein hormone synthesized in the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into tissues - by stimulating glycolysis, it decreases the concentration of glucose within the cell (via storage), the glucose uptake within the cell is facilitated (to make up for the decrease)
placenta - what is exchanged?
A structure that allows an embryo to be nourished with the mother's blood supply - provides nutrients to and excretes waste products from the fetus without ever mixing them - acts as your baby's lungs, kidneys and liver until birth -Receives glucose and oxygen from the mother through the placenta - Removal of wastes from fetal vessels also takes place in the mother's blood through the placenta contains many blood vessels -- These blood vessels allow the exchange of nutrients and gases between the mother and the developing fetus
sodium-potassium pump
A transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that actively transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell, using ATP - creates potential difference/voltage (which can drive reaction) - necessary for action potential -- without potential difference between the inside and outside of cell, the movement of ions would not form an action potential
gap junction
A type of intercellular junction in animal cells, consisting of proteins surrounding a pore that allows the passage of materials between cells. - essentially tubes that join two cells together - These tubes create a connection that allows for the transport of water and ions to and from the connecting cells - The tubes also help to spread electrochemical signals that are produced by action potentials that occur in the nervous system (neurons) and in cardiac cells that make your heart beat - most commonly found in the skin, cells that use action poetntial - neurons, cardiac - if don't work properly, can cause irregular breakdown of material like white matter of brain
Cytotoxic T cells
A type of lymphocyte that kills infected body cells and cancer cells - express CD8, and are responsible for removing pathogens and infected host cells.
progenitor cells
A cell that has lost the capacity for self renewal and is committed to the generation of a particular cell lineage *Progenitor cell are very similar to stem cells. They are biological cells and like stem cells, they too have the ability to differentiate into a specific type of cell. However, they are already more specific than stem cells and can only be pushed to differentiate into its "target" cell.
cyclin
A cellular protein that occurs in a cyclically fluctuating concentration and that plays an important role in regulating the cell cycle.
somatic mutation (aa)
A change in a gene that occurs after conception in the developing embryo that may become a baby A mutation that occurs in the body cells. Cannot be inherited. - mutation that occurs in cells of the body other than gametes Somatic mutations can occur in any of the cells of the body except the germ cells (sperm and egg) and therefore are not passed on to children. These alterations can (but do not always) cause cancer or other diseases. Somatic mutations are a normal part of aging and occur throughout an organism's life cycle either spontaneously as a result of errors in DNA repair mechanisms or a direct response to stress. Mutations occurring early in development can cause mosaicism within the gene line, impacting organism development
bottleneck effect (genetic drift)
A change in allele frequency following a dramatic reduction in the size of a population - loss in genetic variation results in forming a new population that is genetically distinct from the original population - The smaller population will also be more susceptible to the effects of genetic drift for generations (until its numbers return to normal), potentially causing even more alleles to be lost.
monoamine neurotransmitters
A class of amines that includes indolamines such as serotonin and histamine; and catecholamines such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine
intermediate filaments
A component of the cytoskeleton that includes filaments intermediate in size between microtubules and microfilaments. - made of a variety of proteins such as keratin and/or neurofilament - very stable - help provide structure to the nuclear envelope - anchor organelles.
Codominance
A condition in which neither of two alleles of a gene is dominant or recessive. speckled phenotype
ascending loop of henle
Portion of the nephron not permeable to water. A filtrate flows up the ascending limp through decreasing concentration of the interstitial fluid, Na+ is actively pumped out of the filtrate, decreasing filtrate concentration - reabsorbs Na+ and Cl- from the filtrate into the interstitial fluid
Countercurrent multiplication
Process of using energy to generate an osmotic gradient that enables you to reabsorb water from the tubular fluid and produce concentrated urine. -> moves sodium chloride from the tubular fluid into the interstitial space deep within the kidneys - > this mechanism prevents you from producing litres and litres of dilute urine every day, and is the reason why you don't need to be continually drinking in order to stay hydrated. - Exchange takes place between fluids moving in opposite directions and the effect of the exchange increases as fluid movement continues.
What does gut bacteria do?
Produce vitamin K and biotin (vitamin B7) * bacteria is present in stomach, large intestine, and other parts of digestive tract as they assist in digestion (esp of carbs) that we can't do ourselves (bc we lack those enzymes) -> byproduct: methane (CH4), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) -- why beans (rich in carbohydrates that we aren't able to digest) -> produces smelly fart due to H2S byproduct
APC immune
Professional antigen presenting cells (APCs) - are immune cells that specialize in presenting an antigen to a T-cell - A type of immune cell that boosts immune responses by showing antigens on its surface to other cells of the immune system - The main types of professional APCs are dendritic cells (DC), macrophages, and B cells. - a type of phagocyte - involve MHC
oncogene vs proto-oncogene
Proto-oncogene is normal stimulation and oncogene is out of control version of proto-oncogene proto-oncogene - pushes cell cycle forward in controlled fashion oncogene - proto-oncogene that's always on (proto-oncogenes that gain function - drive the cell cycle forward, allowing cells to proceed from one cell cycle stage to the next. This highly regulated process becomes dysregulated due to activating genetic alterations that lead to cellular transformation.always ondrive the cell cycle forward, allowing cells to proceed from one cell cycle stage to the next -> the highly regulated process becomes dysregulated due to activating genetic alterations that lead to cellular transformation.
ROS DNA damage
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are a group of short-lived, highly reactive, oxygen-containing molecules that can induce DNA damage and affect the DNA damage response (DDR). Oxygen free radicals major source of DNA damage ~ 20 oxidatively altered DNA molecules identified Guanine conversion - 8-Hydroxyguanine Amount a measure of oxidative damage to cells ROS damage DNA through strand breaks and base oxidation that, if unrepaired, induces apoptosis or oncosis. Protein oxidation and nitration damage antioxidant enzymes, surfactant proteins, and anti-inflammatory pathways that can further propagate maladaptive inflammatio
peripheral chemoreceptors
Receptors in the carotid arteries and the aorta that monitor blood pH, O2, and CO2 to help regulate ventilation rate. - mainly respond to hypoxia
central chemoreceptors
Receptors in the central nervous system that monitor the pH and CO2 of cerebrospinal luid to help regulate ventilation rate - in medulla
auditory hair cells
Receptors in the cochlea that transduce sound into electrical potentials. - detects vibration - ex of mechanoreceptors
when does recombination occur in gametes
Recombination occurs in both oogenesis and spermatogenesis during meiotic prophase I
Red Fibers vs White fibers (skeletal muscle)
Red Fibers: - Slow twitch - Support (dark meat) - Carry out oxidative phosphorylation -- have a lot of myoglobin (since need oxygen to carry out the oxidative phosphorylation) -> so it's red White Fibers: - Fast-twitch - Active (white meat) - Anaerobic metabolism - since less steps involved, it's more rapid
How do SNPs affect gene expression?
SNPs may change the encoded amino acids (nonsynonymous) or can be silent (synonymous) or simply occur in the noncoding regions. They may influence promoter activity (gene expression), messenger RNA (mRNA) conformation (stability), and subcellular localization of mRNAs and/or proteins and hence may produce disease.
TrpV1 Receptor
Sensitive to both heat and pain (either causes change in conformation which signals to brain - heat/pain causes conformational change in TrpV1 protein, activating cell, sending signal to brain * it's a nocireceptor and thermoreceptor
vestibular hair cells
Sensor located in semicircular canals that detect acceleration and position relative to gravity (mechanoreceptor) - ex of mechanoreceptors
Sensory vs Short term vs long term memory.
Sensory- The part of the memory system which is the initial contact for stimuli. Sensory memory is only capable of retaining information for a very short period of time. Short term-"Primary" or "active" memory The capacity of holding a small amount of information in the mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time Long term- Memory in which associations among items are stored (encoded)
difference between inflammatory and pro-inflammatory
Some cytokines act to make disease worse (proinflammatory), whereas others serve to reduce inflammation and promote healing (anti-inflammatory) Proinflammatory cytokines are produced predominantly by activated macrophages and are involved in the up-regulation of inflammatory reactions.
Positive control in bacteria
Some regulatory proteins are activators. When an activator is bound to its DNA binding site, it increases transcription of the operon (e.g., by helping RNA polymerase bind to the promoter)
juxtaglomerular apparatus
Specialized cells next to the glomerulus that help to regulate blood pressure - release renin, hormone, which helps raise blood pressure
osteoprogenitor cells
Stem cells derived from mesenchyme Produce cells that mature to become osteoblasts Located in periosteum and endosteum
pluripotent stem cells
Stem cells that can become almost all types of tissues and cells in the body.
synapsis in meiosis I
Synapsis is when the homologous chromosomes migrate toward one another and join to form a tetrad (the combination of four chromatids, two from each homologous chromosome)
template strand vs coding strand
Template Strand: DNA strand with 3' -5' polarity Acts as template for transcription (template) Codes for mRNA ------------------------------------ Coding strand: DNA strand with 5'-3' polarity Not a template for transcription (coding) Does not code for mRNA *is actual gene sequence itself The template strand runs in 3' to 5' direction, but read in 5' to 3' direction. The other strand in double-stranded DNA, which runs from 5' to 3' direction is known as the coding strand
temporal vs spatial summation
Temporal - repeated stimuli can have a cumulative effect and can produce a nerve impulse when a single stimuli is too weak - same space, different time - receives stimuli in quick succession Spatial - synaptic input from several locations can have a cumulative effect and trigger a nerve impulse - different space, same time - receives stimuli simultaneously
Babinski reflex
The Babinski reflex occurs after the sole of the foot has been firmly stroked. The big toe then moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot. The other toes fan out. This reflex is normal in children up to 2 years old. It disappears as the child gets older
DNA hybridization
The annealing of a single-stranded DNA molecule to a complementary sequence - the process in which two complementary single-stranded DNA and/or RNA molecules bond together to form a double-stranded molecule
pituitary gland
The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. - link between nervous and endocrine system
Meiosis I vs II
The essential difference between meiosis I and meiosis II is in purpose. Meiosis I is dedicated to forming two haploid cells from one diploid cell, while meiosis II is meant to split the sister chromatids in the haploid cells produced in meiosis I, creating four daughter cells. Meiosis I also recombines, or shuffles, genes on each pair of chromosomes. Meiosis I and meiosis II happen in succession. meiosis I: the number of cells is doubled but the number of chromosomes is not. This results in 1/2 as many chromosomes per cell meiosis II: this division is like mitosis; the number of chromosomes does not get reduced. * anaphase I of meiosis demonstrates disjunction and law of segregation
glomerular filtration
The first step in urine formation in which substances in blood pass through the filtration membrane and the filtrate enters the proximal convoluted tubule of the nephron - driven primarily by outward force aka blood pressure as it enters the glomerulus - driven by inward pressure - due to the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid within the urinary space + the pressure generated by the proteins left in the capillaries that tend to pull water back into the circulatory system (colloidal osmotic pressure)
HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)
The hormone stimulates the corpus luteum to produce progesterone to maintain the pregnancy - produced only after implantation
depolarization typically triggers further ___polarization
The increase in depolarization causes more voltage gated Na channels to open, resulting in a greater influx of positive charge, which accelerates the depolarization still further. This positive feedback cycle, develops exponentially driving the membrane potential toward the positive values.
how does kidneys help with buffer system of blood
The kidneys help control acid-base balance by excreting hydrogen ions and generating bicarbonate that helps maintain blood plasma pH within a normal range
corona radiata
The layer of granulosa cells that surround an oocyte after is has been ovulated. *corona radiata and zona pellucida = layers which must be penetrated by the sperm for fertilization to occur
osmotic gradient and length of the henle's lopp
The length of the loop of Henle determines the size of the gradient - the longer the loop, the greater the osmotic gradient
What organ system regulates blood pH?
The lungs and the kidneys - lungs can help regulate blood pH rapidly through the process of exhaling carbon dioxide, decreasing levels of carbonic acid (due to less reactant, CO2 present to form the acid)
blastulation
The morula becomes a blastula, a hollow ball of cells - the morula allows water to enter the ball of cells and a space forms inside called the blastocoel blastocyst <- cells start clump so much at one end, that they leave a cavity -- cavity = blastoceol -- cells = inner cell mass
trophoblast
The outer layer of cells that develops in the germinal period. These cells provide nutrition and support for the embryo. - outer cells of the blastocyst that secrete enzymes that allow implantation - contain baby's blood vessel
What is the cerebral cortex?
The outer wrinkly layer of the brain, controls consciousness, memory and language - responsible for the higher-level processes - made up of gray matter (comprises cell bodies and dendrites) - contains three types of functional areas: motor areas, sensory areas, and association areas.
Embryogenesis
The process by which a single-celled zygote becomes a multicellular embryo.
cell induction
The process by which embryonic cells begin to differentiate into their final cell types during development - When a cell has acquired its specific identify (what it is destined to become), it can induce its neighboring cells to acquire their own specific identify. The region of cells that induce their neighboring region of cells is call the organizer. There can be many organizers throughout embryonic development.
Hybridization: viability
The process of two complementary, single-stranded DNA or RNA combining together, producing a double-stranded molecule through base pairing. This technique is used for interbreeding between individuals of genetically distinct populations.
mutarotation
The rapid interconversion between different anomers of a sugar - one anomeric form shifts to another, with the straight-chain form as an intermediate In an aqueous solution, an equilibrium mixture forms between the two anomers and the straight-chain structure of a monosaccharide
Refracted Ray
The ray that is bent as it enters a new medium
Lymphocytes
The two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances. - formed in bone marrow, mature outisde bone marrow
Km and binding affinity
The value of Km is inversely related to the affinity of the enzyme for its substrate - High values of Km correspond to low enzyme affinity for substrate (it takes more substrate to get to Vmax ) - Low KM values for an enzyme correspond to high affinity for substrate.
provirus/prophage
The virus that has become part of its host DNA
alpha vs beta tubulin
To form microtubules, the dimers of α- and β-tubulin bind to GTP and assemble onto the (+) ends of microtubules while in the GTP-bound state. The β-tubulin subunit is exposed on the plus end of the microtubule, while the α-tubulin subunit is exposed on the minus end.
muscles of esophagus
Top (1/3)= skeletal (voluntary) - more somatic middle 1/3 = skeletal + smooth Bottom 1/3 = smooth muscle (involuntary; linked with peristalsis (propel food forward) - more autonomic
Largest cranial nerve
Trigeminal
how are troponin levels a good indicator of heart attack
Troponin lives inside the heart cells. - If it is outside the cell and in the blood that means that something has happened to the cell --In the case of a heart attack, that means that the cells have died and released the troponin. If you can measure troponin in the blood, that means that there is heart damage from some cause.
Why is O negative the universal donor?
Type O negative blood has no antigens, it will not trigger an immune response, even if the recipient has a different blood type
upper vs lower motor neurons
Upper - In brain/spinal cord (CNS) - tells motor neurons when to start and stop muscle contraction Lower - Send axons out of the spinal cord (PNS) - starts muscle contraction * shake leg in party: signal from brain -> upper motor neuron -> lower motor neuron -> muscle contract
Na+/glucose cotransporter
Uses the downhill gradient of Na+ into the cells, which is generated by the Na+/K+ pump, to drive glucose into the cell against its concentration gradient. - transports Na+ and glucose into cell - electrogenic- net movement of positive charged molecules into cell
During vasodilation, what happens to blood vessels and does more blood flow? What about vasoconstruction?
Vasoconstriction: when the muscles around your blood vessels tighten to make the space inside smaller - response to being too cold -- involves the narrowing of blood vessels at the skin surface to reduce heat loss through the surface of the skin - increased resistance, less blood flow -> less loss of heat to surrondings Vasodilation: opens your blood vessels to make the space inside bigger - response to being too hot - allow for more blood flow -> more loss of heat to surrondings
How do you find the membrane potential?
Vm (volatge of the membrane aka membrane potential) = 61.5 x log( ([K+ out]/ [K+ in]))
between Km, Kcat, Vmax, and Vo - which changes with change in substrate concentration
Vo - At low concentrations of substrate and constant enzyme concentration, adding more substrate will increase V0 until the maximal velocity is reached. * Km - rate constant Vmax - max velocity; it's a constant properpty Kcat - rxn turnover number; a measure of velocity independent of enzyme concentration - changes with active site and increases with increasing temp
Phototransduction cascade
What occurs when light hits the retina. Steps: 1. light hits rhopsin -> rhopsin and retinal change shape -> hyperolarization due low cyclic GMP -> turns a rod off (rod is normally on) -> causing bipolar cell to turn on, which turns on a retinal ganglion cell, which is connected to the optic nerve. *needs cyclic GMP to allow for sodium influx * when rod cells off, biplar cells on - light hits rods (turns rod off) --> bipolar cell turns on --> retinal ganglion cell turns on --> optic nerve --> brain
are cone cells that are not exposed to light depolarized? what about when they are exposed to light?
When cone cells are not exposed to light and are thus not processing the visual stimuli of color, they are depolarized - to percieve color, cones must be hyperpolarized -> the bipolar neurons are no longer being inhibited and can then depolarize in order to transmit signal to the ganglion and eventually the optic nerve
inhale vs exhale - co2 vs O2
When you inhale (breathe in), air enters your lungs, and oxygen from that air moves to your blood At the same time, carbon dioxide, a waste gas, moves from your blood to the lungs and is exhaled (breathed out). This process, called gas exchange, is essential to life.
Supercoiling of DNA
Winding of DNA strands, this can reduce the size of DNA by 10.000x
MHC and B lymphocyte
Within the B lymphocyte, specialized antigen-binding molecules called major histocompatibility class II (MHC II) proteins bind the antigen fragments - Although all nucleated cells can display antigens on MHC I proteins, typically specialized ("professional") antigen-presenting cells display antigens on MHC II proteins MHC-antigen complexes are transported to the surface of the B lymphocyte and integrate into the cell membrane, allowing antigen fragments to be displayed outside the cell and presented to other immune cells known as helper T cells.
what does X9 mRNA expressed (% of total X mRNA expressed) mean? What does it mean to Xwildtype if the X9 mutant is increasing in expression?
X9 mRNA expressed as a percent of total X mRNA expressed - not saying percent of X expressed - but percent of X9 expressed out of total X --X9 = numerator and X= denominator: X9/X x 100 if X9 expressed is increasing -> then more mutant present, less wildtype - so less wildtype expression is present -- the expression of wildtype as a percent of total X mRNA decreases
Do bacteria have cell walls?
Yes, made of peptidoglycan
Chargaff's Rule
[A]=[T] and [G]=[C], they pair up across from one another forming two strands also called base pairing The sum of the purines (adenine and guanine) equals that of the pyrimidines (cytosine and thymine) -- amount of purines = pyridimines (to base pair) The molar ratio of adenine to thymine equals 1 -- equal cocnentration of the base pairs The molar ratio of guanine to cytosine equals 1 -- equal cocnentration of the base pairs Thus, the amount of 6-amino groups (adenine and cytosine) is the same as that of 6-keto groups (guanine and thymine)
ductus arteriosus
a blood vessel in a fetus that bypasses pulmonary circulation by connecting the pulmonary artery directly to the ascending aorta
osteoblast
a cell that secretes the matrix for bone formation - calcium phosphate going from blood to bone - increased through calcitonin
Decarboxylation
a chemical reaction that involves the removal of CO2 - The complete loss of a carboxyl group as carbon dioxide
anomer
a chiral center which is not initially present in a molecule and which is created by intramolecular bonding - A sugar diastereomer differing only in the position of the hydroxyl at the anomeric carbon
Histamine
a compound that is released by cells in response to injury and in allergic and inflammatory reactions, causing contraction of smooth muscle and dilation of capillaries - released by hypothalamus
MPF (maturation-promoting factor)
a cyclin-Cdk complex that triggers a cell's passage past the G2 checkpoint into the M phase - One subunit of MPF is cyclin, a regulatory polypeptide. The other subunit, cyclin-dependent kinase (cdk), contains the kinase enzyme active site. Both subunits must be bound to make an active kinase controlled by.. controlled by the periodic accumulation and degradation of cyclin B during cell cycle progression - Increasing levels of cyclin B abundance and the loss of inhibitory phosphates from Cdc2/28 drives cells into mitosis, whereas cyclin B destruction inactivates MPF and drives cells out of mitosis
Reticular Activating System (RAS)
a dense network of neurons found in the core of the brain stem; it arouses the cortex and screens incoming information - diffuse glutamate to cerebra cortex - required for consciusness; with out, no consciusness
lac operon
a gene system whose operator gene and three structural genes control lactose metabolism in E. coli
Phosphofructokinase (PFK)- high levels of what molecule is it inhibited by? what molecules activate?
a key rate-limiting enzyme of the anaerobic glycolytic energy system - inhibited by high levels of ATP, citrate, a more acidic pH -- via feedback and allosteric regulation
erthryocyte
a mature red blood cell - biconcave cells that do not contain a nucleus or mitochondria at maturity -- so don't contain DNA or dna nutrients; instead contain protein hemoglobin that uses iron to carry oxygen ---It is the iron atom that reversibly binds oxygen as the blood travels between the lungs and the tissues. - made up of heme group that contains an iron atom that is able to bind to one oxygen (O2) molecule. soo each hemoglobin protein can bind four oxygen molecules. - formed from stem cells in bone marrow - circulate through blood delivering oxygen to cells
nuclear envelope and function
a membrane that surrounds the nucleus - its job: is to create a room within the cell to both protect the genetic information and to house all the molecules that are involved in processing and protecting that info - gives added protection ->DNA is a little bit more secure from enzymes, pathogens, and potentially harmful products of fat and protein metabolism - keeps molecules responsible for DNA transcription and repair close to the DNA itself - otherwise those molecules would diffuse across the entire cell and it would take a lot more work and luck to get anything done - structure: set of two lipid bilayers, so there are four sheets of lipids separating the inside of the nucleus from the cytoplasm *perinuclear space- the space between the two bilayers is known as .
Of these which are not a resonance contributer: a molecule with... - a Cl chain double bond to a ring (with a ketone) - Cl chain single bonded to a ring (with a ketone) with the C-Cl bond involving a positive charge - Cl chain single bonded to a ring (with a ketone) with the theC-C bond near the C-Cl bond involving a double bond and another location of the ring having a positive charge - Cl chain single bonded to ring with ketone having positive charge - Cl chain single bonded to ring (with ketone) with Cl having positive charge
a molecule with Cl chain single bonded with ketone having positive charge - since the cl chain must have a H attached to it - since the charge is outisde the ring and Cl - which is what the other examples portray
reticular formation
a nerve network that travels through the brainstem (medulla) into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal - respiration, digestion, and autonomic system; regulating the sleep-wake cycle and filtering incoming stimuli to discriminate irrelevant background stimuli
Dopamine
a neurotransmitter that regulates motor behavior, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal - released by ventral tegmental area (VTA)
mutation vs snp
a point DNA variant can be labeled as a mutation or SNP Unlike mutations, SNPs are not necessarily located within genes, and they do not always affect the way a protein functions. SNPs are divided into two main categories: Linked SNPs (also called indicative SNPs) do not reside within genes and do not affect protein function.
Opsonization
a process in which foreign particles are marked for phagocytosis - require an antigen to signal that there is a threat present - opsonization tags infected cells and identifies circulating pathogens expressing the same antigens
caspace
a protease involved in apoptosis -- breaks doen proteins after aspartate residue via a cystein residue - activates another caspase and other enzymes that break down molecules (like nucleases which break down DA) -- initiates final pathway of apoptosis --> whole cell degradation of large polymers of cell --- which can be recycled/phagocytosed by neighboring cells *c- has cysteine residue which breaks the protein after (c-asp) the aspartate residue
sarcomere - what is it? - what kind of filaments make up I and A band - what is z band and what is anchored to it?
a structural unit of a myofibril in striated muscle, consisting of a dark band and the nearer half of each adjacent pale band - it's a contractile unit of muscle H- band: made up only myosin filaments M- line - middle of sarcomere A band: band of thick filaments (myosin) and thin fillaments (actin) 'within' the sarcomere - maintains constant size during contraction sarcomere ends are marked by z-disc - anchored to z-disc is actin (thin filaments/actin) -- I band: end of z band, made up of just thin filaments
The portal venous system
a system of blood vessels that drains blood and various products of digestion from the digestive organs and spleen and delivers them to the liver The portal venous system carries capillary blood from the esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, pancreas, gallbladder, and spleen to the liver. - The portal vein is formed by the confluence of the splenic vein and the superior mesenteric vein behind the neck of the pancreas comprises the splenic, inferior mesenteric, superior mesenteric, and portal veins
desmosome
a type of intercellular junction in animal cells that functions as a rivet, fastening cells together - cell membranes are connected by thread like substances that connect the cells across the space in between cells - physically hold the cells together, but do not allow fluids or materials to pass from the inside of one cell to the next - similar to tight junctions - these connections are also attached to the scaffolding of the cell, called the cytoskeleton, to help with structural support. - occur in skin and intestines -cells that have stress and need relief in stress - The space in between the cells allows for water and solutes to flow freely between each cell without compromising the connection- is convenient for areas of our body that experience high stress like in our skin or our intestines because the space in between the cells offer flexibility that the other junctions can't.
Afferent nerve: fast-conducting, medium conducting, & slow-conducting fibers
a-delta fibers - fast conducting - are myelinated and have greater diameter-> lower resistance --> so -send signals quickly to cns a- beta - medium conducting -- less myelin and bit smaller in diameter c-fiber - slow - unmelinated and smallest in diameter
pluripotent cells
able to differentiate into all three of the germ layers and their derivatives; can differentiate into any cell type except for those found in the placental structures Give rise to.. -> myloid lineage: form concave most common rbc; megakaryocyte( which form platelet); and monocyte (form macrophage once stopped circulation and settled down in tissue); neutrophil (most common immune cell in blood); eosinophil; basophil; monocyte (which becomes macrophage); mast cells - > lymphoid linage -> B cells; T cells; natural killer cells
post absorptive state
absorption of nutrients from the GI tract is complete, and energy needs must be met by fuels already in the body; Between meals, fasting; Use stored energy to supply tissues' energy needs; condition after absoprtion of a meal breaking down, releasing energy
summation
accumulation; total result - additive effect of electrical impulses - adding up the effect of multiple stimuli, that are all individually subthreshold, so that together they are suprathreshold and are able to generate an action potential (a response)
what kind of environement is lysosomal proteins active in
acidic - acts as a safety mechanism - f the lysosome were to somehow leak or burst, the degradative enzymes would inactivate before they chopped up proteins the cell still needed - chlorine ions that get transported into lysosmes help maintain the acidic environment by attracting protons
working memory
active maintenance of information in short-term storage a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
how are nucelotides absorbed across enterocyte cells
active transport
focal length of diverging lens
always negative 1/f = 1/o + 1/i
cancer and descent of modification
an ancestor cell with a new mutation brings about new cells with further mutations - allows for therapy resistance - why it's hard to treat cancer, since therapy can allow for natural selection of cells without resistance -> allowing for a generation of restsitance cells -- since the nonresistant cells have died, the resistant cells undergo Competitive Release where the resistant cells have so much space to proliferate hence they profilerate rapidly
triglycerides
an energy-rich compound made up of a single molecule of glycerol and three molecules of fatty acid.
does pentose phosphate allow for nucleotide catabolism or anabolism
anabolism - formation of nucleotides * breakdown aka catbolism
How are kidneys divided into? Glomerular capillaries role
anatomically divided into an outer cortex and an inner "salty" medulla - glomerular capillaries - in outer cortex - filter blood into the Bowman's capsule of the nephron (which then -> This filtrate then moves through the proximal tubule and flows into the loop of Henle, a structure, divided into two limbs, that reabsorbs water and salt (NaCl)
What causes aneuploidy?
aneuploidy - the condition of having an abnormal number of chromosomes in a haploid set Nondisjunction (failure of homologous chromosomes to separate) during anaphase I of meiosis
angle of refraction is the angle between what?
angle between the refracted ray and the normal
what are the structures formed 2 cyclic stereoisomers that can form from each straight-chain monosaccharide called?
anomer
what does epithelium cells need in order to have stem cells
basal lamina
pathway for waste proteins
being ejected out of the cell (instead of being incorporated into cell membrane) - Once the vesicle has enclosed the waste proteins on the inside of the cell -> it moves towards the cell membrane -> The vesicle merges with the cell membrane -> opening the bubble-like structure -> ejecting the contents in the environment surrounding the cell
where in epithelia is blood vessels found?
below basement membrane - can't be found in epithelim itself
bicuspid (mitral) valve
between left atrium and left ventricle, 2 flaps
Non-Enzymatic Protein Function
binding immune system motor (kinesin, dynein, myosin) - transportation of molecules, structural support, movement, immunity, nourishment, and regulation. *motor proteins perform mechanical movement, often bind to actin
Egg vs sperm
both have same genome size - haploid number of chromosomes (instead of 46, they have 23) Egg: egg is more complex ; quality over quantity; females are better eggs: 200,000 a life time - much larger than sperm -- wider and lot more cytoplasm - need much more time than sperm to develop (not constantly produced like sperm) -- egg cell production begins in female fetus and these eggs drop into unterus monthly during menustration wasteful/debris dying/losing (menses) degenerating Stagnant passive failure lazy large drifting waiting to be rescued Sperm: constantly produced or replenished sperm: 4-5 million a month (1mil per ejaculation -- number produced is much greater than egg productive new life everyday! new living production aggressive/penetrating active discourse around success and achievement of goals quick, streamlined powerful/strong, velocity, propelling energy/burrowing in knight in shining armor, on a mission victim of feminine wiles
Embryonic vs. somatic (adult) stem cells
bother are unspecialized, regenerative Embryonic- used to build body Somatic/adult - repair - ex _somatic stem epidermal cells replace previous skin cells that were shed (unipotent cells) _ hematopoetic stem cell in bone marrow to regenarate RBC and immune cells (multipotent)
what parts of nervous system controls involuntary movement
brain stem and sympathetic ganglia
which region controls voluntary and involuntary movement
brainstem - involuntary movement frontal lobe - voluntary movement
Perixisomes
break down fatty acids protects the cell from reactive oxygen species (ROS) molecules *lysosomes instead of breaking down fat, breakdown proteins
Cell Lysis
breaking down or destruction of the membrane of a cell - proteins of the complement system puncture the membranes of foreign cells, destroying the integrity of the pathogen - destroying the membrane of foreign cells or pathogens weakens their ability to proliferate, and helps to stop the spread of infection.
what are the enzymes are involved in digestion of food and what do they do? (include the ones that the duodenum recievs from pancreas)
breaks proteins aka peptidase - trypsinogen from pancreas (activated to trypsin) ((has an extra bond that needs to be broken to be activated) - chymotrypsinogen from pancreas (activated to chymotrypsin) -- cleaves aromatic acids from the amino acid chain * the above enzymes are activated by enteropeptidase on brush border breaks carbs - amylase from pancrease (done throgh hydrolysis) * lactose broken down by brush border lactase enzyme breaks nucelotides * brush border nucleosidase which breaks the nitrogenous base from ribose sugar - cleave the nucleobase from the sugar, thereby allowing the base to be recycled as a nucleotide monophosphate or further broken down. breaks fat - lipase from pancreas (by hydrolysis and breakdown of ester bonds) *bile from liver helps organize/emulsify fat
endocytosis and its types - between phagocytosis and pinocytosis, which is more specific?
brings molecules into the cell. These molecules are important for the survival of the cell, such as glucose. There are three different styles of endocytosis: phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor - mediated endocytosis 1) phagocytosis - similar to eating - brings full, undissolved or insoluble molecules into the cell - can be highly specific - where the cell engulfs a molecule in order to move it to the interior of the cell - The process starts by the molecule binding to specific receptors on the surface of the cell membrane -> triggering the cell membrane to reshape, surrounding the molecule-> Then, the two ends of the cell fuse, creating a vesicle that surrounds the molecule. Eventually the membrane around the molecule will be digested and its contents will be used - The receptors allow this process to be specific, controlling what can enter the cell. 2) pinocytosis - how the cell drinks - not specific to what is carried into the cell - - The liquid medium outside the cell is always filled with dissolved particles and solutes that are handy for the cell, so the cell doesn't need this process to be specific - engulfs dissolved ions and other solutes in the liquid medium surrounding the cell - similar to phagocytosis in the distortion of the cell membrane to engulf 3) receptor-mediated endocytosis - very specific with respect to what is imported into the cell - receptors embedded in the cell membrane that, when bound by molecules with an exact match in shape, size, or other physical attribute, will allow the molecule to enter into the cell through the same engulfment process as phagocytosis or pinocytosis
how do skeletal muscles increase or decrease the contraction
by adjusting the number of muscle fibers (cells) that are being activated at one time
how does cholera lead to death
by attacking receptors of large intestines, the patient will become dehydrated due to diarrhea (where more water is excreted than absorbed)
how does stomach flu cause temporary lactose intolerance
by inflamming the duodenum of small intestine, knocking off some of the lactase enzyme present in small intestine brush border
how does liver help control blood pressure
by releasing angiotensinogen - which gets converted to 1 and then 2 and then goes to impact different areas to raise blood pressure
what is calcium homeostasis and how is it impacted by osteoblasts and osteoclasts?
calcium homeostasis - flow of clacium between bone and blood osteoclasts - put calcium (and phosphate) into bloodstream by breaking down bone osteoblasts - put calcium (and phosphate) into bone by building bone
what does bone store
calcium, phosphate, and lipids
how are enzymes activated
can be activated by activators such as ions, cofactors such as coenzymes, or by the conversion of a proenzyme into an active molecule * Activators are molecules that bind to enzyme molecules and boost their metabolic activity.
Cord blood stem cells
can be extracted from blood of umbilical cord and placenta of new-born baby; stem cells obtained from it can be frozen and stored for later use in baby's life
what can ros dna damage eventually cause
cancer
Carcinomas in situ (CIS)
cannot be palpated -refers to cancer in which abnormal cells have not spread beyond where they first formed. The words "in situ" mean "in its original place." - These in situ cells are not malignant, or cancerous. However, they can sometime become cancerous and spread to other nearby location low grade dysplasia -> high grade dysplasia -> carcinoma in situ -> invasive carcinoma
what muscles display myogenic activity
cardiac and smooth - with cardiac displaying most myogenic activity * myogenic activity - contract without simulation from CNS; self-excitable stimulating contraction
of the 3 types of muscles, which muscles have gap junctions
cardiac and smooth muscle (not skeletal) - Gap junctions allows for cell to cell communication. They allow for RAPID and DIRECT communication between adjacent cells - with intercalated discs that contain gap junctions
luteinizing hormone (LH)
causes ovulation; stimulates the secretion of progesterone by the corpus luteum; causes the secretion of testosterone in the testes - helps control the menstrual cycle. It also triggers the release of an egg from the ovary. This is known as ovulation
between size and number, what does adipocytes fluctuate in
cell fluctuate in size, but not usually in number - these cells aren't highly proliferative
how do neutrophils move? actin and microtubule theory
cell polymerizes actin protein, pushing the neutrophil forward - microtubule can take on a fixed state where they anchor, preventing the cell from moving - microtubule can also take on a flexible state where they help set the direction the cell is moving
what is menopause
cessation of menstruation; known as ovarian failure -- since ovaries cease to respond to signaling hormones called gonadtropin (LH and FH) <--- this happens because most of the follicles have degenerated/gone through atresia
3 types of stomach cells
chief cells - secrete pepsinogen enzyme (which gets activated by HCl to turn into pepsin) to hydrolyze protein parietal cells - release HCl - also releases an intrinsic factor that is needed for vitamin B12 absorption mucus cells - release bicarbonate-rich mucus to protect stomach wall from acid, preventing hydrolysis of stomach G-Cells: Secrete gastrin, a peptide hormone that increases HCl secretion & gastric motility
if aldosterone increases sodium levels, what can you assume about the chlorine levels? (aa)
chlorine follows movement of sodium ions in kidneys - so probably increase
what secretes cartilage
chondrocytes- secrete cartilage (strong fiborous connective tissue made of collagen, protein) and elastin (elastic protein) - its precursor is chondroblasts
what can turn off gene expression
chormatin condensation <- removal of acetyl groups (histone deacetylase) --- removal of acetyl groups - cause histones aggregage tightly -> preventing DNA binding
in enterocyte, what are fatty acids organized into? how are they distributed across body?
chylomicrons which are absorbed and digested by lymphatic capilaries where they end up in veins
what are food particles that have been processed in stomach called? How does it exit the stomach and enter small intestine?
chyme Chyme exits through pyloric sphincter of stomach and enters duodenum of small intestine
long tracts
collections of axons connecting cerebrum and brainstem - upper motor neurons + somatosensory tract
what is the stimulating factor for macrophages and granulocyte? what are they released by?
colony stimulating factor which are released by mature lymphocytes and macrophages * macrophages and granulocytes are typically at constant levels -but increased quickly upon infecrion
how does bile leave the liver?
common hepatic duct
what 2 process happen in the morula
compaction - different cells within the morula get closer together differentiation- cells get a little bit different from each other, with 2 separate populations -- embyroblasts - mass on inside -- trophoblasts - mass on outside
which inhibitor binds to active site of enyme
competite inhibitor
spliceosome
complex of enzymes that serves to splice out the introns of a pre-mRNA transcript
ketone bodies
compounds produced during the incomplete breakdown of fat when glucose is not available in the cells
why isnt loss of apetite a diabetes symptom
compromised ability to take up glucose can increase apetite - plus body can rely on protein and lipid to make glucose, increasing apetitie for food source of glucose
corticospinal tract
connections between brain and spine - contain upper motor neurons - travels through internal capsule
BCR (B cell receptor complex)
consists of a light chain, a heavy chain, Ig-beta and Ig-alpha B cells express a specialized receptor, BCR - assist with antigen binding, as well as internalization and processing of the antigen - also play an important role in signaling pathways -- after the antigen is internalized and processed-> the B cell can initiate signaling pathways (eg.cytokine release) to communicate with other cells of the immune system
if a bacteria uses H+ for production of fatty acid, what does it do to pH
consume H+ since it's a reactant for this bacteria soo it lowers pH
Apposition of embryo
contact between endometrium and trophoblast the embryo seeks its position on the endometrial tissue and remains immobile while it is oriented, so that its internal cell mass points towards the endometrium to allow the proper formation of the placenta later on
fenstrated
contain windows or pores that permit rapid exchange of water and larger solutes between blood and tissue fluids - ex_ glomerulus; capillaries *basement membrane makes sure that only the smaller things pass
ETC Complex I: NADH-CoQ oxidoreductase aka NADH dehydrogenase complex - what components does it contain? what is the order in which e- is passed down the components? - how many H does it pump across - what is its substrate?
contains: FMN (flavin mononucleotide which serves as a cofactor) and iron sulfur compounds(also cofactors) job: removes H from NADH and moves it further along the ETC; ultimately, reduces ubiquinone/COQ (coenzymeQ) to unbiquinol/COQH2 - NADH donates e- to complex: 1. FMN 2. e- passed to FeS and to another FeS - redox rxn: Fe^2+ <-> Fe^3+ depending on when they recieve and donate the electrons 3. e- passed to COQ 4. COQ uses 2 H from matrix to form COQH2 Uses an iron-sulfur cluster to transfer electrons from NADH to flavin mononucleotide (FMN), and then to CoQ, forming CoQH2. - energy from the redox rns in Complex I used - to pump 4 H+ ions across
ETC Complex III: CoQH2-cytochrome c oxidoreductase aka cytochrome reductase
contains: cytochromes B, C, and C1 (all of which have heme groups and iron core) job: accept electrons and transport it to cytochrome C 1. CoQ transfer e- to cytochrome c1 2. e- to FeS 3. e- to Cytochrome B 4. e- transfered to cytochrome C - (cytochrome C is intermediate protein - used to donate e- to 4th comples) - Uses an iron-sulfur cluster to transfer elcetrons form CoQH2 to heme, forming cytochrome C as part of the Q cycle - 4 H+ ions are translocated by complex III - using energy from redox
Cytochromes
contains: heme complexes and iron cores (Fe^2+ <-> Fe^3+ - can exist in oxidized or reduced form depending on electrons it has) - iron-containing carriers that are carrier molecules in the electron transport chain An iron-containing protein that is a component of electron transport chains in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells and the plasma membranes of prokaryotic cells
ETC Complex II: Succinate-CoQ Oxidoreductase aka Succinate dehydrogenase complex - what components pass along the e- and where does it pass along the e- to? - what is its subtrate/where does it gets e- from? - how many H+ does it pump?
contains: iron sulfur clusters and succinate dehydrogenase job: removes H from succinate, oxidizing it to fumrate and thus producing FADH2 1. succinate -> fumrate, producing FADH2 2. FADH2 stay inside the complex and donates its e- to Fe-S 3. e- transferred to ubiquinone - Uses an iron-sulfur cluster to transfer electrons from succinate to FAD, and then to CoQ, forming CoQH2 - No H+ pumping occurs at complex II
Adenyl cyclase
converts ATP to cAMP Adenylyl cyclase is the sole enzyme to synthesize cyclic AMP (cAMP) camp - a key second messenger that regulates diverse physiological responses including sugar and lipid metabolism, olfaction, and cell growth and differentiation.
Oxidative PPP - converts what to what?is it irreversible or reversible?
converts glucose 6-P to ribose 5-P, irreversible
what happens when sperm touches the plasma membrane of egg
cortical reaction - enzymes at cortical granule (located near the plasma membrane) harden the zona pellucida, preventing more sperm from binding (by lowering the binding affinity)
Countercurrent multiplication forms a concentration gradient within the loop of Henle that maximizes water reabsorption
countercurrent <- the ascending and descending loops go opposite directions multiplaction: ascending lopp reabsorbs ions (uses active transport) -> makes medulla salt, hypertonic-> which cause/multiply the water to be observed passively through osmosis in the descending loop 1. The descending limb - extending from the cortex into the salty medulla - is highly permeable to water - but impermeable to NaCl Consequently, the filtrate becomes more concentrated as water is passively reabsorbed via osmosis into the medulla, where it is taken up by blood vessels. 2. The ascending limb- traveling from the loop's lowest point in the medulla back toward the cortex - is impermeable to water - but permeable to NaCl a. NaCl is first passively reabsorbed into the medulla as the filtrate travels up the ascending limb. b. Yet as the limb nears the cortex, NaCl is actively transported out of the filtrate and into the medulla, maintaining the medulla's high salt concentration while facilitating continued water reabsorption in the descending limb.
testcross
cross between an organism with an unknown genotype and an organism with a recessive phenotype
Bowman's capsule
cup-shaped structure of the nephron of a kidney which encloses the glomerulus and which filtration takes place. - capsule that collects the filtrate that comes out/leaks from the glomerulus
what kind of structures do monosaccharides that contain 5 or more carbons atoms form in aqueous solutions?
cyclic structure
Are the keratinocytes of the stratum corneum dead or alive? what about in stratum lucidum?
dead in stratum lucidum and corneum - lost their nuclei and organelles
synaptic depression
decreased response in target cell - a reduction in synaptic transmission; a possible neural mechanism underlying habituation - pruning - decrease- of dedrite branches and lengths
Pacinian (lamellated) corpuscles
deep pressure and vibration (eg_ poke) -- found deep in hypodermis - pressure-sensitive cells found mostly in the subcutaneous layer, deep in skin - requires constantly stimulating stimuli - if it's not changing, then stimuli gets densensitized - ex of mechanoreceptors
inborn errors of metabolism
defects in genes required for metabolism - Phenylketonuria (PKU) - results from the absence of a single enzyme, phenylalanine hydroxylase - causes buildup of Phe -> impacting brain development - most common known inborn error of metabolism Galactosemia means "galactose in the blood". This inherited disorder prevents your body from breaking down the sugar galactose, causing it to build up to toxic levels in your blood. People with galactosemia have to avoid dairy products, breast milk and most baby formulas
what happens to corpus luteum if egg gets fertilized
degeneration of corupus luteum doesn't occur if egg gets fertilized - since want to continue producing more hormones
CKR5 delta 32 - what does delta sign mean
delta sign in name of gene indicates: deletion - so deletion mutation of 32
example of enzyme compartmentalization in lysosome
digestive enzymes of the lysosome work best at a pH around 5.05, which is found in the acidic interior of the lysosome (but not in the cytosol, which has a pH of about 7.27). Lysosomal enzymes have low activity at the pH of the cytosol, which may serve as "insurance" for the cell: even if a lysosome bursts and spills its enzymes, the enzymes will not begin digesting the cell, because they will no longer have the right pH to function
What 2 hormones can the testosterone be converted to?
dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and estrogen
Dimer vs tetramer
dimer - a molecule or molecular complex consisting of two identical molecules linked together tetramer - a polymer comprising four monomer units
immune system divided into
divided into innate immunity and adaptive immunity - innate immune system - comprises the skin + mucous membranes + specialized proteins and cells (that rapidly and nonspecifically recognize and destroy antigens) * antigens - molecules targeted by the immune system - the adaptive immune system - comprises cells that mount specialized immune responses based on the learned recognition of specific antigens
does the gene (dna) present ever increase because of behaviour? what about mrna, rrna, or trna? (aa)
dna - does not change based on behaviour However, the expression of particular gene - the transcription aka mRNA - changes -- for higher levels of protein, need higher expression of that gene in mRNA rRNA - does not encode for protein or do much for protein expression - instead it serves as building blocks for ribosomes tRNA - type of RNA that carries amino acids in translation to growing polypeptide chain by recognizing codons in mRNA; doesn't exactly change protein expression
inclusion-cell (I-cell) disease occurs due to defect of which organelle
due to a defect in the Golgi, which impact proteins sent to lysosomes - In order to mark enzymes that should be sent to lysosomes to help degrade unwanted molecules, the Golgi has to bind them with a mannose 6-phosphate tag, like a shipping label. However, in patients with I-cell disease, one of the proteins that make this tag is mutated, and cannot do its job, like a broken label machine. This means that proteins cannot be targeted to lysosomes. These untagged proteins are the enzymes that are responsible for chopping up other proteins. - What happens is the inactivated enzymes end up being sent outside the cell, while lysosomes clog up with undigested material. This disease is congenital, and usually fatal before patients reach 7 years of age.
Where does most digestion occur?
duodenum (first part of small intestine) Digested chyme from the stomach passes through the pylorus and into the duodenum. Here, chyme will mix with secretions from both the pancreas and the duodenum
apoptosis in embryological development of hands
during development, hands looked like paws with a lot of extra tissue between fingers - apoptosis allows for the excess cells to die of, giving the hand structure with separated digits that most humans have
dysplasia vs neoplasia
dysplasia is not invasive and may return to normal; can progress to neoplasia; when genetic alterations accumulate and cells start to look different - never invades - can involve loss of polarity - arguably irreversible - abnormal - driven by mutation - result of initiation, promotion, and progression - above the basement membrane neoplasia is invasive (cancer) and does not return to normal - can invades - loss of polarity - irreversible - abnormal - driven by mutation - result of initiation, promotion, and progression
trilaminar disc
ectoderm (top layer), mesoderm (middle layer), endoderm (bottom layer) - they're the germ layer
Mesoderm vs ectoderm vs endoderm
ectoderm: (nervous system, outer layer of skin) - skin epidermis/outer layer of skin - hair follicles, sweat glands - sensory receptors in epidermis - epithelial lining of mouth and anus - epithelium of pitutray and pineal gland - nervous system - cornea and lens of eye - tooth enamel -nervous system mesoderm: (urinary, muscle, bone) - skeletal system - cardiovascular - muscles of stomach and intestine - lymphatic - repductive (excpet germ cells) - adrenal cortex - lining of body cavity/inner layers of skin - muscles - bonds - kidneys/bladder endoderm: (GI tract) - liver - lungs - stomach, intestines, esophagus - pancreas - thymus - thryoid and parathyroid - epithelial of digestive and respiratoru - lining of urinary bladder, urethra, and reproductive system
the fate of proteins made in the RER
either be a part of a membrane, or to be secreted from the cell membrane out of the cell *Without an rough endoplasmic reticulum, it would be a lot harder to distinguish between proteins that should leave the cell, and proteins that should remain. - Thus, the rough endoplasmic reticulum helps cells specialize and allows for greater complexity in the organism.
What is the end of small intestine? what is the first part of large intestine? What is the order of large intestine parts?
end of small intestine: ileocecal valve start of large intestine: cecum - cecum -> ascending/right colon (ascends up) -> transverse colon (points transverse) -> descending colon (points down) -> sigmoid colon (s haped)
if a molecule is found in blood, then what kind of signaling is involved
endocrine
where (developement) does liver, pancreas, and gall bladder originate from
endoderm
modifications to secreted proteins (ex-insulin) occur where
endomembrane system
estrogen and progesterone produce what lining of uterus
endometrium - allows for implantation of fertlized egg/zygote
what happens to endometrium blood vessels as they get bigger
endometrium blood vessels - collections of blood coming from uterine arteries as they get larger -> they become 'irregular,' start coalescing, and form large pools of blood
nervous system part of GI tract
enteric nervous system - GI tract able to function on its own without relying on neuronal signals to brain/spinal cord
What is the most abundant epithelial cell lineage in both the small and the large intestine? what does it do?
enterocyte Enterocyte membranes, as well as the tight junctions that form between the cells, present a significant physical barrier to microbial invasion.
succinate dehydrogenase
enzyme of the TCA cycle also acts as complex II of the ETC - converts succinate to fumrate, producing FADH2
What prevents food from entering the trachea? In what direction, opposite to or parallel to the larynx does this structure move?
epiglottis (in pharynx) *the epiglottus and larynx move in opposite directions
3 layers of connective tissue that make up the muscle
epimysium -> perimysium -> endomysium (from outer to inner) * muscle subunit covered by perimysium is fascicle/fasciculus * within fascicle is endomysium which covers individual muscle cells (aka myofiber) * myo means muscle
epinephirine vs norepinephrine
epinephrine (adrenaline) has slightly more of an effect on your heart, norepinephrine has more of an effect on your blood vessels. Both play a role in your body's natural fight-or-flight response to stress and have important medical uses as well.
in GPCR signaling, is epinephrine a 1st messenger? what about camp?
epinephrine is 1st messenger, ligand 1. (epinephrine) ligand binds to GPCR 2. GDP replaced fro GTP 3. alpha subunit unbinds from gamma and beta subunits, binding to an enzyme and activating it ( in this case, adenyl cyclase) 4. activated (adenyl cyclase) enzyme catalyzes formation of cAMP 5. cAMP actives PKA, causing phosphorylation/activation of proteins needed for signaling a response to epinephrone 6. cAMP is degraded, reversing effect of PKA
colonocytes
epithelial cells of small intestine lining - absorptive cells that take in water and electrolytes - do not produce digestive enzymes --but may break oligosaccharrieds/some unusual sugars down
parital cells of stomach
epithelial cells that secrete hydrochloric acid - don't produce digestive enzyme
does sperm contribute mitochondrial dna
essentialy no - egg is larger structure to the sperm and contains more mitochondria
Autonomic Mechanoreceptors
ex- receptor detecting stretching of small intestine
How do cells communicate with each other?
exocytosis endocytosis waste proteins phagocytosis pinocytosis receptor - mediated endocytosis cell junction gap junction tight junction desmosome
semantic vs episodic memory
explicit memory Semantic: memory of facts (e.g. birthdate) Episodic: memory of certain events in your life (e.g. 6th birthday party)
what does the extrinsic and intrinisc muscles of tounge do
extrinsic - elevate/depress y protrude/retract tounge intrinsic - shorten/widen y lengthen/narrow the tounge
t/f at a certain pH, none of the functional groups present in an amino acid will have a charge
f - rgeardless if it's acid or basic, at every pH level, a fucntional group (carboxylic or amine and possibly R group) will have a charge
Glycogen alpha 1-6 bonds - broken by what
form branch points - broken by glycogen branching - doesnt link glucose subunits
gastrulation
formation of 3 primary germ layers, the trilaminar disc - During gastrulation the epiblast invaginates to create all 3 germ layers
chromatic aberration
formation of blurry images due to the effects of dispersion through a lens; the focusing of different colors of light at different distances behind a lens - The refractive index of light increases with its frequency - least to greatest frequency: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet -violet light is higher in frequency compared to red. As a result, violet light will refract more and converge before the screen, resulting in a blurry image * more refraction -> more blurry the image
Gluconeogenesis
formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources occurs after around 8 hours of fasting, when liver glycogen stores start to deplete and an alternative source of glucose is required. It occurs mainly in the liver and to a lesser extent in the cortex of the kidney.
lamellar bodies
found in stratum granulosum - contain lipids that come together to form an impermeable lipid layer in skin -- give skin water tight ability that prevent pathogens from going deeper to skin - structures that move to the cell membrane and release their lipid contents into the intercellular space; the lipids are responsible for the permeability characteristics of the epidermis
from which 2 parts of body does pancreas recieve blood flow from?
from intestines and heart - arterial O2 rich blood in - venous O2 poor blood out - nutrient rich blood from intestines -> portal venous: once flow through pancreas -> trigger hormone release -> released into portal venous -to liver first -> since go straight to liver first, the effects they have on th eliver is 4x greater than rest of the body
what is acrosome of sperm
front of the sperm - the part that first contacts the egg - contains hydrolytic enzymes to penetrate egg * head of sperm contains acrosome and nuclear material (nucleus)
Fructose vs Ribose
fructose - 6 C; it's a ketose ribose 5C;it's aldose - the C2 and C3 hydroxyl groups are cis *- deoxyribose - has 1 OH on C3 - galactose - has trans OH on C2 and C3
pathway for proteins destined for cell membrane
get there through exocytosis - new protein is formed inside the cell-> migrates to phospholipid bilayer through the vesicle - The vesicle, containing the new protein as a part of the phospholipid bilayer, fuses with the cell membrane -> allows the protein to be directly integrated into the cell membrane when the vesicle, in the same way as with waste proteins, fuses and opens with the cell membrane.
what happens to pyruvate when oxygen is absent
gets reduced as it undergoes lactic acid and alcohol fermentation, forming 2 ATP and 2 lactate from 2 pyruvate -NADH can't go to electron transport chain to drop it's e- to O2 -> so NADH drops it electrons to pyruvate, forming lactic acid
glycolysis rxn
glucose -> glucose-6-P <-> fructose-6-P -> fructose-1,6-BP <-> dihydroxyacetone P <-> glyceraldehyde-3-P <-> 1,3-bisphosphoglycerateP <-> 1-phosphoglycerateP <-> 3 phosphoglycerateP <-> 2 phosphoglycerateP <-> phosphoenol pyruvate -> pyruvate //// 1. glucose -> glucose-6-P 2. glucose-6-P <-> fructose-6-P 3. fructose-6-P -> fructose-1,6-P 4. fructose-1,6-P <-> glyceraldehyde-3-P <-> dihydroxyacetone P 5. glyceraldehyde-3-P <-> 1,3-bisphosphoglycerateP 6. bisphosphoglycerateP <-> 1-phosphoglycerateP 7. 1phosphoglycerateP <-> 3 phosphoglycerateP 8. 3phosphoglycerateP <-> 2 phosphoglycerateP 9. 2phosphoglycerateP <-> phosphoenol pyruvate 10. PEP -> pyruvate
what does the glucose levels entering the pancrease illustrate about ATP proudced intracellular and the glucose extracellular
glucose levels entering the pancreatic beta cell is proportional to the ampunt of glucose intaken and on the outsde of the pancreatic cell and is propprtional to the ATP being produced inside the cell
where in glycolysis is NAD reduced to NADH - what molecules in the glycolitic pathway require it?
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GA3P DH) converts GA3P <-> 1,3BPG
energy produced from glycolysis, krebs cycle and ETC
glycolysis: 2 ATP - 2 NADH pyruvate -> acetyl CoA: 2 NADH kreb cycle: 2 ATP - 6 NADH - 2 FADH2 ETC: - uses the 10 NADH and 2 FADH2 made earlier to pump H across Chemiosmosis: for every H+ transported, one ATP produced soo about 28 ATP made
adhesion protein
glycoproteins that mediate cell to cell interaction - found on membranes of cells - interact in the space between the cells, holding membranes together - act in binding with other cells or extracellular matrix, NOT with protein folding
septum secundum
grows into the atrium to the right of the septum primum *This septum will eventually fuse with the septum primum to close the foramen ovale and complete atrial septation after birth
gyrase vs topoisomerases
gyrase- type of topoisomerases - not found in humans and most eukaryotes eukaryotes wind DNA around histones through the action of other topoisomerases both relax supercoils
what happens to secondary oocyte during meiosis 2
half of the dna in its nucleus divides off of the cell in form of polar body -- polar body doesn't have much cytoplasm soo now secondary oocyte -> ovum -- ovum = secondary oocyte that has been fertilized
allosteric enzymes: activator vs inhibitor in terms of Km
have both an active site for substrate binding and an allosteric site for binding of an allosteric effector (activator - which decrease Km; inhibitor - which can increase Km - not necesarily ex- noncompeteiive inhibitor) *often display cooperativity, meaning that the binding of a substrate at one active site increases the ability of the other active sites to bind and process substrates
if given different cultures where fungi had 5, gram negative bacteria has 180, and gram positive had 120, what is the percentage of isolates that are methicillin resistant given there are 115 of them?
he total number of cultures reported is the number of Gram-(+) plus the number of Gram-(-) plus the fungal cultures: 160 + 180 + 5 = 345 - soo 115/345
ADH (antidiuretic hormone/vasopressin)
helps blood vessels constrict and helps the kidneys control the amount of water and salt in the body. This helps control blood pressure and the amount of urine that is made - regulates the insertion of aquaporins into the apical membranes of the epithelial cells of collecting dust
Norepinephrine
helps control alertness and arousal; undersupply can depress mood - released by locus corneulus - involved in autonimic system
GLP1 (glucagon like peptide 1)
helps pancreas produce the right amount of insulin to move sugar from blood into cells - Secreted by small intestine cells - stop signal to the brain to indicate presence of food in small intestine and satiety -> leading to reduced weight gain --controlled in cases of obesity -- promoted by leading obesity drug Liraglutide
Bohr effect on hemoglobin
hemoglobin has lower affinity for oxygen at lower pH values (higher pCO2 values) - has a lower affinity for oxygen. Results in an increase in CO2 levels, decrease in pH, increase in 2,3-diphosphoglycerate, and/or increased temperature CO2/H+ affect affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen *Carbonic anhydrase facilitates uptake of carbon dioxide by catalyzing the hydration of CO2 dissolved in blood to the more soluble bicarbonate
what are the units that make up liver? - the unit is made of _(number)_ of portal triad? - what are branches that come off the portal triad?
hepatic lobule - made up of 'ring' with 6 units of portal triad surronding the ring -- each unit of portal triad involves a branch from portal vein, hepatic artery, and bile duct *hepatocytes can extract nutrients for metabolism/storage of macromolecules *they need oxygen to survive, which they get from proper hepatic artery * hepatocytes obtain the nurtients and oxygen from the portal triad through sinusoids (branches that come off of the portal triad)
how does blood leave the liver?
hepatic vein - nutrient poor, oxygen poor blood from hepatic vein will circulate back to heart to oxygen and small intestine to get nutrients and return to liver through portal vein and proper hepatic artery
what kind of cells makeup liver
hepatocytes
what causes cancer treatment to be difficult?
heterogenity - malignant neoplasms are cancerous bc they can metastasize
what regulates hexokinase
hexokinase phosphorylates glucose, converting to G6P using ATP - G6P y glucagon acts as negative feedback, inhibiting it ⊝ - glucose y insulin acts as positive stimulator, stimulating it ⊕
at low km, how efficent is the enzyme
higher binding affinity -always works at/near Vmax and has a low Km, so whatever level of glucose concentration doesn't really matter, it will keep shuttling glucose in towards the cell --saturated at anything above normal levels - ex - Glut 4 y hexokinase
Hypoxic Pulmonary Vasoconstriction (HPV)
homeostatic mechanism the fact that the lungs constrict vessels when hypoxic levels of O2, increasing resistance for blood flow -> in attempt to maximize amount of blood flow and gas exchange - Diverts blood from poorly ventilated areas to well ventilated areas for more efficient gas exchange - "blood chasing oxygen" *increases pulmonary vascular resistance and pulmonary artery pressure, which can precipitate right heart failure
oxytocin
hormone that's produced in the hypothalamus and released into the bloodstream by the pituitary gland - hormone and a neurotransmitter that is involved in childbirth and breast-feeding. It is also associated with empathy, trust, sexual activity, and relationship-building. It is sometimes referred to as the "love hormone," because levels of oxytocin increase during hugging and orgasm.
what regulates phosphofructokinase-2 (PFK-2)/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase (F-2,6BPase)
hormones Glucagon: phosphoylates - inhibits PFK-2 - stimulates F-2,6-BPase Insulin:dephosphorylates - stimulates PFK-2 - inhibits F-2,6-BP
The Michaelis-Menten equation models what kind of relationship between [S] and the initial reaction rate (V0) for an enzyme catalyzed?
hyperbolic
type 1 and type II Diabetes - what is it - symptoms (aa)
hyperglycemia - above 126 mg/dL of glucose - type 1 - automimmune - type 2 - happened as lifestyle A condition in which the body is unable to produce enough insulin, the hormone required for the metabolism of sugar -> uptake of glucose is compromised -> high blood sugar; since uptake compromised, body has to use other ways to make energy symptoms: affect eye, nerve, and kidneys - sweet tasting urine - high glucose in urine which are excreted as result of elevated levels of glucose in blood -increased thirst - due to increased urination -frequent urination - due to high filtrate of glucose -excessive eating -weight loss - as body uses protein and lipids for energy - fatigue - as body uses protein and lipids for energy
what is the name of subcutaneous fat layer found within skin
hypodermis - absorbs shock - insulates tissue
what part of brain reacts to change in temp - and which side interacts with increase in temp? what about decrease in temp?
hypothalamus - anterior/Front - for heat/Fire, increases in temp - posterior/back - for cold, decrease in temp
what part of the brain determines if you are hungry? What hormone tells brain if full or empty
hypothalamus y insulin, ghrelin, leptin - if full, had high blood glucose -> release insulin -> block receptors in hypothalamus to indicate full, not hungry - if full, had high lipid intake -> release leptin -> block receptors in hypothalamus to indicate full, not hungry * leptin levels rarely change - since it's mostly determine by adipose in body than lipid in blood (change in lipid concentration in blood is lower than the adipose stored in body) - low blood glucose -> not releasing insulin or leptin; stomach sends ghrelin - vagus nerve -> hypothalmus
hypotonia vs atrophy
hypotonia - decreased muscle tone Normally, even when relaxed, muscles have a very small amount of contraction/tone that gives them a springy feel and provides some resistance to passive movement; hypotonia decreases the contraction, this tone (leg will be floppy) atrophy - decrease in muscle size, muscle bulk
rods vs cones - which has a greater population? what is the function? which has different types? which has a longer recovery time (longer time to adjust to light changes?
i) shape: rod-shaped vs. cone-shaped ii) population: more rods than cones iii) location: rods are in the periphery while cones are more centrally located (near fovea) iv) function: rods are made for scotopic (nighttime) vision while cones are for photopic (daytime) vision v) function: cones distinguish elements of color and sharpen an image vi) types: 3 types of cones: red (making up most), green, blue (making up least) vii) recovery time: longer recovery time for rod - hard to adjust to dark (then when change in light from outside to inside - cones) *rods are more sensitive to light
if a certain gene is being expressed, what does that mean? Is it turned on?
if cell is using that gene -> that gene is turned on and thus being expressed - how cell differntiates - by using/expressing the genes that correspond to muscles, it produces muscle proteins and is a muscle cell
what happens to pH if hold breath - remember that CO2 released as byproduct during cellular respiration
if hold breath - Co2 stuck in body and no O2 entering -- hold breath - [CO2] increases -> increase formation of carbonic acid (H2CO3) in blood -> decreasing pH
follicles and how they relate to twins
if two or more follicles reach maturity and they all pop out and get fertilized by sperm -> get twins or triplets, etc.
where does absorption of the fat and bile salts occur?
illeum (last part of small intestine)
what allows for a membrane potential to be created
impacted by concentration gradient ([K+ out] aka desire to move (out)- goes from high to low, with the gradient thtough leak channels) and permeability of cell ( ability to move, all ions crossing back and forth) membrane potential = [K+ in] * the more permeable an ion is relative it is, the more likely the final membrane potential will be close to the resting potential of that ion
between antibodies and fluorescent molecules/dyes, what is more favored in binding to DNA?
it is not easy to make a fluorescent segment of dna; antibodies are not typically used to bind to dna - it is more favored to use fluorescent molecules or dyes *only a minority of antibodies have exclusive specificity for either ssDNA or dsDNA - ssDNA is a linear structure that has only one DNA strand. dsDNA has two DNA strands bound by hydrogen bonds in a helical fashion
if a motif has been conserved, why would that be?
it might be vital to organism's survival
term-697 if statement says "secretions of tissue act on the muscle," where is the molecule expressed?
it's expressed in the tissue and its expression is evident/acted on in the muscle
Where in the small intestine does most absorption occur?
jejunum (2nd part of intestine)
Where does most absorption of nutrients occur?
jejunum, 2nd part of of small intestine * most digestion occurs in duodenum, 1st part of small intestine - busiest part of the intestine
juxtacrine signaling vs paracrine signaling
juxtacrine - requires direct contact between the signaling and responding cell
what organ is the most repsonsible for absorption of water and inorganic ion
kidney - why removal of the colon (large intestine) is possible for patients with ulcerative colitis and other inflammatory colon diseases - since kidney can also help help with absorption of the same molecules absorbed by large intestine
kidneys and neuphrons
kidneys - excrete waste and maintain appropriate solute and water concentrations throughout the body neuphrons - functional units of the kidney that filter blood and selectively secrete or reabsorb the contents of the resulting filtrate
between thermodynamics and kinetics, what should be focused on to determine the activity of an enzyme?
kinetics - thermodynamics/free energy/equillibrium is not relevant as enzymes don't impact it - enzymes speed up reactiosn, so examine rate/activity * enzymes increase the amount of product formed per unit time - since impact rate/kinetics - enzymes, however, do not impact total product formed once reached equillibirum (thermodynamics)
What happens when oxaloacetate is low?
lack of oxaloacetate prevents gluconeogenesis and urea cycle function.
what is the name of the layers that wrap around an osteon called? what is in the center of these layers?
lamellae - wrap aorund osteon haversian canal - center of osteon
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)
large family of integral membrane proteins involved in signal transduction; characterized by their 7 membrane-spanning alpha-helices; utilize heterotrimeric G protein to transmit signals to effector cells - only found in eukaryotes - comprise of largest class of receptor - target of most medicinal drugs - ligands that bind include: odors, pheromones, neurotransmitters - affect mood, immune system, etc. - have 7 transmembrane alphae helices - alpha helix (secondary) proteins that span the membrane 7 times - GPCRS interact with G proteins ( heterotrimeric), they're coupled with these proteins - binding of ligand to the receptor activates G protein 1. ligand binds to GPCR 2. GPCR undergoes conformational change 3. alpha subunit of G protein swaps out GDP for GTP 4. alpha subunit disscoiates and move away from beta and gamma subunit 5. alpha subunit will find and bind to a protein/taget protein in the cell membrane which it will regulate the function of 6. the target roetin which is now activated will relay a signal steps 3-6 repeat as long as ligand is bound to GPCR - to stop the process: 7.GTP hydrolyzed, loses a phosphate and becomes GDP 8. ligand leaves
the inverse of len's focus gives what?
len's strength (aka refractive power): The inverse of a lens's focal length is equal to its lens strength S = 1/f *the closer the image is focused to the lens -> the greater the lens strength
what kind of cells are the primary source of testosterone
leydig cells located in the interstitial compartment of the testis and nestled between the seminiferous tubules, produce testosterone in response to luteinizing hormone (LH), which is produced and secreted by the pituitary gland
what attaches bone to other bones? what about bone to muscle
ligament - attaches bone to bone tendon - attaches bone to muscle
hill coefficient
measures the degree of cooperativity between subunits that bind the ligand in multisubunit proteins *doesn't indicate random binding - Hill coefficient <1 - indicates negative cooperativity --inhibition and makes it difficult for others to bind - Hill coefficient = 1 - indicates independent binding --inhibition but doesn't make it difficult for other to bind - Hill coefficient > 1 - indicates positive cooperativity in which binding of one ligand facilitates binding of subsequent ligands at other sites
what part of the kidney has high concentratio of glomerular filtrate during production of concentrated urea?
medullary portion of collecting dust - final structure where water absorption occurs - concentrates filtrate - cotains the most concentrated glomerular filtrate which corresponds to urine
what kind of division does primary oocytes undergo?
meiosis I - but don't finish it, they are under 'meoitic arrest' till puberty so when female is born, her primary oocytes are under 'meoitic arrest'
how many days does the ovarian cycle last
meustrual cycle/ovarian cycle lasts 28 days - day 0 at follicle - day 14 - where secondary oocyte gets ovulated (ejected from ovaries after undergoing meiosis I ( and picked up by fimbriae and swept into uterine tube for hopes of fertilization hormones go up as the number of granulosa cells become numerous
projections on villi
microvilli
chromosome number in meiosis vs mitosis
mitosis: I. a diploid cell containing 46 chromosomes, get duplicated -> sister chromatids (S phase of interphase) --- so 92 chromatids, but 46 units (chromosomes) II. the 46 units (92 chromatids) get separated in anaphase -> 46 units, 46 chromatids in each cell aka diploid meiosis: I. a diploid cell containing 46 chromosomes, get duplicated -> sister chromatids (S phase of interphase) --- so 92 chromatids, but 46 units (chromosomes) II. the 46 homologous chromosomes, the units, get separated in anaphase of meiosis I-> so 23 units (46 chromatids) in each cell III. the 23 units (46 sister chromatids) get separated in anaphase of meiosis II -> so 23 units (23 chromatids) in each cell aka haploid -- each cell only has one copy/version of the genome
post-mitotic cells vs mitotic cells
mitotic cells - can be regnerated and replenished easily post- mitotic cell - cannot be easily regenerated and replenished - it's a slow process - need help of tissue specific stem cell
cytokines
molecules that are used for cell signaling, or cell-to-cell communication - used to trigger cell trafficking, or movement, to a specific area of the body
mitochondria passed from which parent
mom - Since mitochondria are self-replicating and have their own DNA, they are not determined by the genes found in the nucleus. - Instead, your mitochondria have developed from the mitochondria present in the female ovum (egg) that you developed from. Defects in mitochondrial DNA cause hereditary diseases that pass only from mother to children.
Polycistronic vs monocistronic mRNA
monocistronic = eukaryotes - transcribe genes in single units - each mRNA encodes for only one protein polycistronic = prokaryotes 1. transcribe genes in operons as one single mRNA 2. translate the proteins as separate units
between polygenism, monogenism, codominance, and incomplete dominance, which involves expression of one gene
monogenism, codominance, and incomplete dominance *codominance - where two alleles of a single gene are expressed simultaneously *incomplete dominance, where alleles of one gene blend together to give intermediate phenotypes
how are monosaccharide absorbed across enterocyte cells?what about glucose?
monosaccharides/fructose: facilitated diffusion glucose/galactose: Na+/glucose cotransporter (SGLT1) - glucose enters cell along with Na *although glucose transporter type 2 (GLUT2) may also play a role
if blood flow to skin increases, what happens to temp of skin
more blood flow to skin, increase heat in skin
are there more gaps in spongy or compact bone
more gaps in spongy bone * compact bone is more compact, denser, and harder
Type 1 and 2 muscle fibers
more mitochondria in type 1 thus: Type 1: red, slow contraction, slow twitch, aerobic respiration, long duration of conraction, fatigue resistant since ab;e to contract longer due to energy supply, more power, store energy in triglycerides Type 2: white, fast contraction, fast twitch, anaerobic respiration, short duration, fatigue prone, less power, store energy ATP and creatine phosphate
between Na and Cl, which is the cell more permable to?
more permable to K and slightly permeable to Na - > potassium ions diffuse out of the cell faster than sodium ions enter the cytoplasm --however, the concentration gradient for sodium ions (via leak chaneels which is determined by concentration gradient) tends to promote their movement into the cell - since typically less Na inside cell ----gradient typically go from high to low gradient
what do most genes do?
most genes are regulatory - regulate how genes are expressed
does evolution work with somatic or germline mutations
mostly germline mutations - somatic mutation aren't passed on and die with the individual
kinesin vs dynein vs myosin
motor proteins - convert the energy from ATP into force and movement on either the actin or microtubule tracks *example of proteins that are non-enzymatic Myosin motors move on actin filaments Kinesin and dynein motors move on microtubules Myosin and kinesin had a common ancestor related to GTPases, but dynein is an AAA ATPase
what to transporters faciltate ? (aa)
movement of molecules into and out of cells - functions to transport not degrade - themselves don't prevent movement - themselves don't bind t anything (ahem, ligands can bind, but not them) * if cocnentration of the molecule being greater in one area than another, can assume membrane permeability is affected; otherwise, transporter don't exactly change permeability - increasing permeability-> molecule has better ability to move into and out of cell
between converging and diverging lens, what kind of lens corrects myopia? what about hyperopia?
myopia - can occur when light rays from distant objects are focused in front of the retina - corrected with diverging lenses, which spread light before they reach the eye to move the location of the focused image farther back in the eye onto the retina hyperopia - causes light rays from nearby objects to be focused behind the retina - Converging lenses correct hyperopia by bending light rays inward before they reach the eye.
what anchors the ends of thick filaments to sarcomere
myosin anchored by titin
index of refraction formula
n, index of refraction = c, speed of light/v, velocity of light * index of refraction for air = 1
most endocrine glands are under what kind of feedback
negative feedback to maintain homeostasis - prevents deviation from ideal value ex_ The increase in cortisol provides a negative feedback system to decrease the amount of CRH released from the hypothalamus. - when situations are ideal, the feedback prevents additional secretion of hypothalamic factors
gastrocolic reflex
neuronal control that involves stomach and colon - presence of food in stomach tells colon that room needs to be made for incoming food --> food already present in GI tract is further pushed down *why after eat, feel foing back to the bathroom, since past food that was digested has made to the end of the journey
what stimulates action potential
neurotransmitters - release of neurotransmitters -> they bind to ligands gated receptors -> action potential- depolarize toward threshold -> voltage gated sodium channels open
Does the PPP use or produce ATP?
no
does phase shift affect refractive properties
no
does platelets have nuclei
no
does polarization refract light
no
does ribsome play a role in splicing
no
does 9:3:3:1 ratio hold true for linked genes
no the expected unlinked phenotype ratio from a cross between two double heterozygotes is 9:3:3:1
can cancer cells differentiate and divide simultaneously
no - all cells includi cancer can't differentiate and divide * why decrease in stem cells, undifferentiated cells, can cause decrease in tumor size
are there any genomic sequences that are unable to undergo mutation
no - all sequences are able to undergo mutation
do normal cells break basement membrane
no - cancer cells through ability of enzymes break down basement membrane
if decrease proton gradient, will cellular resp be stil effective as before
no - if dec proton gradient -> less ATP produced by ATP synthase -> less effective cell resp
can tissues go from cells to blood stream? If no, how do immune cells travel?
no - immune cells go from blood to the site of infection and travel back through lympathic system
do viruses assimilate carbon? do they need vitamins?
no - it is the host that assimilates carbon and needs vitamins
does glucose uptake require atp?
no - it occurs down its concentration gradient - insulin does not make or require atp
is glut 2 activity electrogenic
no - not associated withh net movement of charged molecules (glucose isn't charged) - represents an electroneutral transport process
does the ratio of cytosine to guanine being 1:1 hold true for all types of nucleic acids
no - only for double stranded nucleic acids
In eukaryotes, is transcription and translation coupled?
no - transcription in nucleus and translation in cytoplasm *unlike prokaryotes- which is coupled
does enzyme alter primary structure of substrate (aa)
no - while enzyme alter susbtrate shape, but not teh structure or even primary structure -- this is done by another molecule not enzyme
can glycoproteins cross the membrane?
no - why they aren't positioned within the cytosol - why it binds at receptors in plasma membrane
Is peptidoglycan found in eukaryotes? do they consist of fatty acid tails
no Peptidoglycans are not found in eukaryotes, only bacteria, and do not consist of fatty acids
Can triglycerides circulate freely in the bloodstream?
no so when glucose is converted to triglyceride in liver.. 1. it has to be converted to LDL cholestrol to be transported to blood stream 2. this way it can travel to adipose tissue to be stored there
does normals cells have genomic instability?
no - geneomic instability = hallmark of cancer; always abnormal -- not seen in normal cells as it is incompatible with life -- cancer lives to divide and aquire for mutation until the mutation shoots itself in foot -- through loss of function in tumor supressor genes due to being mutated -> causes genes to be unstable * most hallmarks of cancers are seen in normal cells, except for genomic instability
If a patient with cystic fibrosis, a genetic defect, receives a double-lung transplant from a non-cystic fibrosis donor, would the new lungs be expected to develop cystic fibrosis?
no - key: it's genetic since it's a normal functioning lungs - it can be assumed that the genes expressed are normal soo it should not be susceptible to the disease
are neurons highly proliferative
no - they don't exactly renew themselves/divide
is cholestrol a fatty acid
no - it's a steroid
if a a frameshift mutation has been found, what is the point fo sequencing?
no point, since already been found
Can benign tumors metastasize? Can it kill you
no, if it metastaizes/invades then it's malignant - however, it can kill you -ex- benign tumor in brainstem kills due to incompatibility of life
can western blot help determine if a mutation is affecting its activity
no, it only tells protein levels
does mitosis have crossing over
no, only in meiosis (mitosis creates genetically identical cells)
can a double stranded DNa bind to chromosomes
no, since they are already have a complement; can't be hybridized
are all muscles in body connected to tendon
no, some are attached to aponeurosis - aponeurosis = strong sheet of tissue that acts as a tendon to attach muscles to bone/skin/muscle that provide strength and stability *Tendons are the tough band of inelastic fibrous tissues connecting a muscle with their bony attachment that provide movement and flexibility
is most of the digestion done in mouth large? Why?
no, the hydrolysis/breakdown of food in mouth is very minimal - done for taste
can glycolysis occur simulatenously with gucoeneogensis? what about cancer cells
no, they can't since they are concurrent/opposite rxn
do cancer cells have well-defined bounndaries
no, they have poorly defined boundaries
what happens to signals at nodes of ranvier
nodes of ranvier = has no myelin sheath so signal propagate/contine down axon by jumping from node to node
is cartilcage innervated? is it vascular?
nooo - it's not innervated, doesn't have nerve cells - it's avascular, doesn't have vasculature (blood and lymph vessels) moving through it * cartilage recieves nutrition and immune protection from surronding fluid
ductus venosus
in baby, connects the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava, bypassing the liver - otherwise - the umbical vein will connect to inferior vena cava via hepatic vein a shunt that allows oxygenated blood in the umbilical vein to bypass the liver and is essential for normal fetal circulation
Transposons (jumping genes)
in bacteria and eukaryote DNA segments that can move to new location on same/different chromosome; 2 types: insertion sequences consist of only one gene that codes for enzyme that just transports it (transposase); complex transposons code for extra: replication, antibiotic resistance, etc. Insertion of transposons into another region could cause mutation (little to no effect).
where does the blood in the liver that has nutrients and oxygen extracted from get collected
in central vein - center of hepatic lobule
if a bacteria had mechanism to concentrate lactose, between vesicle, golgi, and genome - where woul dit be concentrated?
in vesicle - bacteria don't have golgi - genome will encode protein components, but the active components (like lactose) are not themselves physically located in the genome
what does increase in erythroycte maturation and circulating hemoglobin do to EPO
increase Erythropoietin (EPO) - EPO = a glycoprotein hormone that stimulates the production of erythrocytes in red bone marrow during low tissue levels of oxygen - An increase in erythrocyte maturation rate will result in an increased level of circulating oxygen -> decrease EPO -increased level of circulating hemoglobin -> oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood will increase -> decrease EPO
how does diameter of the afferent arteriole change filtration? what about decrease diameter of efferent?
increase diameter of afferent-> more blood flow -> increased leakage_> more filtration decrease diameter of afferent -> decreased filtration increase diameter of efferent -> decreased filtration decrease diamter of efferent -> harder for blood to leave -> increased filtration
when temp increases, what happens to smooth msucle? what about skeletal muscle? what if temp decreases, what happens to both muscle types?
increase in temp... Smooth muscle relaxes -> arteries get larger (vasodilate) -> more blood flow to skin -> heat in skin (heat transferred to skin), which get dissipated * skeletal muscle don't do much in increase in temp decrease in temp: -- Smooth muscle contracts -> arteries get smaller (vasoconstriction) -> less blood flow to skin -> heat in core (heat transferred to core) -- Skeletal muscle contract (shiver) -> breaking ATP to ADP, producing energy through exothermic process (producing heat)
functon of villi, what about the vessels it contains - which absorbs water soluble food
increase surface area Capillary Bed: Absorbs water-soluble nutrients. Lacteal: Absorbs fat, sends to lymphatic system.
what hormones increase/decrease stomach motility?
increase: gastrin ( hormone released due to presence of food in stomach, aiding digestion by promiting release of digestive juices like HCl) decrease: cholecystokinen and secretin (hormones released by the presence of chyme in duodenum, telling the stomach that it needs time to digest the food that it currently has) * in fact, CCK induces satiety
why is permeability of outer mitochondrial space relevant to apoptosis
increased permeability of outer mitochondrial space enables apoptosis - by allowing cytochrome c to exit the intermembrane space and enter cytoplasm
chronic inflammatory disease have increased risk or decreased risk of cancer?
increased risk of cancer
synaptic potentiantion
increased, larger response in target cell per action potential - more neurotransmitter released or more responses for second messngers with each action potential, etc. - sprouting - increase - dendrite branches and lengths
What does unfolding of a protein do to entropy
increases entropy
if molecule X causes the dye contained in a liposome to be released, what does molecule X do to the permeability of the liposome?
increases the permability -> allowing the dye to move across freely
Virions
individual virus particles - what call the whole virus: protein coat + the RNA/DNA + maybe an envelope - helps distuingush between virus inside the cell or virus outside the cell -- once virus gets inside the host -> protein coat falls off -> so only its genetic material present at that point
What external cues tell cells to express certain genes
induction (aka cell peer pressure) - using signals -- via diffusion -- via direct contact between cells -- via gap junction
Between adults and infants, who has more hematocrit?
infant has more hematocrit - more RBC in unit of blood -- they have higher oxygen levels in the womb and need more red blood cells to transport the oxygen
subviral particles
infectious agents related to viruses, include viroids and prions - smaller than viruses - along with viruses, they're categorized as nonliving infectious agents -- don't have cells, can't make ATP, don't have organlees, can't reproduce, needs a host (since need a host, they're infectious)
Prions
infectious protein particles that do not have a genome - do not have genetic material - no DNA or RNA - tends to be in Beta sheet confirmation - belived that the interaction of the PrP (prion protein) beta sheet wth a normal alpha helix protein -> the alpha helic becomes a beta sheet -> more beta sheets created -> protein deopsits -> during cleanup, these proteins are removed, causing holes in brain => disease
initiator vs promoter vs progressor of cancer cells
initiation - stem cell mutation (can't exactly determine cancer since we all have mutated stem cells -> promotion = clonal expansion aka proliferation of mutated cell -> progression = dsyplasia appearance, confer additional growth-aggression advantage on expanding clone (as mutations accumulate)
all cells in body can trace back to what cell in embyronic development
inner cell mass (in blastocyte) give rise to pluripotent STEM cells
endometrium
inner lining of the uterus - provides nutrients through implantation
with H being pumped from matrix to inner mitochondrial space (space between matrix and inner membrane), what happens to the gradient? how is this gradient resolved?
inner mitochondrial space becomes more positive (as it gains H) while the matrix becomes more negative the inner mitochondial membrane is unpermeable to ions -> ATP synthase transports H back to matrix and uses the energy produced to make ATP
medulla of kidney
inner portion of kidney, composed of collecting tubules that empty into the renal pelvis
what prevents neuronal signals from dying off?
insulation from myelin sheath * oligodendroyctes myelinate multiple axons whereas schwann cell only do one (both create myelin sheath)
membrane receptor
integral protein that communicates with the outside environment - very specific - induced fit (alter conformation when bind) and lock-key model 1. ligand binds and tells cells what do - signal transduction- extracelula signal molecule (ligand- hormone, neurotransmitter) binds to receptor-> causing an intracellular response - ligand change confimation once binded-> activate intracellular protein signaling
T1 - T11 motor nerves
intercostal nerves
what kind of envrionemnt makes up the intermembrane space of the mitochondria
intermembrane space - space between outer and inner mitochondrial membrane - has a low pH (is acidic) <- because the electron transport chain embedded in the inner membrane pumps protons (H+) into it *Energy to make ATP comes from protons moving back into the matrix down their gradient from the intermembrane space
sphincter of anus - what kind of muscle are they composed of - voluntary or involuntary
internal anal sphincter - made of smooth muscle; involuntary - stool present in rectum pushes on this sphicnter, causing this sphincter to open and relax -- however, stool doesn't come out right away due to external anal sphincter external anal sphincter - wraps around the internal anal sphincter - made of skeletal muscle; voluntary
regulations of glomerular filtration
intrinsic: Renal autoregulation - the kidney itself can adjust the dilation or constriction of the afferent arterioles, which counteracts changes in blood pressure. This intrinsic mechanism works over a large range of blood pressure extrinisic: - Neural (nervous system) control and hormonal control - these extrinsic mechanisms can override renal autoregulation and decrease the glomerular filtration rate when necessary. --For example if you have a large drop in blood pressure (which can happen if you lose a lot of blood) -> your nervous system will stimulate contraction of the afferent arteriole -> reducing urine production. If further measures are needed your nervous system can also activate the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, a hormone system that regulates blood pressure and fluid balance. - Hormonal control - atrial natriuretic peptide is a hormone that can increase the glomerular filtration rate. This hormone is produced in your heart and is secreted when your plasma volume increases, which increases urine production
do introns code? How do introns impact the actual protein sequence?
introns don't code as they are spliced out/removed - don't have promoters or any gene coding sequence They impact the actual protein sequence by possibly containing splice acceptor site -which can cause an important exon to be omitted or included
is contraction of arrector pilli voluntary or involuntary
involuntary - makes hair stand up, forming goose bumps, allowing for insulation/warmth
How does mismatch repair work?
involve recognition of nicks (single-stranded breaks) that are found only in the newly synthesized DNA 1. Proteins recognize the mismatch 2. remove a section of the DNA strand that includes the incorrect base 3. resynthesize the missing DNA using the older strand as a template.
Coenzyme Q (COQ) (Ubiquinone) - how many electrons and protons does it carry?
is a soluble carrier dissolved in the membrane that can be fully reduced/oxidized - carries 2 electrons and 2 protons/ 2H+ (COQ-> COQH2) *ubiquinol is the reduced form of CoQ10, whereas ubiquinone is the oxidized form
action potential threshold
the intensity of stimulation (excitatory minus inhibitory) needed to produce an action potential - membrane is depolarized membrane potential goes from resting state -70mV to -55mV
collecting dust
the last section of a nephron, from which water can be absorbed back into the bloodstream -reabsorbs solutes and water from the filtrate
oxygen carrying capacity
the maximum amount of oxygen that can be transported by hemoglobin - The maximum amount of oxygen the blood can transport. It depends mainly on the haemoglobin content of the blood
tumor angiogenesis
the process of the formation of blood vessels within the tumor itself - blood vessels form branches in tumors, past basement membrane
what is procarboxypeptidases
the prototype for those human exopeptidases that cleave off basic C-terminal residues and are secreted as inactive zymogens - activated by enteropeptidase
incident ray
the ray that comes from an object and strikes a surface - incoming ray
simple twitch
the response of a single muscle fiber to a brief stimulus at or above the threshold stimulus - consists of a latent period, a contraction period, and a relaxation period
why does cell have -70mV resting potential
there is a 70 mV drop in electric potential in going from the exterior to the interior; thus, the potential is higher on the exterior of the cell - need to have more than -70 mV potential difference/aka depolarization for action potential
what is the difference in the number of melanocytes between dark and light skinned individuals
there is no difference in number of melanocytes, but difference in melanin
tight junction
they are the connections that form when cells are squished up against one another - different from gap junctions - water tight seals - so, the cell membranes are connected, but the contents of each cell are not connected in any way - no tubes here, but there is an impermeable layer in between the cells - types of cell connections are useful in places that need to contain certain fluids, like in the bladder, the intestines or the kidneys. Imagine if you didn't have a watertight seal in those connections! Fluids like your urine would be circulating through your body!
As osteoclasts absorb and remove bone matrix, what do they create?
they leave shallow depressions called Howship's lacunae - Howship's lacunae- resorption pits formed and resided by osteoclasts as they break down bone
what happens when LH binds to theca
they produce androstenedione hormone - which is given to granulosa cells, who then converts the hormone to estrogen and release it into blood
what is the last step that spermatids undergo in sertoli cells before they travel to epididymis
they undergo spermiogenesis where they differentiate into spermatozoa - one spermatozoa per spermatid *each spermatozoa is haploid, has only a single copy of chromosome
How are the valves attached to the wall of the heart?
they're tethered to the walls - chordae tendineae - thin bands of fibrous tissue that attach to the valves in the heart and prevent them from inverting - papillary wall - responsible for pulling the atrioventricular valves closed by means of the chordae tendineae
flat bone
thin and curved bone; serves as a point of attachment for muscles and protects internal organs - ex_ skull, sternum, ribs, pelvis -- inside is spongy/cancellous -- outside is hard, compact
what happens if the neuron firing threshold increases
threshold - the minimum stimulation necessary for action potential Increase threshold - more stimulation needed for action potential -> reduce frequency of neuron depolarization
if erythropoetin controls formation of rbc, what hormone controls platelet formation
thrombopoietin
what happens when too little water is absorbed by large intestine? what about if too much water is absorbed?
too little water absorbed by large intestine -> diarrhea - more water outputed than absorbed too much water absorbed -> constipation - less water as output since more was absorbed
rank stem cell type in order of most differential potential to least
totipotent (total-potent so can differentiate into almost anything) -> pluripotent -> multipotent -> unipotent
How are peptide hormones synthesized?
transcribed through mRNA and stored in secretory vesicles until stimulated for release 1. made of amino acids transcribed by mRNA and translated by ribosomes 2. modified in ER, cleaved from larger polypeptide 3. modified and activated in golgi 4. released via exocytosis of vesicles 5. since it's polar, it can't pass through cell membrane - so uses extracellular receptors like GPCR 6. involves 2nd messengers like cAMP, Ca2+. IP3 * insulin = peptide hormone
importance of having transcription and translation done in different places
transcription - done in nucleus translation - done in ribosomes, outside the nucleus If there was no barrier between the transcription and translation machineries, it's possible that poorly-made or unfinished RNA would get turned into poorly made and potentially dangerous proteins. *Before an RNA can exit the nucleus to be translated, it must get special modifications, in the form of a cap and tail at either end of the molecule, that act as a stamp of approval to let the cell know this piece of RNA is complete and properly made
What internal cues tell cells to express certain genes
transcription factors - turn on genes
asymmetric segregation of cellular determinants
transcription factors and mRNA precursors turn genes on, concentrated in certain areas of a cell - transcription factors and their precursors they're not symmetrically distributed in daughter cells
stem cell
unspecialized cell that can give rise to one or more types of specialized cells - provide new cells for the body as it grows, and replace specialised cells that are damaged or lost. - have two unique properties that enable them to do this: --- can divide over and over again to produce new cells --- as they divide, they can change into the other types of cell that make up the body (differentiate)
why are there sphincter in esophagus and what are they
upper esophageal sphincter - circular, localized skeletal muscle ring that opens voluntary (when we tell it to open * it protects the entrance to the esophagus which carries food from your throat to your stomach. The opening of the sphincter is triggered by the swallowing reflex. The UES prevents air from getting into the esophagus while you breathe lower esophageal sphincter - sheet that lines thoracic and abdominal cavity *not a true spincter since a sheet, not a ring - diaphragm forms a ring around it, holds the sphincter in space --> hyal hernia and gerd where acid reflux/heartburn *it acts as a valve that normally keeps food and stomach acid in the stomach, and prevents the stomach's contents from regurgitating back into the esophagus.
upper vs lower motor neurons problems
upper motor lesion - won't be able to tell muscle when to stop contraction -> increased deep tendon reflexes -> increased muscle tone -> impaired coordiantion -> toe up positive Babinski reflex lower motor lesion - won't be able to tell muscle to start contraction -> decreased deep tendon reflexes (hyporeflexia) -> decreased muscle tone (hypotonia) -> not much affect to coordination -> toe down Babinski reflex * since lower motor tells muscle when to start contraction,wheras upper tells muscle when to start & stop contraction -> spasticity in upper motor injury (not lower motor) -- spasticity = a condition in which there is an abnormal increase in muscle tone or stiffness of muscle (since muscle is constantly contracting due to lower motor not recieving the signal)
Exocytosis
used by the cell to take out its trash and to incorporate proteins into the cell membrane - During exocytosis, the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane surrounds the waste proteins, creating a bubble-like structure called a vesicle
Agglutination
uses antibodies to cluster and bind pathogens together, much like a cowboy rounds up his cattle - by bringing as many pathogens together in the same area -> the cells of the immune system can mount an attack and weaken the infection - other innate immune system cells continue to circulate throughout the body in order to track down any other pathogens that have not been clustered and bound for destruction
Michaelis-Menten equation
v = (vmax [S])/(Km + [S])
tricuspid valve
valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle
pulmonary valve
valve positioned between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery
how does lymph only move in one direction
valves
what causes urine to flow only in one direction
valves
what transports sperm to urethra in preparation for ejaculation
vas deferens
what blood vessel brings blood to heart
vein
name for single villi, what kind of vessels do each villus contain, what is central lacteal, what type of vessel do most absorbed food enter?
villus * each villus contains a capillary bed and a blunt-ended lymphatic vessel referred to as the "central lacteal" -- after absorbed food cross the epithelium of the villi, most of these molecules diffuse into a capillary network inside the villus, and hence into systemic blood
photopsin (iodopsin)
visual pigment in cones
lymph
watery fluid - fluid that gets forced out of the blood vessel due to high blood pressure - made up of smaller proteins (ex- albumin) so ratio of albumin over immunoglobin ratio in lymph is greater than blood - made up of white blood cells called lymphocytes and chyle, which is made of fats and proteins from the intestines
what are the ways by which a stem cell self-renews itself
obligate assymetric replication - stem cell divides into one differentiated and undeifferentiated (stem) cell stochastic differentiation - if one stem cell divides into 2 differentiated cells, another stem cell would notice this and divide into 2 undifferentiated (stem) cells
why produce urine
occurs because of the need to remove various solutes from the body in order to keep internal conditions stable and relatively constant (homeostasis), so that your all of your body's physiological processes continue operating effectively - even if dehydrated, body will make urine
alpha-ketoacid breakdown
occurs in liver when amino acids converted to the alphaketo acid - release ammonia which is excreted as urea - alpha ketoacids can be converted into acetyl coA - if want to store energy from the proteins - alphaketoacids can be converted to tiglycerides
fatty acid metabolism: traveling to mitochondria
occurs via beta-oxidation 1. fatty acid broken down into glycerol and free fatty acid 2. fatty acid activation: using ATP, free fatty acid -> acetyl coA via acetyl coA synthethase, rleasing pyruvate and AMP 3. carnitine shuttle: a. carnitine + acetylcoA -> acyl carnitine via trasnferase - so now acetyl is now in mitochondrial space b. shuttled to mictohondrial matrix via translocase c. transferase regenerates acetyl coa from acyl carnitine
founder effect (genetic drift)
occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population - when a small group splits off from the main population to found a colony gene pool dependent on the first individuals to settle in a location.
Oncogene vs. tumor suppressor gene
oncogene - cancer causing gene; always on (gain of function in cancer) tumor supproessor gene - keeps cell division in check; problems with tumor suppresors cause genomic instability (loss of function in cancer)
another name for egg
oocyte
what are precursor germ cells for females? what about females
oogonia - females spermatagonia - in males
metatropic receptors
open channels indirectly and Slowly to produce Longer-lasting, Larger effects G-protein coupled receptors - activate second messengers and can have amplification of such messengers- affect behavior of ion channels, change activty of protein and even gene expression
only what part of the mRNA is translated?
open reading form
Bilirubin
orange-yellow pigment in bile; formed by the breakdown of hemoglobin when red blood cells are destroyed
Organogenesis
organ formation that takes place during the first two months of prenatal development
how does "mismatch repair" recognize errors in bacteria
original and newly made strands of DNA can be told apart by a feature called methylation state. An old DNA strand will have methyl groups attached to some of its bases, while a newly made DNA strand will not yet have gotten its methyl group
what nervous system increases peristalsis? what about decreasing peristalsis?
persitalsis - increase with parasympathetic nervous system (rest and digest) - decrease with sympathetic nervous system (fight/flight)
ketone bodies are high ...(choose one) - person with diabetes - a person eating low cholestrol - a person eating extra carbs
person with low glucose uptake - high in those with diabetes since glucose uptake is low meaning body have to use other forms of energy such as fat or protein which are used to make ketone bodies to derive energy since fat is used to make ketone bodies, a person on low diet cannot produce much ketone bodies a person eating extra carbs has a good source of glucose, meaning the person doesn't need to rely on ketone bodies or other sources of energy
what molecules levels increase in blood if calcium levels increase in blood
phosphate - its levels follow clacium levels
what are the 2 domains of the enzyme that is related to PFK1- creates its stimulator
phosphofructokinase-2 (PFK-2)/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase (F-2,6BPase)
How are Bowman's capsule and glomerulus connected?
podocytes that hug the arteriole cells by holding onto the endocytes in glomerulus and tubular cells (epithelial cells) that line the bowman's capsule - podyctes come from the tubular cells
confirming which amino acid is altered in the mutant form is more necessary for frameshift or point mutation?
point mutation
prolactin-releasing factor
polypeptide hormone originating in the hypothalamus, and whose action is to stimulate the secretion of the prolactin in the pituitary gland
what makes up the portal triad?
portal vein, hepatic artery, bile duct (common hepatic duct)
sum rule vs product rule of probability
product rule: "and" independence rule: if both event X and event Y must happen in order for a certain outcome to occur, and if X and Y are independent of each other (don't affect each other's likelihood), then you can use the product rule to calculate the probability of the outcome by multiplying the probabilities of X and Y sum rule: "or" mutually exclusive rule: if an outcome requires that either event X or event Y occur, and if X and Y are mutually exclusive (if only one or the other can occur in a given case), then the probability of the outcome can be calculated by adding the probabilities of X and Y.
pre-initiation complex in DNA transcription? (aa)
promoter + RNA polymerase + transcription factors
what kind of neurotansmitter is opioid
protein - ex - endorphin *opioids - impact perception of pain
Proteins vs Steroids hormones vs tyrosine derivatives
protein - most common - release second messngers - have receptors at end of cell - involve surface receptors, are fast-acting and short-lived -- since polar, can't cross membrane *Thyroid hormones and steroid hormones are insoluble in plasma, act via intracellular receptors to change transcription, are slow-acting and are long-lived. steroid - primary messengers - can impact translation and gene expression - longer lasting impact - since hydrophobic it can cross membrane but can't dissolve so must be carried by proteins tyrosine derivative - come from and made up on eamino acid, tyrosine - act as proteins and other times as steroids - ex- thyroid gland hormones - act similar to steroids; catelchomines (glands rleased in adrenal medulla for fight-flight responses) - act similar to proteins by binding outside cell and releasing hormones inside * amino acid derivative hormones share both peptide and steroid hormones
cytochrome c
protein carrier in ETF - helps shuttle electrons between 3rd and 4 complex A protein released from mitochondria when cell is stressed. - Cytochrome c, released upon mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization, induces caspase activation. - Cytochrome c triggers the activation of cytosolic apoptotic protease activating factor-1 (APAF-1), which binds and activates caspase-9
cytoskeleton function
protein filaments that anchor to the cell membrane to allow for cell structure, movement, etc. - major components of the cytoskeleton are microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments.
albumin - where is it produced and what does it do
protein in blood that is made by liver; maintains the proper amount of water in the blood - Albumin enters your bloodstream and helps keep fluid from leaking out of your blood vessels into other tissues - also carries hormones, vitamins, and enzymes throughout your body
Albumin
protein in blood; maintains the proper amount of water in the blood - prevents the liquid from leaking away from blood vessels
Apoenzyme
protein portion of an enzyme (inactive)
how do proteins help with cell communication
proteins act as messenger molecules - ex_ protein hormones - ex_ antigen displayed by macrophage when they ingest and breakdown a pathogen = message that warns cells to be on the lookout for the pathogen
ionotropic receptors
receptors that are coupled to ion channels and affect the neuron by causing those channels to open - Ligand-gated ION channels - cause graded potential - brief and local -- activated by sodium and calcium -- can inhibit if potassium or chlorine ions to pass
destroying brain tissue
what scientists are more interested in - less invasive can be done.. - severing nerve by scalpel - radiofrequency lesion - destroy tissue on surface and deep inside brain; wire placed in brain and high frequency which destroys that tissue is sent to specific place; destroys everything in that area - cell bodies, neurons, and axons passing through, less precise - neurochemical lesions - more precise --excitatotic - binds to glutamate receptors and excites tissue to death, done through kanic acid --oxidopamic - destroys dopminergic and noradrenorgic neurons that release dopamine and norepinephrine or adrenaline (epinephrine) through 6-hydroxypamine (which is similar in struture to dopamine and taken up by neurons); very precise - corticocooling - cooling down neurons until stop functioning; done through cryo loop, chilled liquid sent; reversible, temporary lesions - neurochemical - can temporarly inhibit neurons by drugs
acetycholine and muscle contraction
when brain sends signal for muscle action, the motor neurons which get signal from the brain trigger action potential -> Na ions carried to axon terminal -> ion channels (which are ATPases) open, releasing Ca as they break down and are fueled by ATP -> Ca ions enter -> Ca triggers release of acetycholine -> acetycholine binds to the receptor -> Na enters muscle fiber -> Na in cell causes depolarization -> Ca ions enter the cell (outside the sarcoplasmic reticulum) -> muscle contraction (myosin binds to actin by breakding down ATP <-since Ca binds to troponin, unveiling tropomyosin from actin allowing actin to bind to myosin) When acetylcholine reaches receptors on the membranes of muscle fibers, membrane channels open and the process that contracts a relaxed muscle fibers begins: - brain sends an action potential in the arm along motor neuron -> synapse with muscle cell in the arm -> acetycholine into the synapse (receptors on muscle cell are ligan-gated protein channels so..) -> channels open up -> Open channels allow an influx of sodium ions into the cytoplasm of the muscle fiber - it creates an action potential that zips along the sarcolemma and travels down to T tubules -> The sodium influx also sends a message within the muscle fiber - when the action potential travels down the T tubules, it triggers the voltage sensitive proteins linked to those calcium channels on the sarcoplasmic reticulum -> calcium channles thrown open -> trigger the release of stored calcium ions -> the calcium ions diffuse into the muscle fiber -> the relationship between the chains of proteins within the muscle cells changes, leading to contraction - it binds to protein troponin, causes it to pull on the tropomyosin away from actin -> (the myosin - that have 'grabbed' a molcule of ATP that's floating around and broken it down to ADP and leftover phsosphate- goes into extended position, like a stretch sping that holds onto ADP and phosphate and energy released when ATP broken) -> myosin binds to ATP -> myosin changes shape, pulls on the actin strand, causing shrinkage -> contraction Now energy spent, the ADP and phsphate unbind from myosin -> allowing a fresh ATP to bind to the same place in myosin -> myosin releases from actin -> myosin breaks down ATP
recombination in meiosis
when gametes join in fertilization, new combination of chromosomes in potential offspring - occurs in meiosis I prophase
how does body recognize site of damage
when injure endothelium -> new proteins exposed - interaction of those proteins like tussue factors and collagens with the plasma molecules like fibrinogen and platelets cause clotting
when does a transporter protein have high affinity to ligand
when ligand concentration is higher
function of rectum and anus
rectum- holds undigestible material before it can be eliminated; storage anus- feces eliminated through anal sphincter
Where do blood cells come from?
red bone marrow -in flat bones and mostly from long bones - precursor: pluripotent
what kind of agent reduces bonds
reducing agent - which gets oxidized
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
secreted by the pituitary gland to stimulate maturation of the egg cell (ovum) - FSH is made by your pituitary gland, a small gland located underneath the brain. FSH plays an important role in sexual development and functioning. In women, FSH helps control the menstrual cycle and stimulates the growth of eggs in the ovaries.
hormonal control of GI tract: secretin
secretin - released to bloodstream when chyme enters duodenum --> goes to pancreas to promote secretion of bicarbonate rich solution involving pancreatic enzymes to neutralize the acidic chyme -- also go to bloodstream to stomach to inhibit stomach motility decreasing gastric acid secretion *the acidity of stomach acid in the duodenum that primarily causes secretin to be released - since it helps neutralize that acid
exocrine
secreting externally; hormonal secretion from excretory ducts - ducts - a tube or vessel of the body through which fluids pass.
Loop of Henle (nephron loop) - function
section of nephron responsible for conserving water and minimizing filtrate volume - waste products are actively secreted into filtrate from blood - the active transport of NaCl from the ascending limb maintains the high salt concentration in the kidney's medulla -> facilitating the reabsorption of water (through osmosis) from the descending limb.
Where does spermatogenesis occur?
seminiferous tubules - collection of tubes within testis
replicative senescence and telomeres
senescent cell - a cell that has lost its ability to divide <- when telomeres are too short -> prevent impending DNA damage * DNA polymerase doesn't replicate all the way, causing the ends/telomeres to shorten as cell perform mitosis
hair follicle receptors
sensory afferent a-beta nerve endings wrapped around each hair bulb; simulated by bending a hair - constantly changing light touch on hairy skin - in reticular dermis -- requires opening in hair shaft for sodium to enter
somatosensory system
sensory network that monitors the surface of the body and its movements - position, vibration, fine touch - pain, temp, gross touch
nuleus and similarity with cytoplasm
similar in structure and function to cytoplasm - evident through liquid nuceloplasm that houses
how are lipids absorbed across enterocyte cells
simple diffusion (for glycerol and short chain fatty acid) and lymphatic capillary *while simple difussion, doesn't enter straight through blood stream and instead enters lymph since it is nonpolar which doesn't go well with aqueous, polar environment of blood
what happens to primary oocytes under 'meoitic arrest'
some die off and others that are intended to be ovulated will no longer be under 'arrest'
lumen
space within a tubular part or organ, such as the space within a blood vessel - hole down hollowed tube - ex- lumen of water hose = place that water travel through the hose
enterocytes
specialized absorptive cells in the duodenal villi of the small intestine - produce enxymes that digest disacharides like lactase
alpha-ketoacid
specific acids associated with different amino acids and released upon deamination or transamination; for example, the breakdown of glutamate yields alpha-ketoglutarate
does sperm have a nucleus? what about cytoplasm
sperm has a nucleus, but technically it has no cytoplasm
Where does sperm mature? How does sperm enter that place - descrbe the movement
sperm produced in seminiferous tubules leave to mature in epidymis - they move from the tubules -> drain into network of tubes called rate testis -> move to epidymis in a wave like movement called peristalisis through smooth muscle cell layer
Spermatids vs spermatozoa
spermatids - sperm precursors - have completed meiosis but have not yet fully matured - found near the walls of seminiferous tubules - undifferentiated cells spermatozoa - mature sperms - found in the middle of seminiferous tubules - differentiated cells *both have undergone recombination and have underwent the 2 cyles of meosis, ending up with only 1 copy of the genome * both have a nucleus, but technically no cytoplasm
What happens in the epididymis to allow for maturation of sperm?
spermatozoa matures by gaining mitochondria and flagellum
What is trabeculae? why is it necessary
spongy/cancellous bone (porous network of spine that surronds inner portion of bone marrow) - makes bones lighter
induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS)
stem cells derived from differentiated tissues - can introduce specific genes into already differentiated stem cells, causing them to revert back to being a pluripotent stem cell -- can be used to prevent organ replacement faulure by using person's own cells and reverting them back to stem cell and causing them to differentiate into the wanted organ cells
electromagnetic receptor
stimulated by electromagentic waves - ex - rods and cones (photoreceptors)
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
stimulated by thyroid releasing hormone (TRH)from hypothalamus -secreted by pituitary gland -> it stimulates thyroid gland to secrete thyroid hormones (T3 and thyroxine) -- these thyroid hormones tells hypothalamus to stop secreting TRH, decreasing levels of TSH
Prolactin
stimulates milk production - signaled to release when prolactin inhibitory hormone is stopped
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
stimulates release of ACTH - secreted in hypothalamus
how is pancreas different in its location in the body
stomach, liver, small intestine, large intestine sit in peritoneum (abdomen) pancreas sits in retroperitoneum (back of abdomen) with abdominal aorta and inferior vena cava
what does insulin do to glucose
stores it glycogenisis: glucose -> glycogen --reversible process --short term energy stored in muscle or liver lipogenesis: glucose -> lipids --irreversible --long term storage of energy in adipose tissue glycolysis: glucose -> ATP --irreversible --used anywhere in body
stretch activated channels
stretch activated input region: changing the shape of the plasma membrane in the input region opens stretch activated channels - imoacted by mechanical force
where does lymph enter the circulatory system
subclavian vein, which returns lymph to your bloodstream - lymph enters at the end of venous circulation - where it is low pressure * the subclavian vein runs below your collarbone
what molecule carries out oxidative phosphorylation? what about substate phosphorylation
substrate level phosphorylation: pyruvate kinase, succinyly-coA synthethase oxidative phosphorylation - ATP syntethase
what does hormone inhibin do
supresses FSH * FSH promotes follicle maturation
Why is the small intestine well adapted for nutrient absorption/digestion?
surface area - villi The thick mucosa has so many folds and projections that its surface area is about 100 times as broad as the surface area of your skin. This is why 95% of the carbohydrates and protein you consume are absorbed in the small intestine. It also absorbs about 90% of the water that it receives during digestion
what causes differentiation of progenitor cells
surface receptors for a stimulating facror - when progenitor develops them for a certain stimulating factor
what is ratio of calories consumed to burnt in caloric surplus? does it lead to weight loss or weight gain?
surplus of calories: when the number of calories that we consume is higher than the number of calories we burn. In a caloric surplus, our body mass increases. - diet is rich in high amounts of energy that do not burn off with physical activity -> becomes excess energy that turns into fat
Ruffini corpuscles/ ruffini endings
sustained deep pressure and stretch that relies heavily on collagen - cause collagen (which is connected to nerve fiber) gets shifts/stretched, allowing sodium to enter -- reticular dermis (where most collagen is found) -- different from pacinian corpuscles since it is sustained
Merkel's disks
sustained light touch (to hair and non hairy) adapt slowly and respond to gradual skin indentation and skin stretch -- different from meissener's corpuscles since it's sustained touch, not constantly changing stimuli - found in straum basale in epidermis and paillary dermis - specialized keratinocytes - hold bunch of vesicles that contain neuropeptides that get released with stimuli: 1. stimuli 2. vesicles holding neuropeptides get released 3. neuropeptides interact with neuropeptide receptors 3. ion channels open -> sodium enter merkels disk 4. when sodium reaches afferent nerve, the nerve will send a signal/action potential to brain
merocrine glands
sweat Glands that produce secretions intermittently; secretions do not accumulate in the gland - Exocrine glands that secrete without losing cellular material - via exocytosis - release watery sweat
what are protein tagged with that tells them that they need to go to the golgi for further packaging?
tagged with a (usually carbohydrate) molecule in a process known as glycosylation that marks the protein for transport to the Golgi apparatus
ubiquitination
targets a protein for degradation by a proteasome
what is the location for testosterone production?
testes
why do males have prominent adam's apple
testosterone stimulates growth of larynx during puberty which causes this prominent bulge to form
Negative selection of T cells
tests for self tolerance - tests the binding capabilities of CD4 and CD8 specifically -- The ideal example of self tolerance is when a T cell will only bind to self-MHC molecules presenting a foreign antigen --- if a T cell binds, via CD4 or CD8, a self-MHC molecule that isn't presenting an antigen, or a self-MHC molecule that presenting a self-antigen ->it will fail negative selection and be eliminated by apoptosis.
what kind of mutation unfies cancer cells (theoretically)
that one mutation that caused the cancer in the first place - initiated mutation -- can be lost over time
what controls the hyperolarization and depolarization inside the pancreatic cells
the ATP produced (from the glucose entering through glut 2 transporter) - low blood glucose -> low ATP -> high potassium efflux -> hyperpolarzation (cell is more negative due to loss of positive potassium) -> decrease in calcium influx -> decrease insulin secretion - elevated blood glucose -> decrease potassium efflux -> depolarization -> increased calcium influx -> increased insulin secretion
oxygen debt
the amount of oxygen required after physical exercise to convert accumulated lactic acid to glucose - Difference between O2 needed and O2 present -- oxygen debt = the amount of extra oxygen required by muscle tissue during recovery from vigorous exercise * When the body lacks the necessary oxygen to complete the process of respiration and eliminate the lactic acid, it is said to be in oxygen debt
Thalamus
the brain's SENSory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla - involved in cognition, emotion, consciousness - connected to many areas so plays a role in processing
Senescence
the condition or process of deterioration with age - stops cell proliferation -- due to shortening of telomeres - not proliferating, not actively performing mitosis - to prevent impending dna damage
Mismatch Repair (MMR)
the correction of mistakes that escape the DNA polymerase proofreading activity - happens right after new DNA has been made, and its job is to remove and replace mis-paired bases (ones that were not fixed during proofreading)
what happens to follicle once egg is ejected out of ovary
the follicle collapses and transforms into corpus luteum which then degenrates by apoptosis by day 25 - granulosa cells get bigger and produces more hormones
if an X gene overlaps with a Y gene, what does that mean
the genes are linked - crossing over will most likely not occur between these two genes and they will be inherited as a unit
what happens when sperm binds to zona pellucida of egg
when sperm binds to glycoproteins that make up zona pellucida... acroomal reaction - acrosmal enzymes in acrosome leak out, digesting away the zona pellucida, allowing sperm to dive deeper into egg -- the sperm no longer has an acrosome
dominant epistasis
when the dominant allele of one gene masks the effects of either allele of the second gene 12:3:1 - dominant allele of one gene masks and prevents another gene from expressing - 12 due to the dominant masking gene - 3 due to dominant of actual gene - 1 due to recessive allele of actual gene
recessive epistasis
when the recessive allele of one gene masks the effects of either allele of the second gene - 9:3:4 - recessive of one gene masks the expression of the actual gene that corresponds to the phenotype - 4 of them being masked by the recessive gene - 9 - dominant of actual gene - 3 - recessive of actual gene
What does the duodenum do? what material do they recieve from organs and name the organs.
where most digestion occurs; it's busy - recives chyme along with some HCl from stomach - get bile from liver and gall bladder - get enzymes from pancreas - has brush border enzymes ( on microvilli) that activate enzymes and digest nutrients
what is theca
while granulosa cells are proliferating, the wall called theca forms around pre-antral follicle - theca has receptors for luetinzing hormone (LH) from anterior pituitary
gray vs white matter
white matter = myelinated axons - makes up external of spinal cord and internal of brain gray matter = everything else - unmyelinated axons - dendrites - cell bodies - makes up internal of spinal cord and external of brain (cerebral cortex)
What does an increase in the y-intercept and leftward shift of x-intercept of a linewear burke plot mean?
y-intercept: 1/Vmax - increase in y-intercept -> decrease in Vmax x-intercept: - 1/Km - leftward in x-interecept -> decrease in Km * for increase to happen in Vmax <- y-intercept decrease * for increase in Km <- x-intercept shift to right
Do all cell types have the same DNA?
yes
if something exits as a dimer or tetramer, is it possible to have a quaternary structure
yes - as each of which would contain more than one peptide chain and would therefore have quaternary protein structure
are bacteria able to secrete eukaryotic proteins
yes - ex - insulin
will an enyzme whose activity is impaired be able to regenerated at the end of the rxn?
yes - regardless if the catalyst has it activity impaired, it will be regenerated at the end of a rxn -- it's in the naure of being an enzyme
can the lymph that left the blood vessel due to high blood pressure return to the vessel?
yes - the solute concentration is higher in the blood vessel - so osmotic pressure will be pulling some of the fluid back in - as travel down capillaries, less pressure will be present (more near veins) -> so lower hydrostatic pressure * but more fluid goes out than coming back in
do fibroblasts, monocytes, and nurons have nucleus
yes they all have a nuclus and (none are flat disc with concave center) * erthryocyte has no nucleus and is shaped like a flat disc with a concave center
does bone undergo remodeling?
yes, constantly - built up by osteoblasts through alakaline phosphatase ensyme - broken down by osteoclasts through tartrate resistant acid phosphatase enzyme
can recombination occur in linked genes
yes, depending on the extent to the linkage -- when genes are perfectly linked, they have a recombination frequency of 0 --When genes are unlinked, they have a recombination frequency of 0.5, which means 50 percent of offspring are recombinants and the other 50 percent are parental types ---however, The recombination frequency (RF, the number of recombinants divided by the total number of offspring) does not have to be 50% for the genes to be unlinked; in the unlinked 9:3:3:1 ratio, the RF is only 37.5% *Recombination can occur between linked genes; it just happens less frequently
do multiple follicles form per ovarian cycle? do multiple eggs get ejected at end of ovarian cycle?
yes, multiple follicles form - but only one egg, the biggest follicle aka the dominant follicle, get ejected per 28 days - it expands mostly due to antrum -- the rest of the follicles (the egg and the follicles) undergo atresia/degeneration
is rna synthesized in nucleolus
yes, rrna
are transcription factors of proto-oncogene
yes, since part of the relay needed for cell growth
Blastocyst vs embryo
After the blastocyst is implanted into the uterine wall, it is then referred to as an embryo It is the embryo that undergoes gastrulation
what is specific activity? (aa)
Amount of radioactivity - or the decay rate - of a particular radionuclide per unit mass of the radionuclide - activity in a quantity of radionuclide -the activity per unit mass of a radionuclide and is a physical property of that radionuclide *A radionuclide is an atom (element) with an unstable nucleus (core). The nucleus of the atom has excess energy that is released by different types of radioactive decay The total amount of activity of a target protein divided by the total amount of protein in the fraction. Ratio of enzymatic activity to the total amount of protein in a sample - ratio of the enzyme activity to enzyme concentration. This quantity can be used to measure the purity of our sample. During the purification process, the specific activity should increase up until we reach a pure sample, at which point the value will remain constant.
substantia nigra
An area of the midbrain that is involved in motor control and contains a large concentration of dopamine-producing neurons - collection of neurons responsible for sending dopamine -- problem sending it to striatum --> parkinson's disease
creatine phosphate
An energy storage molecule used by muscle tissue. The phosphate from creatine phosphate can be removed and attached to an ADP to generate ATP quickly.
carbonic anhydrase
An enzyme present in erythrocytes (as well as in other places) that catalyzes the conversion of CO2 and H2O into carbonic acid (H2CO3).
Telomerase
An enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in eukaryotic germ cells - allow cells to excape senescence - present in stem cells and other immortal cells like cancer cells
Nondisjunction
An error in meiosis or mitosis in which members of a pair of homologous chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids fail to separate properly from each other - When sister chromatids don't separate properly during anaphase. Results in aneuploidy.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
An extensive membranous network in eukaryotic cells, continuous with the outer nuclear membrane and composed of ribosome-studded (rough) and ribosome-free (smooth) regions. - a plasma membrane found inside the cell that folds in on itself to create an internal space known as the lumen - belived to have formed from the invagination of plasma membrane - continuous with the perinuclear space, so we know the endoplasmic reticulum is attached to the nuclear envelope
zymogen
An inactive precursor of an enzyme - activated by various methods (acid hydrolysis, cleavage by another enzyme, etc.)
foramen ovale baby
An opening between the right and left atria in the embryo and fetus - to allow the oxygenated blood that enters the right atrium (through the inferior vena cava) to enter the left atrium, and to impede the flow back the opposite way, by way of the valve
Induced pluripotent stem cells
Any cell, even a highly differentiated cell in the adult body, that has been genetically reprogrammed to mimic the pluripotent behavior of embryonic stem cells a pluripotent stem cell that was generated by manipulation of a differentiated somatic cell - stem cells that are created in the laboratory - a happy medium between adult stem cells and embryonic stem cells - iPSCs are created through the introduction of embryonic genes into a somatic cell (a skin cell for example) that cause it to revert back to a "stem cell like" state. These cells, like ESCs are considered pluripotent
Cofactors
Any nonprotein molecule or ion that is required for the proper functioning of an enzyme. Cofactors can be permanently bound to the active site or may bind loosely with the substrate during catalysis *enzymes + cofactors = holoenzymes (those that lack cofactors is apoenzymes)
Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)
Any of the blood cells that are colorless, lack hemoglobin, contain a nucleus, and include the lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
charge movement and potential difference - does negative and positive charge move along electric field lines? what does that mean in terms of potential (going from higher to lower potential or vice versa)?
Any positive charge moves along the field lines i.e. from a region of higher to lower potential, whereas, any negative charge moves opposite to the field lines i.e., from lower to higher potential *The direction of flow of electrons is opposite to direction of flow of current. Hence, the electrons move from low potential to high potential. *negative charge will lose electric potential energy and gain kinetic energy as it moves against the field
lipid rafts (aa)
Areas of high cholestrol concentration where the composition of proteins, carbs, and lipids differ from other parts of the membrane Cholesterol filled microdomains for signal transduction and endocytosis; collections of similar lipids with or without associated proteins that serve as attachment points for other biomolecules
posterior pituitary gland
ADH (antidiuretic hormone) and oxytocin - made in hypothalamus and stored in posterior pituitary Anti-Oxidant for Posterior Pituitary Antidiuretic Hormone and Oxytocin. Both are direct hormones derived from the hypothalamus
What hormones increase thirst? What about hunger and satiety?
ADH and aldosterone: increase thirst glucagon and ghrelin: increase hunger leptin and cholecystokinin: increase satiety
the lack of what molecule causes rigor mortis
ATP
if 34P-ATP is present, what type of radioactivity will be used on the 34Plabeled ATP if Kinase uses this phosphate?
ATP has 3 phosphates The phosphoryl groups, starting with the group closest to the ribose, are referred to as the alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ) phosphates. - alpha phosphate - closest to ribose - gamma phosphate - furthest from the ribose --so gamma =the end phosphate will be used by kinase to phosphorylate protein
Aneuploidy
Abnormal number of chromosomes.
Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) - in what complex of ETC does it accept electrons from? - it's a conexyme form of what molecule?
Accepts electrons from NADH in Complex I - a coenzyme form of riboflavin, which functions in the electron transport chain
acetal vs hemiacetal - which is more stable - which involves 2 ether groups and which involves an ether and alcohol group?
Acetal is a stable molecule and hemiacetal is unstable. - acetals have 2 ether grps - hemiacetals have an ether grp & an alcohol
what pancreatic cells produce pancreatic juices that contain bicarbonate, pancreatic amylase, pancreatic peptidases, and pancreatic lipase?
Acinar Cells
Helper T cells
Activate macrophages, B cells and cytotoxic T cells - express CD4
UDP-glucose
Activated substrate for glycogen synthesis
adaptive immunity divided into
Adaptive immunity is further subdivided into cell-mediated immunity and humoral immunity.
serotonin
Affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal. Undersupply linked to depression. - released by raphe nuclei
passive flow from countercurrent exchange
Because the blood flow through these capillaries is very slow, any solutes that are reabsorbed into the bloodstream have time to diffuse back into the interstitial fluid, which maintains the solute concentration gradient in the medulla. This passive process is known as countercurrent exchange.
Which amino acid exhibits a beta-branched side chain?
Beta-branched amino acids include threonine, valine and isoleucine, and are preferentially found internally in beta sheets.
Fatty acid metabolism: once in mitochondra
Beta-oxidation is a four-step process, which repeats until the fatty acid has been completely broken down. The four steps are dehydrogenation, hydration, oxidation, and thiolysis. Dehydrogenation is catalyzed by Acyl-CoA-dehydrogenase and coverts FAD to FADH2 to form a double bond between C2 and C3 7 cycles of beta oxidation: 8 acetyl CoA (go to kreb cycle); 7 NADH (ETC); 7 FADH2 (ETC)
autonomic vs somatic nervous system
Both part of the peripheral system. Automatic system regulates involuntary functions like heartbeat, breathing etc - sympathetic (norepiniphrine) vs parasympathteic (acetylcholine neurotransmitter) * pre and post ganglionin hormone for parasympathetic is acetylcholine * sympathetic: preganglionic = acetylcholine, postganglionic = nore/epinephrine Somatic communicates sensory info and carries messages for motor movement to the muscles. - acetylcholine neurotransmitter - afferent sensory neurons - send sensory info to cns - efferent motor neurons - send motor signals from cns to tissue that response is elicited
neuropeptides
Brain chemicals, such as enkephalins and endorphins, that regulate the activity of neurons; act similar to peptide hormones - small proteins produced by neurons that act on G protein-coupled receptors and are responsible for slow-onset, long-lasting modulation of synaptic transmission - modulate the activity of co-released neurotransmitters to either increase or decrease the strength of synaptic signaling they're type of neurotransmitter; it's larger than small- molecule neurotransmitter - co-exist in nerve cells with one or more small molecule (classic) neurotransmitters. Neuropeptides act both as transmitters and trophic factors
B cells
Cells manufactured in the bone marrow that create ANTIBODIES for isolating and destroying invading bacteria and viruses - only effective for things floating around (not for host cells that are infltrated) - participates in humoral response --not always at site of infection as its antibodies will travel to the site - each (naive and mature B cells) has one type of membrane bound antibodies at the surface *B cells each have one of millions of distinctive surface antigen-specific receptors that are inherent to the organism's DNA 1. formed in bone marrow 2. naive B cells moves into lymphatic cells -> to circulate throughout body 3. naive B cells encounter an antigen -> starting maturation process of B cell - can start cloning itself 4. When a naive B cell encounters an antigen that fits or matches its membrane-bound antibody -> it quickly divides -> in order to become either a memory B cell or an effector B cell (aka plasma cell) - Antibodies can bind to antigens directly - The antigen must effectively bind with a naive B cell's membrane-bound antibody in order to set off differentiation (the process of becoming one of the new forms of a B cell)
Parenchymal cells (parenchyma)
Cells that provide the actual function of the tissue - typically epithelium
Haversian system
Central canals surrounded by osteons; contain the blood vessels and nerves that serve the bone
Chronotropic factors vs Inotropic factors
Chronotropic factors - factors that affect the RATE at which the cardiac muscle fibers contract Inotropic factors - factors that affect the AMOUNT of FORCE that the cardiac fibers contract with
4 stages of embryonic development
Cleavage, patterning, differentiation, growth 1. Fertilization 2. Cleavage -> then blastulation 3. Gastrulation 4. Organogenesis fertilization → Zygote → Cleavage → Morula → Blastocyst → Gastrula
to where and how does golgi package the protein
Cytosol: not much packaging - the proteins that enter the Golgi by mistake are sent back into the cytosol Cell membrane: proteins destined for the cell membrane are processed continuously. Once the vesicle is made, it moves to the cell membrane and fuses with it. Molecules in this pathway are often protein channels which allow molecules into or out of the cell, or cell identifiers which project into the extracellular space and act like a name tag for the cell. Secretion: some proteins are meant to be secreted from the cell to act on other parts of the body. Before these vesicles can fuse with the cell membrane, they must accumulate in number, and require a special chemical signal to be released. This way shipments only go out if they're worth the cost of sending them (you generally wouldn't ship just one toy and expect to profit). Lysosome: The final destination for proteins coming through the Golgi is the lysosome. Vesicles sent to this acidic organelle contain enzymes that will hydrolyze the lysosome's content.
ETC Complex IV: cytochrome c oxidase
Contains: heme and copper job: oxidize cytochrome c and recives electrons from it, using it to oxidize O2 to water 1. cytochrome C donates e- to copper 2. e- to cytochrome A 3. e- to copper (B type) 4. e- to cytochrome A3 5. e- to (1/2) O2 -> H2O - Uses cytochromes and Cu2+ to transfer electrons in the form of hydride ions (H-) from cytochrome c to oxygen, forming water - 2 H+ ions are translocated by complex IV - NADH cannot cross the inner mitochondrial membrane. Therefore, one of two available shuttle mechanisms to transfer electrons in the mitochondrial matrix must be used.
converging vs. diverging lenses
Converging/convex - thicker in the middle and thinner on the ends (a magnifying glass) - converges parallel rays of light toward its focal point. - A real image is formed from the convergence of the refracted light rays on the side of the lens opposite the object - Real images are always inverted (upside-down with respect to the object) Soo real, inverted images formed from converging Diverging/concave - thinner in the middle and thicker on the ends - spreads parallel rays of light away from its focal point - A virtual image is formed from the apparent convergence of refracted light rays traced back to the same side of the lens as the object. - The image is virtual because the light rays do not actually converge at the image - Virtual images are always upright Soo virtual, upright lens formed from diverging lens
endothelial cells
Cells lining the blood vessels cells that form the walls of lymphatic capillaries; their overlapping structure helps fluid enter the lymphatic capillaries and makes it hard for the fluid to leave allow permeabiity of certain materials through walls of blood vessels form barriers between surrounding tissue and surronding tissues soo these cells are the most important in exchanging O2 and selective materials between the blood and surrounding tissues
Double Bohr Effect
"Fetus unloads CO2 and H+ to maternal blood at placenta so that maternal oxyHb curve shifts to right causing decreased O2 affinity => unloads O2 to fetus. Concurrently, fetal blood CO2 and H+ decrease, shifting fetal oxyHb to left causing increased affinity for O2." - oxygen lost by mom = oxygen gained by infant Bohr effect in placenta occuring on both mom and infant
if eat a jalapeno, how does signal get to a receptor
* body reacts to jalapeno, the same way it would interact with change in temp 1. break jalapeno cells apart through digestion, releasing capsaicin 2. capsaicin binds to TrpV1 receptor
enhancers and silencers
*enhancers*: regulatory sequences of DNA which increase the rate of transcription when proteins bind to them; increase expression of a particular gene *silencers*: sequences of DNA which decrease the rate of transcription when proteins bind to them
if a XyZ*Rt oxidoreductase is diluted to final concentration of 0.80mM in 0.17M NaCL, KCl, LiCl, etc., what is the ratio of cation to enzyme in whole numbers? (aa
*focus on units, one is mM and other is M 0.8mM of enzyme 0.17M of the soluble solutions that result in cations so 0.8mM enyzme: 0.17M cation aka 0.8 mM: 170 mM theres a ratio of 212:1 of cation to enzyme
given a certain pH, what parts of a primary chain protein should you be worried about to determine charge
*primary chain = polypeptide depending on pH - charge present in C terminal, carboxylic acid being negative - charge present in N terminal, amine being positive - R side chain of the acidic aa being negative - R side chain of basic aa being positive
endocrine pancreas: types of islets, the hormones the release, and the function of the hormones
- Alpha - release glucagon (which breaks down glycogen to glucose) - Beta - release insulin (which stores glucose to glycogen) - Delta - release somatostatin (which stops active hormones) * somatostatin - party pooper
telomerase and cancer
- Cancerous cells have active telomerase in mammals. • By over-expressing telomerase, tumor cells can replicate forever • Without telomerase, the tumors would stop growing when their DNA damage detectors shut down replication after telomeres were depleted.
absorptive metabolism
- Energy input exceeds output (use) --when food is plenty and have enough energy sources so extra sources get stored - Time: during 3-4 hours after consuming food - Result: energy being stored as macromolecules --buidling up, storing energy
Basophils
- granulocytes that attack multicellular parasites *Basophils release histamine, much like mast cells. The use of histamine makes basophils and mast cells key players in mounting an allergic response.
Nucelolus
-a small dense region in the nucleus -where the assembly of ribsomes begins *Ribosomes are assembled in the nucleolus, and exit the nucleus with nuclear pores
direct vs tropic hormones
-direct: secreted and act directly on the target tissue; ex) insulin causes increased uptake of glucose by muscular tissue -tropic: requires an intermediary; ex) GnRH stiumulates release of LH, FSH which cause testosterone production
What causes rigor mortis?
-lack of ATP so myosin head remains binded to actin filament and doesn't release contraction * contraction <= mysoin binds to actin; ATP used to release myosin from actin
Terpenes
-metabolic precursors to steroids and other lipid signaling molecules -odiferous chemicals -class of lipids built from isoprene, repeating set of carbon atoms consisting of 4 carbons coming toegther with 5th carbon being branched - carbons are grouped in multiples of 5 -grouped according to the # of isoprene units present -a single terpene consists of 2 isoprene units --monoterpene - 2 isopreene units; 10 carbons --sequi - 3 isoprene; 15 carbons --di - 4 isoprene; 20 carbons --sester - 5 isoprene; 25 C --tri - 6 isprene; 30 C --tetra - 8 isoprene; 40 C
NAD structure - what element carries electrons when it gets reduced; what does it have to stabilize the e- when it gets reduced
-nicotinamide ring at the top -ring has lots of double bonds that stabilize to carry 2 electrons -oxidized form *NAD= nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide *nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) + hydrogen (H)
how do neutrophils move? integrin and vesicle theory
1. bits of cell membrane get internalized as vesicles that move towards front of cell to exocytocize, adding - 2 types of endocytosed vesicles -- one is made of plasma membrane; extend the leading edge a bit -- one is made of flip proteins (aka integrins) - when the integrins exocytose, they get deposited at front of cell (they stick their foot down and anchor neurtophil, enabling the neutrophil to crawl and move along)
Lympatic system functions
1. drain lymph 2. immunity 3. transport things which originally didnt come from blood into blood - chylomicrons, proteins, waste (want them to get to blood to travel to liver or kidneys), hormones
digetion of food in mouth
1. masticate - via teeth 2. breakdown via hydrolysis through glands
steroid has how many rings
4 rings - 3 hexagon - 1 pentagon
what is Ubiquitin and what does it do?
A protein that attaches itself to faulty or misfolded proteins and thus targets them for destruction by proteasomes
antigen
A protein that, when introduced in the blood, triggers the production of an antibody - anything that causes an immune response. Antigens can be entire pathogens, like bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites, or smaller proteins that pathogens express
integrin
A receptor protein built into the plasma membrane that interconnects the extracellular matrix and the cytoskeleton - membrane spanning chain - permit cells to adhere to protein in extracellular space
transcription factors
A regulatory protein that binds to DNA and affects transcription of specific genes. - collection of proteins that mediate the binding of RNA polymerase and the initiation of transcription.
Aldosterone Acid-Base balance
Aldosterone causes sodium to be absorbed and potassium to be excreted into the lumen by principal cells. In alpha intercalated cells, located in the late distal tubule and collecting duct, hydrogen ions and potassium ions are exchanged. Hydrogen is excreted into the lumen, and the potassium is absorbed. Removes acid from the blood when acidosis occurs aldosterone works on alpha intercalated cells - 1. these cells make CO2 + H2O which via carbonic anhydrase form bicarbonate (and hydrogen) * these protons in the cells will be transported into urine via ATP through aldosterone * these protons can also be transported to urine with sodium coming back into the cell through aldostrone * these protons can also be transported to urine when potassium comes back in through aldosterone - 2. bicarbonate goes into blood which causes Cl to be on the cell - 3. bircarbonate bind to proton in blood -> H2O + CO2
Alkaline hydrolysis
Alkaline hydrolysis of esters: Ester + NaOH -> carboxylate salt + alcohol
Binding Protein (BiP)
Binds Hydrophobic patches on Recently synthesized Proteins to help form the polypeptide
what allosterically inhibits hemoglobin?
CO2 and high H - prevent hemoglobin from doing its job, from binding to O2 so O2 dumped in places with high CO2 or H due to allosteric inhibition
electrogenic
Capable of generating an electrical current; usually applied to membrane transporters that create electrical currents while translocating ions. producing a change in the electrical potential of a cell
what are the 3 types of cartilage
Cartilage: strong fiborous connective tissue made of proetin collagen - hyaline - found in larynx, trachea; found in joints where surfaces of bones are articulating -- reduce friction and absorb shock - elastic- outer ear, epiglottis -- provide shape and support - fibrocartilage - found in pubic symphis and intervertebal disc of spine -- absorb shock and provide rigidity
T cells
Cells created in the thymus that produce substances that attack infected cells in the body - participates in cell-mediated cells 1. formed in bone marrow 2. T progenitor cells migrate to the thymus (hence the name "T cell") to mature and become T cells 3. in thymus, developing T cells start to express T cell receptors (TCRs) and other receptors called CD4 and CD8 receptors *All T cells express T cell receptors, and either CD4 or CD8, not both. So, some T cells will express CD4, and others will express CD8. 4. rearrangement and selection of T cells
Stromal cells
Cells that provide structure or support for parenchymal cells
what is haversian canal
Channels in bone that contain blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves
How do the chief and parietal cells work together?
Chief cells produce pepsinogen, which is converted to pepsin by hydrochloric acid in the stomach. Parietal cells produce hydrochloric acid, allowing this conversion.
epimer
Diastereomers that differ at only one chiral center.
Pericardium
Double-layered membrane surrounding the heart. - visceral/epicardium - more inner layer - parietal - more outer layer * there's a gap between the parietal and vsiceral layer
exocrine vs endocrine glands
Exocrine glands secrete their products into ducts that carry these products to other organs or outside the body Endocrine glands secrete their products directly into the bloodstream
explicit vs implicit memory
Explicit memory - consciously acting to recall/recognize particular info. Ex. trying to remember a list of words you just saw. Implicit memory - recalling/recognizing info w/out consciously being aware of doing so. Ex. remembering meanings of words as you read without trying
what does PFK-2 do
F6P -> F-2,6-BP - stimulates glycolysis since essential stimulating PFK
what hormones are made in anterior pituitary
FLAT PEG hormones from the anterior pituitary - FLAT are tropic hormones, act on other endocrine glands: FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH. - PEG are direct, act on non-endocrine glands: Prolactin, Endorphins, GH
leading vs lagging strand
Leading: elongate continuously into the widening replication fork - runs 5' to 3' towards the fork and is made continuously Lagging: replicates away from the fork, must wait until it widens to polymerize and is discontinuous, leading to Okazaki fragments - runs 5' to 3' away from the fork and is made in small pieces called Okazaki fragments.
recombination and linkage
Linkage: two or more genes linked together are always inherited together in the same combination for more than two generations Recombination: the genetic material is exchanged between different organisms which leads to the production of offsprings with the combination of traits
pericytes
Located under the endothelial cells; they have smooth muscle, so when they contract, there is room for fluid to leak from the vessels - spider-shaped stem cells help stabilize capillary walls, control permeability, and play a role in vessel repair
major histiocompatibility complex (MHC)
MHC II - present at the surface of the phagocyte, B cells and other APCs - presented at the surface along with the peptide chain of the pathogen broken down by the phagocyte to allow for recognition of such pathogens Unlike antibodies (which can bind to antigens directly,)T cell receptors can only recognize antigens that are bound to certain receptor molecules, called Major Histocompatibility Complex class 1 (MHCI) and class 2 (MHCII). - These MHC molecules are membrane-bound surface receptors on antigen-presenting cells, like dendritic cells and macrophages. CD4 and CD8 play a role in T cell recognition and activation by binding to either MHCI or MHCII *Mature T cells should recognize only foreign antigens combined with self-MHC molecules in order to mount an appropriate immune response.
MHC
Major Histocompatability complex - a set of proteins found on the plasma membranes of cells that help display antigen to T cells - MHC I - found on all cells and displays bits of proteins from within the cell; this allows T cells to monitor cell contents and if abnormal peptides are displayed on the surface, the cell is destroyed by killer T cells - MHC II - found only on macrophages and B cells. This class of MHC allows these cells (known as antigen presenting cells) to display bitts of "eaten" (phagocytosed or internalized) proteins on their surface, allowing the activation of helper Ts --> thus further activating immune response
When do mature B lymphocytes become active
Mature B lymphocytes are inactive until their receptors bind a specific foreign antigen - On activation by antigen binding, B lymphocytes can endocytose (engulf) the antigen, breaking it down into smaller fragment
Monosynpatic vs polysynaptic reflex arc
Monosynaptic: Sensory neuron -> motor neuron - one synapse with sensory neuron acting directly on motor neuron - rapid response Polysynaptic: Sensory -> interneuron -> motor - multiple synapse
monozygotic vs dizygotic
Monozygotic Twins - egg splits into 2 after fertilization - Share 100% of genes, genetically identical - identical twins Dizygotic Twins - develop from 2 separately fertilized eggs - Share 50% of genes, like regular siblings. - fraternal twins
Relationship of mutagens to carcinogens
Mutagen = something that causes mutation. Carcinogen = something that causes a mutation that causes cancer. Carcinogens are almost always mutagens. Exception: some are direct mitogens (increase mitosis). Not all mutagens are carcinogens.
does depolarization increase the heart rate
No In contrast an increase in potassium conductance, the slow diastolic depolarization will increase the maximum diastolic potential and slow the rate of pacemaker depolarization leading to a slower heart rate
are cardiac muscles highly proliferative
No - past the embryonic stage, they don't divide
Does B lymphoytes respond to antigen by releasing toxins?
No, Natural killer and cytotoxic T cells, not B lymphocytes, respond to antigens by releasing toxins that induce apoptosis (cell death) in nearby infected cells.
Is enzyme specificty related to amount of substrate?
No, it's related to type of substrate present, not the amount/quantity of susbtrate
are viruses made of cells
No, they are acellular
does retrogene have introns?
No, they don't have introns retrogene - a DNA gene copied back from RNA by reverse transcription - a functional gene that appears to be derived from a reverse-transcribed RNA
palindromic sequence
Nucleic acid sequence: read the same 5'-3' as complementary 5'-3' - sequences that are read the same backward as they are forwards - used in southern blotting
ranks the redox-active species of the electron transport chain in order of decreasing electron affinity - FAD vs NAD vs O2 vs CoQ
O2 > CoQ > FAD > NAD+ - since O2 is the final electron carrier at the end of ETC - most electron affinity (the very reason why O2 is so pivotal is due to this ability) - FADH2 donates e- to ubiquinone (CoQ) so CoQ must have greater eelctron affinity - FAD goes to FADH2 meaning it gains 2 pairs of e- allowing to share them and bond with 2 H (wheras NADH only gains 1 H)
haldane effect on hemoglobin
O2 affects affinity of hemoglobin for CO2 and H+
oogenesis vs spermatogenesis
Oogenesis: women produce 1 gamete per month -has longer resting periods - formation of ova Spermatogenesis: Men produce 250,000,000 sperm/day - leads to the formation of sperms
spleen
Organ near the stomach that produces, stores, and eliminates blood cells - remove old or deformed red blood cells from circulation
what regulates pyruvate kinase
PEP-> pyruvate irreversibly, generating ATP - ATP ⊝ - glucagon ⊝ (phosphorlate) - acetly CoA ⊝ - long chain fattyacids-acetyl-CoA ⊝ -- indcating a lot of beta oxidation - AMP/ADP ⊕ - F-1,6-BP ⊕ - insulin ⊕ -- dephosphorylate
what does phosphorylation do to PFK-2/ (F-2,6BPase)
Phosphorylation... activates F-2,6BPase deactivates PFK-2 Dephosphorylation.. deactivates F-2,6BPase activates PFK-2
testosterone homeostasis
Placenta during embryonic development, during puberty by luteinizing hormone of the pituitary - negative feedback on hypothalamus and anterior pituitary
cap-independent translation
Process by which eukaryotes can start translation in the middle of an mRNA molecule despite being monocistronic -- relies on presence of internal ribosome entry site (IRES)-- typically for production of essential proteins in sub-optimal conditions -allows cell to translate and proliferate even when optimal conditions aren't present -- done by cancer cells
G proteins - when is it inactive and when is it active
Proteins that are activated by exchanging bound GDP for bound GTP (and thus also known as GTP-binding proteins) - inactive - when GDP binds - active - binds to GTP
Purine vs. Pyrimidine
Purine - 2 rings, A and G Pyrimidine - 1 ring, C, T, U
how protein end up in RER
RER is tsudded with ribosomes 1. a ribosome finds a specific RNA segment that may tell the ribosome to travel to the rough endoplasmic reticulum and embed itself 2. The protein created from this segment will find itself inside the lumen of the rough endoplasmic reticulum 3. the protein will unfold to get to the RER and refold through channel proteins that use ATP 4. tagged with carbohydrate signaling that it needs to go to golgi // 1. srp - signal recognition particle - present in cytosol binds to ribosome and ER signal sequence as the proetin emerges from ribosome- biding of srp slows down proetin synthesis til SRP binds to receptor2. SRP receptor recognizes SRP3. SRP released4. receptor passes ribosome to translocater5. protein sysnthesis recommences6. polypeptide threaded across the ER membrane through channel in translocater* SRP and receptor = molecular matchmakers, brining togteher ribosomes and translocaters* singal seuqnce opens transloacters- remians bound to transloacter while rest of the portein is threaded as a large lopp -> cleaved off by peptidase -> then degraded7. once C terminus of protein passed through translocater -> protein released into ER lumen
Ribozymes
RNA molecules that function as enzymes
sarcomere attaches end to end to become ___a.__ each __b.__ contains multiple __a___
Sarcomeres attach end-to-end to become myofibrils. Each myocyte contains many myofibrils
satellite Dna
Satellite DNA (satDNA) is the highly repetitive DNA consisting of short sequences repeated a large number of times. It carries a variable AT-rich repeat unit that often forms arrays up to 100 Mb. The monomer length of satDNA sequences ranges from 150 to 400 bp in the majority of plants and animals. - Microsatellites are small pieces of DNA that repeat. They are usually only a few of the DNA base pair letters in size. The combination of letters and the patterns in which they repeat can be unique between individuals, which is like actual fingerprints
what kind of material does exocrine pancreas secrete
Secretes bicarbonate into duodenum - duodenum recives chyme along with some HCl from stomach -- to neutralize the gastic (hydrochloric) acid, bicarbnate is released Secretes amylase - breakdown starch to smaller carbs Secretes lipase - through hydrolysis reaction and by breaking down ester, lipase breaks down triglycerides Secretes proteolytic enzymes - trypsinogen (has an extra bond that needs to be broken to be activated) - chymotrypsinogen *trypsinogen get activated in the duodenum by enteropeptidase -> no becomes trypsin -> activates chymotrypsinogen
eccrine sweat glands
Secreting glands, are far more numerous and are abundant on palms, soles of feet and forehead. Each is a simple, coiled, tubular gland. Ducts connect to pores. Sweat: 99% water, NaCl, vitamin C, antibodies, dermcidin and metabolic wastes.
properties of stem cells
Self-renewal - ability renew itsef through division Differential potential - high capacity to differentiate into more specialized cell (aka degree of potency)
paracrine signaling
Signal released from a cell has an effect on neighboring cells.
Epithelia: Simple: __ layer. Stratified: ____ layers. Pseudostratified: ____ layer Cuboidal: ___ shape. Columnar: ____ and narrow. Squamous: ______, scale-like.
Simple: One layer. Stratified: Multiple layers. Pseudostratified: One layer (looks mult, but really just 1). Cuboidal: Cube shape. Columnar: Long and narrow. Squamous: Flat, scale-like.
What is the cell body of a neuron?
Soma: contains nucleus (DNA) * after signals (metaphorically a navy ship) dock at dendrites, it goes to the soma (metaphorically a station)
are cancerous tissue somatic or germline? (aa)
Somatic or acquired genomic variants are the most common cause of cancer, occurring from damage to genes in an individual cell during a person's life. They are classified in terms of the actionability of an available effective therapy. Cancers that occur because of somatic variants are referred to as sporadic cancers - Most cancers are a result of somatic mutations, which is why many cancers are localised to a particular organ or tissue of the body --The transformation of a normal cell into a cancer cell takes place through a sequence of a small number of discrete genetic events, somatic mutations: thus, cancer can be regarded properly as a genetic disease of somatic cells
apocrine gland
Sweat glands in the pubic and underarm areas that secrete thicker sweat, that produce odor when come in contact with bacteria on the skin - release content into hai follicle
Tropic Hormones of Anterior Pituitary
TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone), ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone), FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone), LH (luteinizing hormone) hormones that stimulate other glands to release their hormones - hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands
snell's law
The Snell law (n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2) describes the relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction with the refractive indices of two media. The Snell law describes the relationship between θ1, θ2, n1, and n2 when light refracts from one medium to another: n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 * typically the first inex of refraction, n1, is 1 - since typically goung from medium of air to another medium
afferent arteriole, efferent arteriole
The afferent arteriole feeds into the glomerulus and the efferent arteriole drains the glomerulus.
polarization of light
The aligning of vibrations in a transverse wave, usually by filtering out waves of other directions - The property of light describing how the electric and magnetic fields of light waves are aligned; light is said to be polarized when all of the photons have their electric and magnetic fields aligned in some particular way - Only when two polarizing filters are at right angles to each other, no light comes through
stroke volume
The amount of blood ejected from the heart in one contraction/with each heart beat (aka the volume of blood pumped out of the left ventricle of the heart during each systolic cardiac contraction
angle of incidence is the angle between what?
The angle of incidence is the angle between the incident ray and the normal
Refraction
The bending of a wave as it passes at an angle from one medium to another - bending of light rays when light crosses at an angle from one medium to another with a different index of refraction * more refraction -> more blurry the image * Light with higher frequency (such as violet light compared to red light) has a higher index of refraction in a lens and therefore refracts more
allosteric regulation
The binding of a regulatory molecule to a protein at one site that affects the function of the protein at a different site.
glomerular filtration process
The blood is under pressure and the walls of the capillaries and Bowman's capsule are permeable, so the fluid from the blood filters into the Bowman's capsule 1. glomerulus - filters solute out of blood 2. proximal convoluted tube - reabsorbs ions, water; removes toxins, adjust pH 3. descending loop of henle - aquaporins allow water to pass from filtrate into interstitial fluid 4. ascending loop of henle - reabsorbs Na and Cl back into interstitial fluid 5. distal tube - maintains pH and electrolyte balance by selectively absorbing and secreting different ions 6. collecting dust - reabsorbs solutes and waters from the filtrate
splice acceptor site vs splice donor site (aa)
The borders between introns and exons are termed as splice sites - donor splice site - the splice site in the upstream part of an intron (in the direction 5' to 3'); located at 5' end of the intron, terminates with GT - acceptor splice site- the downstream part (in the direction 3' to 5'); Located at the 3' end of the intron, terminates the intron with an AG sequence (purine-rich)
The ______ triggers skeletal muscle contraction, but the _________ coordinates it
The cerebrum triggers skeletal muscle contraction, but the cerebellum coordinates it (confers balance by coordinating the activity of various motor units)
chorionic plate vs basal plate
The chorionic plate is a synonym for the fetal side of the placenta. The maternal side of the placenta is termed the basal plate
Polymorphism
The coexistence of two or more distinct forms in the same population.
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
The condition describing a non-evolving population (one that is in genetic equilibrium). - condition that occurs when the frequency of alleles in a particular gene pool remain constant over time
Homatopoiesis
The formation of all the different types of blood cells
allopatric speciation
The formation of new species in populations that are geographically isolated from one another.
sympatric speciation
The formation of new species in populations that live in the same geographic area
lens strength equation
The given thin lens equation relates the strength of a lens (S) to the distance to the object (o) and to the created image (i): S=1/f = 1/o + 1/i Lens strength is measured in units of diopters (D), which are equal to inverse meters (m−1)
What is the placenta? what structure of embryo develops into it?
The placenta is a combined "organ" which has both a maternal and fetal component. 1. Maternal - inner, endometrial lining of the uterus 2. Fetal - cytotrophoblast & synctiotrophoblast form the chorion and chorionic cavity of the placenta. * formed by trophoblasts of developing embryo and mother's endometrium
Microtubules
Thick hollow tubes that make up the cilia, flagella, and spindle fibers. - small tubes made from the protein tubulin - structures involved in cell movement - help provide pathways for secretory vesicles to move through the cell - even involved in cell division as they are a part of the mitotic spindle, which pulls homologous chromosomes apart
thick ascending henle's loop and ATP
Three-ion cotransporter (sodium/potassium/chloride) and the sodium/potassium ATPase, which as before maintains the sodium concentration gradient. Sodium is actively pumped out, while potassium and chloride diffuse down their electrochemical gradients through channels in the tubule wall and into the bloodstream. The walls of the thick ascending limb are impermeable to water, so in this section of the nephron water is not reabsorbed along with sodium.
difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes
Type 1- The pancreas does not produce any insulin <- lack of insulin Type 2- Resistance or no response to insulin produces <- insulin receptors are broken
bifurcation
a separation of a structure into two branches or parts
motors nerves C1 - C3
accessory muscles - neck
afferent vs efferent neuron
afferent - goes to cns (acsends spinal cord) interneuron - connect spinal motor and sensory neurons, found in brain and spinal cord (CNS) - not found in PNS efferent - goes away from/exits spinal cord to tissue that needs the signal
when does primary spermatocyte become secondary and what is the process by which this occured
after crossing the tight junction between sertoli cells and after undergoing meiosis *spermatogonia -> primary spermatocyte (2n chromosome) through mitosis - primary spermatocyte -> secondary spermatocyte (1n chromosome) through meiosis 1 * secondary spermatocyte -> spermatids through meiosis 2
Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP)
aka "hexose monophosphate shunt (HMP)", occurs in the cytoplasm of most cells, generates NADPH and sugars for biosynthesis (derived from ribulose-5-phosphate)
Diarthrosis
aka synovial joint (freely movable joint) - ex_ ball and socket, hinge
adhesion molecules
allow cells to adhere to other cells •For example, endothelial cells can adhere to phagocytic cells, allow them to exit bloodstream
between anti-apoptotic and pro-apoptotic,if a cell is healthy and not recieving any apoptotic signals, which one is more preferred?
anti-apoptotic - no need for apoptosis to occur since cells are healthy
epitope
antigenic determinant, portion of a foreign protein, or antigen, that is capable of stimulating an immune response An epitope is the part of the antigen that binds to a specific antigen receptor on the surface of a B cell.
what is antrum and what does it do?
antrum is fluid produced by granulosa cells which pushes against the follicle and causes it to expand * granulosa cells produce fluid as byproduct of their metabolism and creation of hormones
germ layer
any of the 3 layers of cells differentiated in embryos following gastrulation
why are myofibers bumpy?
because it has nucleus on outside * muscle cell membrane = sarcolema * muscle 'ER' = sarcoplasmic reticulum
glucogenolysis
breakdown of glycogen to glucose
what hormones help with calcium homeostasis
calcitonin - decreases amount of calcium in blood by increasing ratio of osteoblasts parathyroid hormone (PTH) - similar to calcitriol, increase calcium in blood and intestines/kidneys by increasing ratio of osteoclasts calcitriol (active form of vitamin D) - similar to PTH, increase calcium in blood and intestines/kidneys by increasing ratio of osteoclasts * PTH is largely responsible for the minute-to-minute control of serum Ca concentration, whereas calcitriol maintains day-to-day control of serum Ca concentration.
the influx of what element is required for insulin release?
calcium influx
sertoli cells
cells found within the seminiferous tubules that provide metabolic support/norusihment for the spermatids - which nurture developing sperm and secrete a variety of products into the blood and the lumina of seminiferous tubules - sperm develop between 2 sertoli cells -- stimulated to produce sperm by FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) - regulate cholesterol metabolism at the time of spermatogenesis - help in the movement of spermatozoa by secreting fluids
heme group
centralized iron-containing group that is surrounded by the alpha and beta subunits of hemoglobin - composed of a ringlike organic compound known as a porphyrin, to which an iron atom is attached. It is the iron atom that reversibly binds oxygen as the blood travels between the lungs and the tissues. gives myoglobin and hemoglobin the ability to bind oxygen because of the presence of iron atom. It also contributes to the red color found in muscles and blood. Each heme group contains an iron atom that is able to bind to one oxygen (O2) molecule. Each hemoglobin protein can bind four oxygen molecules.
What 2 parts of nervous system control voluntary movement?
cerebral cortex and spinal cord
what hormone causes the bile to leave the gall bladder
cholecystokinin
cancer in the flat cells of what organ system can be seen by naked eye
colon
at what neuronal structure do signals dock
dendrites
Southern and norther blots use probes that are hybridized to fixed chromosome clusters - what is happening to Dna for this to happen?
dna hybridzation requires single stranded DNA to bind/hybridize to chromosome clusters - The probe must be single-stranded DNA or RNA if it is going to hybridize or bind to the chromosomes
where is bile secreted into GI tract
duodenum (1st part of small intestine)
what kind of cells are highly proliferative
epithelial
what is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter
glutamate
with zona pellucida in primary follicles, how are eggs nourished
granulosa cells nourish egg through gap junctions in zona pellucida - keep the primary oocyte under 'meoitic arrest'
gyrus vs sulcus
gyrus: ridge sulcus: valley/groove
Synarthrosis
immovable joint; (eg, sutures of the cranium)
complement (immune)
immune response that marks pathogens for destruction and makes holes in the cell membrane of the pathogen.
adaptive immunity
immunity or resistance to a specific pathogen; slower to respond, has memory component Components rely on.. - antibodies and highly diverse receptors (causing high specificity) *receptors = diverse <- can be customized by genetic recombination to recognize epitopes and antigenic determinants Involves... lymphocytes - B cells - T cells *^these cells are derived from multipotent hematopoietic stem cells (specific types of stem cells) in the bone marrow. *After they are made in the bone marrow, they need to mature and become activated. Each type of cell follows different paths to their final, mature forms.
presbyopia
impaired vision as a result of aging - inability to accomodate/focus <- loss of flexibility of lens
inside ovaries, where do eggs develop
in primordial follicles -which is basically an oocyte surronded by granulosa cells (which become more numerous as the follicle develops) -- granulosa cells secrete estrogen, progesterone, inhibin
ghrelin levels indicate
increase before meal and reduce after meal - increased ghrelin => weight loss - decreased ghrelin => weight gain
endocardium
inner lining of the heart - in valves, go around the verntricle, around atrium
Maintenance of a dynamic steady state
maintained to perform the functions by the cells properly - This state is present in all living cells -- ex- the sodium ions are pumped out of the cell. The sodium still enters the cell when its concentration reduces, This is again pumped out of the cell to maintain the balance - if it's not maintained, there will be irregular sodium pumping due to misregulation <- done by regulation of metabolic pathways
what conveys urine and sperm
male urethra
kcat and relation with vmax
maximal velocity depends on the turnover number (Kcat) Vmax=[E]Kcat Works under saturated conditions As Vmax = velocity independent of enzyme concentration => Kcat is thus a constant for an enzyme under given conditions
What part of the brain controls respiration?
medulla oblongata
what is considered to be the flow of energy throughout body
metabolism
does facilitated difussion move up or down a gradient
moves molecules down a gradient using a protein
degenerate code
multiple codons encode a single amino acid multiple codons encode a single amino acid due to "wobble" (irregular base pairing allowed at third position of tRNA
sphincters function
muscle that closes a hole - prevents backflow and help control movement of molecule
Myocardium
muscular, middle layer of the heart - biggest chunk of heart wall - where a lot of the work is done - where the contractile muslce is primarily located - uses a lot of energy - oxygen
how does variaton exist in bacteria? what does this portray about the similarities/differences existing in a progeny?
mutation and conjugation * recombination doesn't occur - so usually a progeny of bacteria will be identical to each other
cancer starts from
mutations in stem cell - initiation - occurs randomly, unpredictable
myofiber vs. myofibril vs. myofilament
myofiber = individual muscle cells (covered by endomysium) within each myofiber is myofibrils myofibrils made up of thick and thin myofilaments - which give the muscle its striped appearance * thick filaments - composed strands of the protein myosin * the thin filaments - strands of the protein actin, along with two other muscle regulatory proteins, tropomyosin and troponin
emmetropia
normal vision
what is osteon and is osteons found in spongy or compact bone?
osteon = haversian system - found in compact bone (what distuingushes compact from spongy bone
ova vs egg
ova - frozen in meiosis II until after fertilization
leptin levels indicate
overall fasting or feeding state over many days * leptin levels rarely change - since it's mostly determine by adipose in body than lipid in blood (change in lipid concentration in blood is lower than the adipose stored in body) - increased leptin <- high insulin, obesity, emotional stress, increase in estrogen, restful sleep - decreased leptin <- short term fasting, exercise, increase in testosteron, sleep deprivation
what is the process by which mature eggs are pushed out of ovaries
ovulation
Is oxaloacetate oxidized or reduced?
oxaloacetate is reduced to malate by electrons from NADH - Oxaloacetate is regenerated at the end of the cycle. Malate is then transported into the mitochondrial matrix via an oxaloacetate/malate antiporter. Inside the mitochondrion, malate is oxidized by NAD+ back to oxaloacetate forming NADH.
what's in blood once it's delivered to lungs
oxygen from alveoli binds to the rbc in blood - 4 oxygen bump into hemoglobin - first, it's slow, then as each oxygen binds, the confirmation of hemoglobin changes, allowing the subsequent binding of oxygen to be much easier = cooperativity -- when O2 let go, the otehrs are let go easily so blood now contains.. - mostly HbO2 - oxyhemoglobin - has oxygen - some oxygen dissolved in plasma - bicarbonate becomes CO2 and H2O
what is the pH of stomach? What about pH of small intestine?
pH of stomach: acidic (ph=2) pH of small intestine: basic (pH=8.5)
Nociceptors
pain receptors - somatic and autonomic
referred pain
pain that is felt in a location other than where the pain originates
Skeletal endocrine control
parathyroid - responsible for stimulating the enzyme that transforms vitamin D your skin makes from sun exposure into calcitriol - helps regulate the level of blood calcium through calcitriol - increasing the blood calcium levels when they are too low Calicitrol - helps increase the body's calcium levels. calcitonin - decreases calcium levels by blocking the breakdown of bone calcium and by preventing your kidneys from reabsorbing calcium - helps lower the body's calcium levels - indirectly increases osteoblast mineralization
types of mouth glands
parotid gland - largest submandibular - release most of the saliva sublingual - release most of mucin * the above glands release alpha amylase to a certaine extent - breakdown starch to smaller content to help with digestion von ebners glands - release the least saliva, perform hydrolysis via lingual lipase to break down triglycerides into free fatty acids and di/monoglyceride
Hematocrit
percentage of blood volume occupied by red blood cells = volume of RBC/total volume
what is the most superficial layer of bone?
periosteum * inner = endosteum
what happens to permeability of outer mitochondrial membrane during apoptosis
permeability of outer mitochondrial membrane increases
what connects mouth to esophagus
pharynx (throat)
peripheral membrane proteins
proteins associated with but not embedded within the plasma membrane e found on the outside and inside surfaces of membranes, attached either to integral proteins or to phospholipids. Unlike integral membrane proteins, peripheral membrane proteins do not stick into the hydrophobic core of the membrane, and they tend to be more loosely attached
proteins and binding relationship
proteins change shape when stuff binds to them - changing shapes can allow proteins to bind or unbind with other stuff
Autonomic receptors
proteins found on the surfaces of the cell membranes that bind selectively to ANS neurotransmitters. They are located on either postsynaptic neurons in ganglia or effector cells at the neuroeffector junction. They include alpha, beta, muscarinic, and nicotinic receptors
enzyme activators (aa)
proteins or small molecules that bind to an enzyme and alter/increase its activity
Synaptonemal complex
proteins that hold together homologous chromosomes
BCL2
proteins that inhibit apoptosis by regulating the permeability of outer mitochondrial membrane - anti-apoptotic proteins
deuterosomes vs protosomes
protostomes -oral opening deuterosome - anal opening - ex - humans - which begin life as ********
connective tissue
provides support for your body and connects all its parts - Stroma (support, extracellular matrix). Bone, cartilage, tendon, blood.
through what blood vessel is blood carry to the lungs
pulmonary ateries
through what blood vessel is blood carried from the lungs to the heart
pulmonary vein
adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine structure
purine - 2 ring - adenine y guanine - guanine - carbonyl pyrimidine - 1 ring - cytosine, uracil, thymine - have a carbonyl and an ene --thymine - have a methyl hanging off -- cytsosine - have a amine hanging off --uracil -lack a methyl and an amine substituent
gentic drift
random change in allele frequencies that occurs in small populations - due to chance, not natural selection; occurs more likely in smaller populations and often fixes an allele
shear rate
rate of change of velocity at which one layer of fluid passes over an adjacent layer
hypotonia
reduced muscle tone or tension
is nonoxidative PPP reversible or irreversible?
reversible
porpionate, butyrate, acetate are all what types of molecules
short chain fatty acid
Promoter
specific region of a gene where RNA polymerase can bind and begin transcription to make RNA - not present in RNA, only DNA
finding combined lens strength
sum of the strengths
Chemotaxis
the attraction and movement of macrophages to a chemical signal - uses cytokines and chemokines to attract macrophages and neutrophils to the site of infection, ensuring that pathogens in the area will be destroyed - by bringing immune cells to an area with identified pathogens, it improves the likelihood that the threats will be destroyed and the infection will be treated.
myoglobin vs hemoglobin kinetics
this curve means that hemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen, binds O2 relatively weakly and releases it more easily than myoglobin Myoglobin will bind in hyperbole while Hemoglobin is Sigmoidal due to cooperative binding.
how does PKU, Phenylketonuria, illustrate gene y environment interaction?
those with disoder typically have diet lacking phenylalanine Phenylketonuria (PKU) - results from the absence of a single enzyme, phenylalanine hydroxylase - causes buildup of Phe -> impacting brain development
what does acetylation do to gene expression
turns on gene expression
cell-mediated immunity
type of immunity produced by T cells that attack infected or abnormal body cells - can be acquired through T cells from someone who is immune to the target disease or infection * "Cell-mediated" refers to the fact that the response is carried out by cytotoxic cells *Much like humoral immunity, someone who has not been exposed to a specific disease can gain cell-mediated immunity through the administration of helper and cytotoxic T cells from someone that has been exposed, and survived the same disease - Helper T cells - activate other immune cells - Cytotoxic T cells - assist with the elimination of pathogens and infected host cells
are beta carbons chiral or achiral in most amino acids
typically achiral - exception of isoleucine and threonine
adult stem cells
undifferentiated cells found among differentiated cells in a tissue or organ - stem cells that are found in adults that can differentiate and form a limited number of cells
unlinked genes vs linked genes
unlinked - genes on different chromosomes assort independently as a result of meiosis Unlinked genes may be on different chromosomes, or so far apart on the same chromosome that they are often separated by recombination. * When genes are unlinked, they have a recombination frequency of 0.5, which means 50 percent of offspring are recombinants and the other 50 percent are parental types *When genes are perfectly linked, they have a recombination frequency of 0 - The closer two genes were to one another on a chromosome, the greater their chance of being inherited together *If two genes are inherited together more than 50% of the time, this is evidence that they are linked on the same chromosome. *If crossing over does not occur, the products are parental gametes. If crossing over occurs, the products are recombinant gametes.
descending loop of henle
water reabsorption - aquaporins allow water to pass from the filtrate into interstitial fluid
what is bile made of
water, bile salts (helps emulsify/organize fats into micelles, allowig absorption), bile pigments (make up the color), cholesterol, electrolytes (K+; Ca+; Cl-), bicarb, fatty acids, bilirubin and bile salts
What does the large intestine absorb?
water, electrolytes/salts/inorganic anions (sodium, potassium), and some vitamins
without the enzyme, does the inhibotor have any effect on organisms
without the enzyme, the inhibotor has no effect on organisms
do you release heat as breathe
yes, why our breath is warm - releasing air that is body temp (98.6) - breathing in cool air lungs - thermoregulate - regulate the temp our body when exercise or undergo activity, like how dogs pant, we also need to get rid of escess heat while inhaling oxygen by breathing heavily - convienent bc lungs do both simultaneously -- we can respond to changes in temp by adjusting our metabolic rate (breathing on O2 and releasing CO2)
what kind of protein confirmation makes up GPCR receptor
7 transmembrane alpha helices
what does EPO do to blood viscosity
EPO -> increase RBC -> blood viscousity - increased RBC aggregation would cause a dramatic increase of blood viscosity *RBC aggregates usually form in low shear rate areas, such as in veins or in bifurcations - veins have increased blood viscosity -- Blood flow is slow in veins; therefore, blood viscosity becomes relatively high
do the ETC complexes use the same substrates? do they couple each other?
ETC work in conjuction with each other - are coupled * don't use same substrates
what organelle is critical in phagocytosis and pinocytosis
lysosome - the material that is taken up by pino/phagocytosis is often broken down in lysosome
Viroids
made of single-stranded small circular RNA molecules that infect plants and humans (hepatits D) and disrupt their growth - the RNA - catalytic --make or break covalents bonds -> so can self-cleave to create more viroids
what does atpase do during action potential
maintain gradient - restores and maintins the resting membrane potential - moves 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ into cell
internal capsule
A large collection of axons that connects the telencephalon (cerebrum) with the diencephalon (thalamus)
malate-aspartate shuttle
- electrons are transferred from NADH to oxaloacetate, forming malate - malate can then cross the inner mitochondrial membrane and transfer electrons to the mitochondrial NAD+, forming NADH Used to maintain gradient of NADH inside of the mitochondria. Involves transport of malate or aspartate; aspartate aminotransferase; and malate dehydrogenase.
Memory: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval
- encoding involves forming a memory code - storage involves maintaining encoded info in memory over time - retrieval involves recovering info from memory stores
after transcription, mRNA has untranslated regions where
- a 5' untranslated region (UTR) - 3' untranslated region (UTR)
Dendritic cells
- antigen-presenting cells that are located in tissues - can contact external environments through the skin, the inner mucosal lining of the nose, lungs, stomach, and intestines - Since dendritic cells are located in tissues that are common points for initial infection -> they can identify threats and act as messengers for the rest of the immune system by antigen presentation * Dendritic cells also act as bridge between the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system.
basal lamina
- basement membrane thin extracellular layer that lies underneath epithelial cells and separates them from other tissues
Hardy-Weinberg equation
- cannot be used on chromosme numbers like trisomies - used for autozomal recessive, dominant, and heterozygous
aldosterone and potassium regulation
- causes K+ secretion by kidneys (and excretion in urine) - decreases K+ blood plasma concentration - gain of Na+ in blood Aldosterone helps control blood pressure by holding onto salt and losing potassium from the blood. The increased salt increases the blood pressure. - increases potassium secretion as sodium is reabsorbed
role of testosterone
- causes differentiation of reproductive organs as fetus - signals spermatogenesis (sperm production) during/after puberty - stimulate 'secondary sex characteristics' ( growth of hair, deepening of voice, male fat distribution in abdomen) - stimulates anabolism ( in muscle) - stimulates bone growth and stimulates bone reabsroption after growth is finished - stimulate kidney production of EPO controls growth and development, maintains the male sex organs, causes hairline recession, stimulate bone growth, stimulates anabolism of protein, and helps in muscular development
enzyme does what to alter the rate of chemical reaction (aa)
- co-localizes subtsrates to modify rate -- brings susbtrates together in optimal orientation, lining up the bonds *Co-localization describes the presence of two or more different molecules in very close spatial positions within a specimen - alter susbtrate shape - active site create ideal environment for the substrate - alter local pH of the environment, or creates a more nonpolar envrionment, etc. * enzyme return to original state after the reaction - unchanged by reactions they catalyze
how are neurotransmitters removed
- diffusion away from cell - destroyed by enzymes - reuptake by first cell (take back into axon terminal - removing it from the snaptic cleft) - uptake by neuroglia (astrocyte end feet pump it out) • Breakdown by enzymes • Reuptake • Diffusion out of cleft
2 types of pyrophosphate
- dimethyl allyl pyrophosphate - isopentyl pyrophosphate
when light is more focused with one color than another, what concept of physics is playing a role?
- dispersion - refraction - chromatic aberration
Natural Killer cells (NK cells)
- do not attack pathogens directly - natural killer cells destroy infected host cells in order to stop the spread of an infection. *Infected or compromised host cells can signal natural kill cells for destruction through the expression of specific receptors and antigen presentation.
Why isn't lactic acid fermentation consistently relied by the muscle?
- doesn't have a high output of ATP - lacti acid = acid, disturbs pH of muscle
Macrophages ("Mφ")
- efficient phagocytic cells that can leave the circulatory system by moving across the walls of capillary vessels - ability to roam outside of the circulatory system is important, because it allows macrophages to hunt pathogens with less limits *Macrophages can also release cytokines in order to signal and recruit other cells to an area with pathogens. *macrophages = commonly abbreviated as "Mφ"
Glycerol 3-Phosphate Shuttle:
- electrons are transferred from NADH to dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), forming glycerol 3-phosphate - these electrons can then be transferred to mitochondrial FAD, forming FADH2
action potential
1. Depolarization When the membrane potential becomes less negative (MORE positive). Increases membrane potential - when positively charged sodium ions rush into a neuron with the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels --As additional sodium rushes in, the membrane potential actually reverses its polarity. During this change of polarity the membrane actually develops a positive value for a moment (+40 millivolts) 2. Repolarization or falling phase When change in membrane potential RETURNS to a negative value - caused by the slow closing of sodium channels and the opening of voltage-gated potassium channels. --> membrane permeability to sodium declines to resting levels. As the sodium ion entry declines, the slow voltage-gated potassium channels open and potassium ions rush out of the cell. This expulsion acts to restore the localized negative membrane potential of the cell 3. Hyperpolarization When the membrane potential becomes more negative at a particular spot on the neuron's membrane -Inhibits the neuron from firing an impulse - where some potassium channels remain open and sodium channels reset. A period of increased potassium permeability results in excessive potassium efflux before the potassium channels close. This results in hyperpolarization as seen in a slight dip following the spike. - often caused by efflux of K+ (a cation) through K+ channels, or influx of Cl- (an anion) through Cl- channels. On the other hand, influx of cations, e.g. Na+ through Na+ channels or Ca2+ through Ca2+ channels, inhibits hyperpolarization.
RAAS System: Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System steps
1. Drop in BP. Decreased Blood flow to kidneys. - >Juxtaglomerular cells respond by releasing renin 2. Renin coverts angiotensinogen into angiotensin 1 - by chopping off parts of the antiogenisin, it's converted 3. Angiotensin 1 circulates to the lungs and other body parts, Where angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), coverts it into angiotensin 2 - angiotension 2 - has high activity 4. Angiotensin 2 stimulates adrenal glands to secrete aldosterone 5. Aldosterone causes the distal convoluted tubule to retain sodium, which leads to water retention, increasing blood pressure along with blood volume.
how many H+ are pumped across by 1 NADH
10 H so 2.5 ATP is made by 1 NADH - 4 H needed to make 1 ATP
cranial nerves
12 pairs of nerves that carry messages to and from the brain; related to grey matter in brainstem
Cerebellum
A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills - coordinates movement -- smoothes out, increases accuracy of movements 1. gets info from motor plan - what muscle needs to contract, what they need to do, etc. 2. positions sense info - muscles spindles stretch and somatosensory bring info back - cerbellum can compare that motor plan to positions sense 3. cerebellum sends feedback to the motor area of cerebral cortex to fix movement, making it smoother and more accurate
Flagellar propulsion, mechanism
Bacteria may have one, two, or many flagella that generate propulsion to move bacterium toward food or away from immune cells *chemotaxis* - Moving in response to chemical stimuli Flagella contain a *filament* composed of *flagellin*, a *basal body* that anchors and rotates the flagellum, and a *hook* that connects the two
how many H+ are pumped across by 1 FADH2
6 H so 1.5 ATP made by 1 FADH2
Gram-positive bacteria
Bacteria that have a thick peptido glycan cell wall, and no outer membrane. They stain very darkly (purple) in Gram stain. THICK peptidoglycan/lipoteichoic acid cell wall.
Cadherin
A Calcium-dependent Adherence protein, important in the adhesion of cells to other cells.
DNA motif
A DNA motif is defined as a nucleic acid sequence pattern that has some biological significance such as being DNA binding sites for a regulatory protein, i.e., a transcription factor * Sequence motifs = short, recurring patterns in DNA that are presumed to have a biological function. Often they indicate sequence-specific binding sites for proteins such as nucleases and transcription factors (TF) motif - highly repetitive organization of secondary structure. Gives many structural proteins a fibrous nature
Neural crest
A band of cells along the border where the neural tube pinches off from the ectoderm; the cells migrate to various parts of the embryo and form the pigment cells in the skin, bones of the skull, the teeth, the adrenal glands, and parts of the peripheral nervous system.
incomplete dominance
A blended phenotype. One allele is not completely dominant over the other
Frameshift vs point mutation
A frameshift variant occurs when there is an addition or loss of nucleotides that shifts the grouping and changes the code for all downstream amino acids - occur when a base is added or removed from the sequence. - The resulting protein is usually nonfunctional. Insertions, deletions, and duplications can all be frameshift variants - can result in the addition of the wrong amino acids to the protein and/or the creation of a codon that stops the protein from growing longer -- doesn't exactly involve an additional amino acid being created Point mutations involve the replacement of one base with another
Wharton's jelly
A gelatinous tissue that remains when the embryonic body stalk blends with the yolk sac within the umbilical cord. - has 2 umbilical arteries and 1 umbical vein
complement system
A group of about 30 blood proteins that may amplify the inflammatory response, enhance phagocytosis, or directly lyse extracellular pathogens. Involves... - 1. opsonization - 2. chemotaxis - 3. cell lysis - 4. agglutination
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
A hormone released from the hypothalamus that triggers the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone causes the pituitary gland in the brain to make and secrete the hormones luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). In men, these hormones cause the testicles to make testosterone. In women, they cause the ovaries to make estrogen and progesterone
reflex arc
A relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement - defines the pathway by which a reflex travels: from the stimulus to sensory neuron to motor neuron to reflex muscle movement
electron transport chain (ETC) - involces what kind of reaction - where takes place - what happens to reduction potential and oxygen as ETC progresses
A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP. - Takes place on the matrix-facing surface of the inner mitochondrial membrane - NADH donates electrons to the chain, which are passed from one complex to the next -> gives energy to pump H+ from the matrix to intermembrane space - As the ETC progresses, reduction potentials increase until oxygen, which has the highest reduction potential, receives the electrons.
coordinate bond
A shared pair of electrons which has been provided by one of the bonding atoms only; also called a dative covalent bond. a type of alternate covalent bond that is formed by sharing of electron pair from a single atom. Both shared electrons are donated by the same atom. It is also called dative bond or dipolar bond.
kinetics of sigmoidal curve
A sigmoidal curve shows that oxygen binding is cooperative - when one site binds oxygen, the probability that the remaining unoccupied sites that will bind to oxygen will increase --The importance of cooperative behavior is that it allows hemoglobin to be more efficient in transporting oxygen. However, after a while, less likelihhod for O2 to bind - when it's saturated
Gram-negative bacteria
Bacteria that have complex cell walls with less peptidoglycan but with lipopolysaccharides. Very toxic and hard to treat. Stain lightly (pink-red) in gram stain THIN peptidoglycan cell wall & an outer membrane.
Retrovirus
An RNA virus that reproduces by transcribing its RNA into DNA and then inserting the DNA into a cellular chromosome; an important class of cancer-causing viruses - ex. HIV 1. virus enters the cell 2. everything (the proteins and everything) inside virus capsid is released 3. reverse transcriptase inside the virus hops onto the rna of the virus and reverse transcribes the RNA - it reads 5'-> 3' end to form DNA 4. cDNA (complementary DNA) formed 5. reverse transcriptase reads the new cDNA produced to form a complementary strand - this 2 strands can recombine to form double stranded DNA * the RNA once read is typically degraded by a normal ribonuclease 6. integrase from the virus clips off each of the 3' ends 7. now the DNA forms stocky ends - unpaired DNA wants to be paired and integrase has removed that part 8. integrase intgrates the virus' DNA with host DNA - similar to lysogenic - however, it is not dormant -- doens't have a repressor gene - so that foreign virus DNA is actively transcribed without cell knowing that it's foreign 9. viral mRNA made 10. virus proteins - reverse transciptase, integrase, protease- made 11. these parts can self-assemble into a new virus - but missing their envelope - so they're immature virus 12. the virus will take advantage of the cell membrane and bud off from it, forming the envelope - unlike lytic cycle - which just breaks open the host's membrane 13. to mature before going to other cels, protease will cleave off other proteins to make sure they're fully functional
Implantation of embryo
At Day 6 the trophoblast of the blastocyst attaches to the endometrial epithelium at the embryonic pole By end of Day 6: Finger-like processes of syncytiotrophoblast produce enzymes that invade and "dissolves" the endometrial epithelium & the connective tissue surrounding it. - occurs as trophoblasts start multiplying and invade into uterine lining, causing the blastocyst to form adhesion with the lining and be stuck and not easily dislodged from the lining
What is bone made of?
Collagen, calcium phosphate, and calcium carbonate - osteod - organic matter - hydroxyapetite - calcium phosphate
what is the point of the desmosomes?
Desmosomes give mechanical strength to tissues; the provide strong adhesion between cells and thus prevent tearing.
what enzyme is used to resynthesize a dna strand? what enzyme corrects the backbond and bonds the phosphodiester bonds?
DNA polymerase - resynthesizes a DNA strand by joining adjacent nucleotides - makes hydrogen bonds between the bases ligase - synthesize phoshodiester bonds - joins newly synthesized bonds (already have H-bonds) with remainder of DNA strand through phosphodiester
How is DNA replication semi-conservative? (aa)
DNA replication is semi-conservative, meaning that one strand will be from the original molecule, and that one strand will be newly synthesized
what does depolarization and hyperpolarization of beta cell mean
Depolarization: increased ATP -> potasssium channels closed -> depolarization -> calcium influx -> insulin release -> glucose uptake Hyperpolarization: decreased ATP -> potassium channels open -> hyperpolarization -> calcium channels close -> less insulin secreted -> less glucose uptake
eukaryotes vs bacterial origin of replication
Eukaryotic DNA replication requires multiple replication forks, while prokaryotic replication uses a single origin to rapidly replicate the entire genome. * in eukaryotes, replication can occur simultaneously in hundreds to thousands of locations along each chromosome.
glomerular filtrate
Filtrate is produced by the glomerulus - when the hydrostatic pressure produced by the heart pushes water and solutes through the filtration membrane glomerular filtrate contains urea, water, vitamins, fatty acids, water, glucose, nitrogen, salts, etc. The glomerular filtrate enters the nephrons for further filtration termed ultrafiltration. *Glomerular filtration is a passive process as cellular energy is not used at the filtration membrane to produce filtrate.
structures of henle's loop that helps with countercurrent exchange
Henle's loop - thin descending loop - passively permeable to both water and small solutes such as sodium chloride and urea As active reabsorption of solutes from the ascending limb of the loop of Henle increases -> the concentration of solutes within the interstitial space (space between cells), water and solutes move down their concentration gradients -> until their concentrations within the descending tubule and the interstitial space have equilibrated -> water moves out of the tubular fluid and solutes to move in. This means, the tubular fluid becomes steadily more concentrated or hyperosmotic (compared to blood) as it travels down the thin descending limb of the tubule. - thin ascending limb - passively permeable to small solutes, but impermeable to water, which means water cannot escape from this part of the loop. -> solutes move out of the tubular fluid, but water is retained and the tubular fluid becomes steadily more dilute or hyposmotic as it moves up the ascending limb of the tubule. - thick ascending limb - actively reabsorbs sodium, potassium and chloride. - also impermeable to water, which again means that water cannot escape from this part of the loop. This segment is sometimes called the "diluting segment".
heterochromatin vs. euchromatin
HeteroChromatin = Highly Condensed (transcriptionally inactive) euchromatin = less condensed, transcriptionally active ("truly transcribed")
High-density lipoprotein (HDL) vs low density lipoprotein (LDL)
High-density lipoprotein (HDL)- blood fat that helps transport cholesterol out of the arteries, thereby protecting against heart disease; good cholesterol Low density lipoprotein (LDL) - blood fat that transports cholesterol to organs and tissues; excess amounts result in the accumulation of fatty deposits on artery walls; bad cholestrol
types of hormones
Hormones can be classified by structure which ultimately determines how a hormone works. There are 3 types of hormones: 1. Proteins/Polypeptides -Made up of amino acids -Linked together by peptide bonds - primarily polar - can dissolve in water -Form most of the bodies hormones -Made in the rough E.R and travel to the golgi apparatus then get repackaged into vesicles that can be excreted from the cell. -Water soluble but have a hard time crossing cell membranes - cannot diffuse into the cell since they are large and hydrophilic, so they bind to cell-surface receptors to transduce a signal into cells -Peptide bonds have carbon/nitrogen bonds. -Insulin is a protein hormone -Receptors of protein hormones are ON the cell surface -ex_ glucagon, insulin, and ACTH 2. Steroids -A lot of steroids in our body that are made of lipids - primarily hydrophobic - cannot dissolve in water -Come from cholesterol -Steroids have an easier time passing through the cell membrane because they are made of lipids and their receptors are IN the cell -They are primary messengers -Affect transcription/translation - diffuse through the plasma membrane to bind to a receptor which enters the nucleus to regulate transcription of a specific set of genes -The major hormones in our body -Steroids such as cortisol and aldosterone come from the adrenal cortex -Sex hormones such as testosterone, estrogen, progesterone that come from the gonads. - ex- testosterone, aldosterone, 3. Tyrosine derivatives -Come from the amino acid tyrosine (amino acid) -They're made of one amino acid -They are able to act like proteins/polypeptides and can also act like steroids. -T3 AND T4 from the thyroid gland act like steroids -Catacholamines are produced in the adrenal medulla such as epinephrine and norepinephrine and act like polypeptides. -So derivatives can act like both classes.
Human Blood Buffer System
Human blood contains a buffer of carbonic acid (H2CO3) and bicarbonate anion (HCO3-) in order to maintain blood pH between 7.35 and 7.45 - in the buffer, hydronium and bicarbonate anion are in equilibrium with carbonic acid ---In this system, gaseous metabolic waste carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid, which quickly dissociates into a hydrogen ion and bicarbonate
Hyperpolarization of cone cells to trigger _____polarization of bipolar neurons.
Hyperpolarization of cone cells to trigger depolarization of bipolar neurons.
how does exercise increase muscle
Hypertrophy refers to an increase in the size of individual muscle fibers, whereas hyperplasia refers to an increase in the number of muscle fibers - hypertrophy - increase in cell size - hyperplasia - increase in cell number; reversible and normal (dsyplasia is arguably irreversible and abnormal due to mutations, causing cells to look abnormal, and can progress to neoplasia)
what do kidneys do?
filter blood and produce urine - to maintain homeostasis --osmolarity --pH -controlling H+ ions --blood pressure - by reducing NaCl
index of refraction and refracting towards the medium
If the index of refraction is higher in the second medium -> light rays refract toward the normal (axis perpendicular to the surface); if the index of refraction is lower -> light rays refract away from the normal.
innate immunity
Immunity that is present before exposure and effective from birth. Responds to a broad range of pathogens. - body recognizes between self (particles made in body) and non-self (particles not made in body) - general, non-specific Includes .. - physical barriers (eg.skin, eyelashes, GI tract, respiratory tract) - defense mechanism - bile, saliva, tears, mucous - general immune response - inflammation, complement Involves... - phagocytes - macrophages - mast cells - neutrophils - eosinophil - basophil - natural killer - dendritic cell Components rely on.. Antimicrobial peptides and proteins, such as toxic granules; standard receptors that only recognize antigen patterns (why this immune response isn't as specific) *No new receptors are made to adapt the immune response
inhale vs exhale
Inhale: diaphragm contracts and flattens -> chest cavity enlarges ->this contraction creates a vacuum due to elastin in alveoli expanding, which pulls air into the lungs 1. volume goes up 2.pressure goes down (like 757 mmHg) - more ngeative than atm pressure 3. air molecules move in 4. pressure goes up (due to increase in molecules) - 760 mmHG Exhale: diaphragm relaxes and returns to its domelike shape, and air is forced out of the lungs as alveoli recoils/goes back to original space 1. volume decreases 2. pressure goes up - 763mmHg - more positive 3. air molecules move out 4. pressure decrease - 760 mmHg *Active Exhalation: Internal intercostal & abdominal muscles help force air out
What force produces glomerular filtrate?
Initial filtration of glomerulus: passive flow due to pressure difference - glomerular capillary pressure - force filtrate into Bowmen's capsule - capsular hydrostatic pressure - force filtrate out Bowmen's capsule - blood colloid osmotic pressure - force filtrate out Bowmen's capsule Glomerular filtration depends on the same opposing forces that produce the exchange of fluids in every capillary in our body: these are hydrostatic pressure and oncotic pressure and together they are known as Starling's forces. - Glomerular filtration is occurs due to the pressure gradient in the glomerulus. Increased blood volume and increased blood pressure will increase GFR *passive flow from countercurrent exchange and pressure difference
bilaminar embryonic disc
Inner cell mass divided into two sheets: epiblast and hypoblast - has no zona pellucida
if a cell is growth arrested, in what phase would they be? (aa)
Interphase -growth arrested = not dividing any mitosis phase is dividing so phase before mitosis...interphase
how does glucose enter bloodstream
Intestinal absorption, hepatic glycogenolysis and hepatic gluconeogenesis - for intestinal absorption - glucose enters the cells lining the small intestine and then enters the capillaries
Neuphron
filtering unit of kidneys, urine production
why does sperm need mitochondria?
for energy used by flagellum to propel the sperm forward - mitochondria are often fused together in great big organelles due to its size and its packed in base of flagellum
ACTH hormone - Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
Made by anterior pituatary (screted by pitutary gland), signals adrenal cortex to secrete glucacosteroids (cortisol) High levels: - Adrenal glands not producing enough cortisol- Addison disease - Adrenal glands not producing enough hormones -congenital adrenal hyperplasia - One or more of the endocrine glands are overactive or have formed a tumor - multiple endocrine neoplasia type I Low levels: A decline in the concentration of ACTH in the blood leads to a reduction in the secretion of adrenal hormones, resulting in adrenal insufficiency (hypoadrenalism). Adrenal insufficiency leads to weight loss, lack of appetite (anorexia), weakness, nausea, vomiting, and low blood pressure (hypotension).
autosomal dominant pedigree
Males and females are equally likely to have the trait. There is male to male transmission. Traits do not skip generations (generally). If the trait is displayed in offspring, at least one parent must show the trait.
endosome
Membrane-enclosed compartment of a eukaryotic cell through which material ingested by endocytosis passes on its way to lysosomes. when the vesicle formed during injestion of phagocytosis + combines with lysosome -> it forms an endosome, a newly formed compartment
Memory B cells vs plasma cells
Memory B cells - express the same membrane-bound antibody as the original naive B cell, or the "parent B cell". Plasma B/effector cells - produce the same antibody as the parent B cell, but they aren't membrane bound. - can secrete antibodies -- secreted antibodies work to identify free pathogens that are circulating throughout the body * When the naive B cell divides and differentiates, both plasma cells and memory B cells are made.
Virus structure and classification
Nonliving, can't reproduce on their own Injects material into the cell, causing the cell to replicate the virus Size: super small, smaller than bacteria Structure: DNA or RNA enveloped in protein coat - capsid- protein coat that encloses the viral genome --made up of capsomere-which are of same size and shape for each virus - envelope: membrane that surrounds some viral capsids Host: can tell them apart from the host that it obligates on and the disease it causes -phage: protein encapsulated virus that attacks bacteria by directly injecting its material Entering an eukaryoric cell: - receptor-mediated endocytosis - receptors recognize the virus (which can be enveloped) and it allows to enter the cell via vesicles and endocytosis -- for enveloped or non-enveloped virus - direct fusion - eneveloped virus, due to its envelope, is able to directly fuse with the cell
Nonsense vs Missense mutation
Nonsense - STOP, NONcontinuing Missense - different aa produced; sequence is continued
humoral response
The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of B cells and that leads to the production of antibodies, which defend against bacteria and viruses in body fluids - immunity from serum antibodies produced by plasma cells Someone who has never been exposed to a specific disease can gain humoral immunity through administration of antibodies from someone who has been exposed, and survived the same disease *"Humoral" refers to the bodily fluids where these free-floating serum antibodies bind to antigens and assist with elimination
humoral immune response
The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of B cells and that leads to the production of antibodies, which defend against bacteria and viruses in body fluids. - humoral immunity - driven by B lymphocytes * B lymphocytes - secrete antibodies *antibodies - specialized proteins that recognize specific foreign antigens by binding to epitopes (eg, regions on viral or bacterial antigens to which antibodies bind) *These antibodies circulate throughout the blood and lymph, binding foreign antigens and marking them for destruction by other immune cells. (Choice B). This produces many identical B lymphocytes that may differentiate into either of the following cell types: Humoral immunity is an antibody-mediated immune response - B lymphocytes bind foreign antigens -> become activated -> divide into many identical cells, some of which differentiate into short-lived plasma cells that secrete antibodies during the immediate immune response. The remaining cells differentiate into long-lived memory cells, which can respond more rapidly to future infections.
spleen's capillaries size vs normal diameter of RBC
The capillaries of the spleen are much smaller than the diameter of a red blood cell, helping to induce lysis of fragile or old cells. If the spleen is removed, more damaged cells remain in circulation.
neurulation
The first step in the development of the nervous system 1. mesodorm forms notochord, (which goes on to form vertebral cord) 2. notochord induces a change in ectoderm by thickening it, forming neural plate 3. neural plate dives into mesoderm -> forming neural tube
What hormone causes milk letdown? what about milk production?
The pituitary releases oxytocin causing the milk letdown; prolactin allows for milk production
fecundity
The potential reproductive capacity of a female - fertility; fruitfulness
aortic valve
The semilunar valve separating the aorta from the left ventricle that prevents blood from flowing back into the left ventricle.
feed-forward activation
The stimulation of an enzyme by an intermediate that precedes the enzyme in a metabolic pathway - previous product that tells enzyme in forward steps to get ready since they'll be having more product coming - ex- F-1,6-BP stimulates pyruvate kinase --"prepping" the kinase to be ready for the influx of PEP coming over
thoracic duct
The thoracic duct is the main lymphatic vessel for the return of chyle/lymph to the systemic venous system. It drains lymph from both lower limbs, abdomen (except the convex area of the liver), left hemithorax, left upper limb and left side of face and neck.
basal ganglia
a set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movements - motor functions; don't have upper motor neurons - help with cognition and emotion
SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism)
a single base-pair site where variation is found in at least 1% of the population - a polymorphism that substitutes one base pair for another
VSD (ventricular septal defect)
a small/large opening between the ventricles - the membranous part of the interventricular septum has a hole
inflammation
actively brings immune cells to the site of an infection by increasing blood flow to the area
frequency summation
addition of multiple simple twitches before the muscle has an opportunity to fully relax - Repeated twitch contractions, where the previous twitch has not relaxed completely are called a summation - tetanization - If the frequency of these contractions increases to the point where maximum tension is generated and no relaxation is observed
aldose vs ketose
aldose - aldehyde functionality (double-bonded O on last carbon in chain form) - glucose, ribose ketose - ketone functionality (double-bonded O on second-to-last carbon) - fructose, ribulose An aldose is defined as a monosaccharide whose carbon skeleton has an aldehyde group. They are primarily found in plants. Ketose is a monosaccharide whose carbon skeleton has a ketone group.
what does increased surface area in small intestine allow for
allows for increased interaction with the food and brush border enzymes * villi inc surface area like how bristles on a brush help to clean better
what dna event can induce apoptosis? how do nutrients and cell communication relate to apoptosis? what about disease and its correspondence to apoptosis? what about ROS?
apoptosis <- dna damage <- loss of cell to cell communication <- lack of nutrients/oxygen <- infection <-ROS
what is controlled cell death called? what baout uncontrolled cell death
apoptosis = programmed/controlled cell death necrosis = uncontrolled cell death often due to extreme stress, leads to inflammation
Cooperative enzymes - what distunguishes their sensitivity? what kind of kinetics? what 2 states do they exist in?
are more sensitive in their response to changes in substrate concentrations than other enzymes and display a "switch-like" transition from low to high reaction rate as substrate concentration increases -have sigmoidal (S-shaped) kinetics -have multiple subunits and multiple active sites -subunits and enzymes may exist in one of two states: a low-affinity/'inactive' tense state (T) or a high-affinity relaxed state (R) -binding of the substrate encourages the transition of other subunits from the T state to the R state, which increases the likelihood of substrate binding by these other subunits -loss of substrate can encourage the transition from the R state to the T state, and promote dissociation of substrate from the remaining subunits
what is both pyruvate kinase and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GA3P DH)impacted by
arsenate inhibits Pyruvate Kinase arsenate inhibits (GA3P DH) - by preventing phosphate being added for GA3P <-> 1,3BPG
What blood vessels carry blood away from the heart?
arteries
between vein and arteries, which carries more oxygenated blood
arteries - more oxygenated - except in umbilical artery and pulmonary arteries veins - less oxygenated - except in pulmonary veins and umbilical veins
when does meiosis 2 occur in secondary oocyte
as sperm nucleus is traveling to secondary oocyte's nucleus to create a joint nucleus
chaperone proteins
assist in folding other proteins - inhibits formation of nonfunctional protein aggregates
at which stage of embryogenesis does zone pellucida start disintegrating?
blastulation *Zona pellucida disintegrates just after the completion of cleavage. - remains intact throughout the cleavage divisions -- the development of blastocyst creates pressure on growing blastocyst and leads to the formation of the slit in zona pellucida. *The zona pellucida is dissolved by the enzyme acrosin
how does blood eneter and leave kidney
blood .... come in through renal artery exit through ureters
Hematopoiesis
blood cell formation - occurs as mature rbc have a short lifespan, meaning rbc must be continuously replaced - occurs in bones occurs in hemocytoblast/hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), which are multipotent (multiply constantly and can differentiate to all types of blood cell)
Shunt vessels
blood vessel that links an artery directly into a vein, allowing the blood to bypass the capillaries
osteoclast
bone cell that absorbs and removes unwanted bony tissue - moves calcium and phosphate from bone to blood - increased through parathryoid hormone
what is majority of bone made of?
bone matrix which has 2 building bloack: - osteods: soft, highly ordered organic portion made of proteins and type 1 collagen that gives bone its tensile (rubber like) strength - hydroxyapatite: inorganic mineral portion made of calcium phosphate (Ca, PO4, and OH) crystals that give bone its rigid strength and density
is amide nitrogen in amino acids achiral? what about cabonyl carbon amino acids?
both are achiral - carbonyl carbons are always achiral due to double bond to oxygen - amides are bonded to 2 Hs or 2 Rs - so usually achiral (can depend for the R susbtituents)
somatic vs autonomic (which one can be divided into symathetic and parasympathetic)
both are part of peripheral nervous system - somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary) -- autonomc can be divided to sympathetic and parasympatehtic
if lysine is on the end of a polypetide, what will be its charge in pH 5
lysine is end so carboxylic end is interacting with pH -- so -1 from C terminal lysine is basic so at pH 5, it gets protonated -- so +1 from basic R side chain So overall, it has a charge of 0
wobble pairing
describes how tRNA molecules, each carrying an associated amino acid, can bind through their anticodon to multiple different mRNA codons during translation at the ribosome Refers to flexibility in the pairing between the base at the 5' end of a tRNA anticodon and the base at the 3' end of an mRNA codon. This flexibility allows a single tRNA to read more than one mRNA codon. - allows less stringent pairing between the 3' base of the codon and the 5' base of the anticodon
What connects keratinocytes to each other?
desmosomes - desmosomes are especially evident in startum spinosum, giving its "spiny" structure when its dehydrated
a non-steroid with estrogenic effects acts superior to estrogen, where in cell would it be most found?
despite being non-steroid, since has same effect (but greater) than estrogen - a steroid - it must be found where estrogen will be found (and this is possible due to receptors) so in nucleus
somatic receptors
detect information from the outside world
motor nerves C3-C5
diaphragm muscles
Enzyme compartmentalization - what do they do? why is it signficant?
different metabolic pathways occurring in different cellular compartments - prevents competing reactions from interfering; allows for simultaneous pathways; allows for precise regulation
At which stage of development does differentiation first occur at the cellular level?
differentiation begins during a stage called gastrulation, when distinct tissue layers first form. Like most other developmental processes, differentiation is controlled by genes, the genetic instructions encoded in the DNA of every cell.
how are nutrients exchanged in the placenta
diffusion *mom's red blood cells don't touch RBC with a lot of branching and surface area present even through the vessels are essentially closed
hypothalamic factor
factors released by hypothalamus - There are three hypothalamic releasing factors, the corticotropin-releasing factor, prolactin-releasing factor, and the somatotropin-releasing factor
t/f a sperm typicaly has 4 copies of genome
false - normally, it has passed through two reductive divisions in meiosis to end up with only one copy of the genome
what's within villi (embryo implantation)
fetal blood vessels - they're close contact with uterine blood vessels - close enough to get nutrients from uterine blood diffused to them -- so nutrients can diffuse to the fetal blood vessels and waste products can diffuse out of fetal blood vessels to uterine blood vessels * fetal blood isn't mixing with trophoblast due to membrane of trophoblasts
what is the precursor cell for bone
fibroblast
given that cell has -70mV potential difference, in what direction does electric field lines point
field lines move from higher to lower potential difference so the electric field lines must point from the outside -> inside -- since the potential is higher on the exterior than in the interior * potential is higher on outside of cell (na is more poistive since 3 Na was pumped out); electric field lines go from higher to lower potential (kind of like passive transport) - which is why the active transport drven sodium/potass pump allows for more passive transport; since electric filed lines go from higher to lower potential - they allow for action potential (movement of lines aka electricity) to occur without involcing much ATP
proximal convoluted tubule
first section of the renal tubule that the blood flows through; reabsorption of water, ions, and all organic nutrients removes toxins and filters pH
what is flagellum of sperm made of that facilitate movement?
flagellum is made of monomers of dynein protein
Gene leakage
flow of genes between species - donkey + horse = mule
change in pressure/resistance
flow= volume/beat (stroke volume) x beat/min (heart rate) flow = change in pressure/resistance - flow x resistance = change in pressure
what happens after food is absorbed in small intestine?
food passes into large intestine then to rectum
what is needed for the combination of genetic material of sex cells
fusion of genetic material of sex cells = fertilization <- when cell membrane of sperm fuses with egg (happens after cortical granules are released and acrosome is gone - so happens after acrosmal and cortical reaction)
what is the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter
gaba - in brain glycine - in spinal cord
hormonal control of GI tract: gastrin
gastrin - hormone released by mucosal stomach cells to the bloodstream due to presence of food -- it returns to stomach to promote secretion of HCl, pepsinogen -- it increases tomach motility (the churning of food) * low pH decreases gastrin release to bloodstream
what does DNA methylation induce
gene silencing methyl groups -> attract methyl cytosine binding protein -> attract histone deacetylase -> removes acetyl groups from histone tails -> histones aggregage tightly -> preventing DNA binding
when did ovaries create the female eggs
gestation - a female baby in her mother's womb has all her entire egg supply created through oogenesis, but only becomes mature during/after puberty each month
post-absorptive metabolism in muscle, liver, brain, and adipose tissue
in liver... - glycogen -> glucose - amino acids -> ketoacids -> ammonia; acetyl coA to make ATP; and glucose - glycerol -> glucose - fatty acids -> ketones in adipose tissue - triglyceride -> glycerol + fatty acid - exported to blood to liver to make glucose in muscle - protein -> amino acids - - exported to blood to liver to make ketoacid to be converted glucose - glycogen -> glucose - if low on O2, goes to be make lactic acid; if have high O2, the make pyruvate -> acetyl coa in brain - doesn't store energy; consuming even if body is storing - glucose -> (glycolysis) pyruvate -> acetyl CoA (cellular resp) - ketones from liver used as energy
absorptive metabolism in muscle, liver, brain, and adipose tissue
in liver... -glucose -> glycogen (stored in liver); -> glycerol and fatty acid ->triglyceride (store in adipose tissue) -protein -> alpha-ketoacids -> ammonia whoch goes to urea; acetyl coaA; and can also be converted to fatty acid -> triglyceride in adipose tissue -glucose -> glycerol and fatty acid -> triglyceride (just like in liver) - triglycerides from liver - converted to LDL - can be converted to fatty acid in adipose tissue -> triglyceride in muscle - glucose -> glycogen - glucose -> (glycolysis) pyruvate -> acetyl CoA (cellular resp) - occurs even in absorptive state - amino acids stored as protein in brain - doesn't store energy; consuming even if body is storing - glucose -> (glycolysis) pyruvate -> acetyl CoA (cellular resp)
what locations in the bone can growth plate, red bone marrow, and yellow bone marrow be found?
in long bones.. epiphysis - red bone marrow metaphysis - growth plates diaphysis - yellow bone marrow
dispersion (physics)
in optics, the process of separating a wave (such as white light) of different frequencies into its individual component waves (the different colors) - phenomenon of different frequencies of light having slightly different refractive indices - dispersion - Separation of visible white light - colors are separated because they have different wave lengths so they have different refractive indices; angle of refraction is different for
pyruvate dehydrogenase
in presence of O2, converts 2pyruvate(3C) to 2acetyl-CoA (2C) (irreversible - unidirection) - releases 2Co2 and NAD gets reduced to 2NADH - stimulated by insulin - inhibited by acetyl-CoA
holocrine glands
in the breast and constitute some sweat glands - in sweat - gland whose secretion contains entire secretory cells -- Secretory cells disintegrate to deliver their accumulated product, oil-producing glands of the scalp - whole cells break down to release sebum
what are the cells on the inside/ in the island of the pancreas that secrete enzyme into GI tract called?
islet of langerhans alpha, beta, delta - beta cells - on middle of islet - store and release insulin -alpha cells -on outside - release glucagon
what kind fo enzyme is capable of changing the chiralty of a molecule (aa)
isomerase - epimerase and racemerase
what's the purpose of umbilical cord
it contains umbilical arteries and veins that connect the child (in the uterus) to mom's placenta (what baby's blood vessels from placenta dump into; attaches the placenta to the fetus) - 2 umbilical arteries (lacking in oxygen but going away from child's heart to placenta) - 1 umbilical vein (being oxygenated but going towards child's heart * the blood vessels are encased in Wharton's jelly
with increase of cell division, what happens to the cell's capacity to divide
it decreases - a cell that has divided numerous times has a decreased cell division capacity, meaning it is approaching senscence
if a phylogenetic tree based on comparison of hair, egsgs, and vertebrae in organisms - what does it portray about the relation of the organisms
it doesn't exactlyshow how closley related organisms are with each other - it shows how different traits are evolutionarily related/how they evolved, not how organisms are related
what kind of capsule does the pancreas have?
it doesn't have any, haha - pancreas is unencapsulated --so just a slurry of cells hanging in the peritoneum *this along with its powerful enzymes cause pancreas to be a force to be reckoned with for medical practitioners
what happens to a secondary oocyte that is not fertilized by sperm
it doesn't undergo meiosis 2 - gets discharged by body during menustration/period
heterotrimeric G protein
it is a G- protein consisting of three subunits (alpha, beta, and gamma) - alpha and gamma are attached to cell membrane by lipid anchors - When a hormone binds, a GDP bound to the alpha subunit dissociates and a GTP associates, and the alpha subunit dissociates from the beta and gamma subunits. - the only types of G proteins that interact with GPCR
high pressure from the heart forces blood plasma and proteins out of the body, what system helps recycle this fluid
lymphatic system
another name for tounge
lingula
Glycogen alpha 1-4 bonds - broken by what
link glucose subunits linearly - broken by glycogen synthase - which adds glucose
what organ performs deamination of amino acid and conversion of the resulting ammonia to urea
liver
where does the blood from small intestine go?
liver - where the blood is detoxified --alcohol, ammonia, drugs are removed and metabolized
Where is EPO produced?
liver (in fetal development) and kidneys (in adult) *stimulation of EPO by kidneys occur in hypoxemia (O2 deficiency) which might occur due to high elevations or blood loss
heptaocytes
liver cells Hepatocytes are specialized epithelial cells that represent nearly 80% of the total liver mass. These liver cells are polygonal in shape with well-defined borders, granular cytoplasm, and one or more large, centrally located nuclei.
direct hormones
local messengers typically, act directly on non-endocrine organs; secreted and then act directly on a target tissue - prolactin and some endorphins (PEG part)
sympathetic ganglia
located outside brain and spinal cord - are closely linked and often act as a single system - sites of synapses between sympathetic preganglionic and postganglionic neurons They are ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system - deliver information to the body about stress and impending danger, and are responsible for the familiar fight-or-flight response
long bone
longer than they are wide, allow for movement - ex_ femur, humerus -- ends are called epiphysis (e for end) - where red bone marrow is found -- middle is called diaphysis (where yellow bone marrow is found) -- between the epiphysis and diaphysis = metaphysis (have growth plate) * made of inner spongy (cancellous) and outer shell compact
what's in the blood when it's going from thigh to lung
low O2 concentration Hemoglobin has delivered oxygen in the thigh and is now.. - carboaminohemoglobin (hemoglobin - carbon dioxide) - hemoglobin - hydrogen (hydrogen from bicarbonate - HCO3-dissolved in blood) - CO2 dissolved in plasma
Hypoglycemia
low blood sugar - tired, lethargic; can go to coma or even death - below 40 mg/dL of glucose
low levels of what increase rbc formation
low levels of O2 tell body to form more rbc - low levels of O2 -> release erythropoetin aka etho in kidney -> more rbc produced
Muscle Tone and blood pressure relationship
lower muscle contraction -> lower muscle tone of artery walls-> lower blood pressure - indirect relationship that doesn't occur automatically
What hormone causes ovulation?
luteinizing hormone (LH)
what follicles comes after primary follicle
pre-antral follicle
spermatogonia
precursor male germ cells that reside near the basement membrane of the seminiferous epithelium - they're diploid cells that proliferate via mitosis -- between each set of sertoli cells *spermatogonia, which are stem cells; spermatocytes which are in the process of becoming sperm
blind-ending jejunum
prematurely ending small intestine - digestion impaired since no communication between small and large intestine
if a molecule is a polypeptide hormone consisting of forms with either 36,18, 17, of 15 amino acid residues, what protein structure is impacted
primary - since molecule consists of 4 different amino acids -> it's a small polypeptide -- so cant't impact 3rd, 2nd, or 4th structure
what is a stage after primordial follicles
primary follicles... - where the layers of granulosa cells and oocyte/egg get separated by zona pellucida
what happens to oocytes who is no longer under 'meiotic arrest'
primary oocyte -> 2 daughter cells with meiosis 1 (and they'll be ejected out of ovaries, picked up by fimbriae and swept into uterine tube for hopes of fertilization) - but one of the cells (despite being diploid and having chromosome number halved), it will get all of the cytoplasm (all the cytoplasm is kept in one cell) - the other cell that didn't get much of the cytoplasm = polar body - it withers away and dies soo primary oocyte -> polar body + secondary oocyte - polar body -> dies - secondary oocyte -> gets ovulated
What does oogonia develop into?
primary oocytes (2n)
anti-apoptotic vs pro-apoptotic
pro-apoptotic - push cell towards apoptosis - increase permeability of outer mitochondrial membrane - ex_ BAX anti-apoptotic - oppose apoptosis - decrease permeability of outer mitochondrial membrane - ex_ BCL2, BCL XL
enzyme assay
process of measuring enzyme-catalyzed reaction rate - takes advantage of enzyme specificty towards susbtrate - so can distunigush the particular enzyme actvity from others
block to polyspermy
process that prevents more than one sperm cell from fertilizing an ovum - ex_ cortical reaction only one sperm (monospermy) is allowed to enter the egg. To ensure this Ca2+ is released from the endoplasmic reticulum of the oocyte and this causes granules just inside the plasma membrane to release enzymes (called zonal inhibiting proteins or ZIPS) into the extracellular space destroying the sperm receptors
mucous cells in stomach
produce bicarbonate-rich mucus to protect the stomach - cells produced by goblet cells The protective epithelial cells which line the surface of the stomach (including gastric pits) are called surface mucous cells - These cells are critical for resisting attack by digestive acid and enzymes - Any disruption of these cells' function can lead to an ulcer
ovaries role
produce eggs and secrete estrogen, progesterone, and inhibin hormones
creatine and kidneys
produced in muscle when creatine is metabolised to generate energy Creatinine is not reabsorbed or secreted, but is exclusively filtered through the kidneys - so its rate of excretion from your bloodstream is directly related to how efficiently your kidneys are filtering. By measuring the amount of creatinine in a sample of your blood, and combining this with other information such as your age, ethnicity, gender, height and weight, your doctor is able to estimate your glomerular filtration rate (GFR), which can give them a good idea of how well your kidneys are working.
how are amino acids absorbed across enterocyte cells (in small intestine) to blood cells
secondary active transport via a sodium dependent co-transport system through which it enters capillaries ATP used to create an electrochemical gradient for sodium, bringing amino acid into cells using the electrochemical gradient
Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs)
regulate cell growth, differentiation, and survival; membrane receptors that attach phosphates to tyrosines; has a prominent role in growth factors (regulates surface proteins like ephrins - impact development blood vessel maturation, tissue architecture, placement of nerve endings; regulates nerve growth factors and platelet derived growth factors); can bind hormones, like insulin - if not working properly - cancer typically involves mutation of RTK- chemotherapy like drugs ex. Herceptin, the breast cancer drug, is an antibody that binds and inhibits and a particular overexpressed RTK involved in the breast cancer - these receptors occur/act in pairs - have tyrosine in the enzymatic, intracellular side 1. ligand is bound, activating tyrosine kinase 2. neighboring RTK associate with each other, forming cross linked dimers - cross linking - activates tyrosine kinase activity and they can get phosphates 3. tyrosines will cause ATP to become ADP + phosphate group 4. tyrosine will pick up the free floating phosphate group - cross phosphorylation- each RTK in the dimer phsophorylates the tyrosines on the other RTK 5. once have phosphoruses on tyrosine, different proteins can come by and attach themselves to them - the proteins need to have SH2 domain - which can bind to the phosphorylated tyrosines - multiple different SH2 containing proteins can bind at the same time to any of the phosphoruses - allows activation of multiple different intercellular signaling pathways at the same time 6. signal transduction - signal passed onto to the cytosol which can ultimately end in regulation of gene transcription, affecting production of proteins
T regulatory cells
regulate the immune response to avoid attacking "self". Supressagaints attacking self - express CD4 and another receptor, called CD25 - T regulatory cells help distinguish between self and nonself molecules, and by doing so, reduce the risk of autoimmune diseases.
wheere are relesase factors and stimulating factors made?
release factor - hypothalamus stimulus factor - pituitary
hormonal control of GI tract: cholecystokinen (CCK)
released from intestinal mucosa to bloodstream due to presnce of chyme in bloodstream -goes to pancreas to promote secretion of pancreatic enzymes (inc lipase) - goes to gall bladder, promotes its contraction, causing bile to be released (to cystic duct -> common bile duct -> duodenum) -- help emuslify fat - goes to stomach to decrease stomach motility -- to slow down release of more chyme from stomach, since need time to digest what we already have -- induces satiety by making your stomach feel physically full and by activating vagal nerves in your stomach wall * in other words, amongst the digestion of other things, cholecystokinen helps in digestion of lipids through release of bile and lipase -- so cholecystokinen primarily released due to the presence of lipids in duodenum
what does glucagon do to glucose
releases glucose from storage glycogenolysis: glycogen -> glucose --reversible gluconeogenisis: amino acids -> glucose --reversible ketogenisis: fatty acid -> ketone bodies -- irreversible -- last resort for starvation- can only be used by energy and heart
resistance and radius
resistance decreases as radius increases (flow increases) - inversely proportional
Thermoreceptors
respond to changes in temperature - autonomic and somatic
Chemoreceptors
respond to chemicals -chemical sensors in the brain and blood vessels that identify changing levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide ex- olfactory receptors - dtetect airborne molecules and alow us to smeel - taste buds = gustatory
volateg gated ion channels
respond to difference in membrane potential
Meissner corpuscles
respond to light touch (fire when touch is first administered and when it is removed - located in papillary dermis - percieves skin in nonhairy/glabrous skin - requires constantly stimulating stimuli -- putting a shirt allows you to feel the cloth; but by the time, you're wearing it, the stimuli has become desensitized
Mechanoreceptors
respond to touch, pressure, vibration, stretch, and itch; involve afferent nerve fibers sending signals/action potential to cns a-delta afferent nerve fiber - percieve pain and temp a- beta afferent fibers - percive other mechanosensations
What do syncytiotrophoblasts secrete? what do they grow into?
secrete - HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) as they invade the endometrium - they grow into villi, finger-like projections * get more cytotrophoblasts that line edge of villi
Parietal cells
secrete HCL, intrinsic factor (B-12 absorption) in stomach
chief cells
secrete pepsinogen and gastric lipase in the stomach - secrete digestive enzymes
what molecule does pentose phosphate generate
ribose-5-phosphate and nadph * not nadh
right vs left lung
right - 3 lobes (upper, middle, lower) left - 2 lobes (upper, lower, and it has a notch for the heart) - smaller - to have room/space for heart
out of the left and right ventricles, which is more high in co2?
right - high in co2 and less in O2; heart returns deoxygenated blood through the right left - less in co2 and more in o2; heart pumps oxygenated blood out of left 1. The deoxygenated blood shoots down from the right atrium 2. blood goes to the right ventricle 3. The heart then pumps it out of the right ventricle 4. blood goes into the pulmonary arteries to begin pulmonary circulation 5. The blood moves to the lungs - exchanges carbon dioxide for oxygen 6. blood returns to the left atrium. 7. The oxygenated blood shoots from the left atrium to the left ventricle below, to begin systemic circulation again. * systemic circulation - when blood goes to other body tissues
if the there is one arterial trunk coming off the right and left ventricle, what would happen to O2 and CO2 concnetration as presented in the cardiac defect called truncus arteriosus? Would it be less than, equal to, greater than normal?
right circulation will mix with left circulation - circulation that is high in co2, low in o2 + circulation that is low in co2, high in co2 sooo arterial oxygen saturation < normal pulmonary oxygen saturation > normal *since the arterial trunk is recieving blood from right and left, the pulmonary artery will be recieving more blood than usual - so pulmonary blood pressure will be higher
Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
second stage of cellular respiration, in which pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of energy-extracting reactions
OCA2 gene overlaps with another gene called HERC2, which has two alleles: the wild type allele, and a recessive allele A1 which has been linked to a genetic predisposition to Crohn's disease. A woman with an OCA2305R : HERC2wt chromosome and an OCA2305W : HERC2A1 chromosome mates with a homozygous OCA2305R / 305R : HERC2A1 / A1 man. Their children will most likely have percentage of genotype
since genes overlap, they are linked and are likely to be inherited together soo children inherit: OCA2305R : HERC2wt; OCA2305W : HERC2A1 - from mother ; OCA2305R / 305R : HERC2A1 / A1 from father so 50% OCA2305R / 305R : HERC2wt / A1 and 50% and 50% OCA2305W / 305R : HERC2A1 / A1 -- since A1 from mom only goes with 305W
if a person is heterozygous for CKR5 delta 32, then what does that mean for GRTdelta 50?
since has CKR5 delta 32 gene, there's deletion of residue at 32 -> sequences after 32 will change -> so 50 is no longer relvant for GRT -- so person likely doesn't express/have dominance for GRTdelat50
what happens to hypothalamic factor release (higher or lower than normal) if it adrenal cortex is destroyed?
since most endocrine glands perform under negative feedback - when situations are ideal, the feedback prevents additional secretion of hypothalamic factors - however, since adrenal cortex is not working... hypthalamic factors will be higher than normal due to lack of feedback --ACTH hormone will be higher than normal -- since cortisol will be low or absent
if a mutant allele is present only in cancerous tissue, is the mutant allele heritable? (aa)
since mutant is present only in cancerous tissue, aka somatic cells -> that allele is not heritable If the mutant allele was present in all cells including cancerous and noncancerous -> then the allele is probably heritable since it's a germline mutation - If a parent carries a gene mutation in their egg or sperm, it can pass to their child. These hereditary (or inherited) mutations are in almost every cell of the person's body throughout their life.
what happens to repair system with increase of senescent cells
since senescent cell aren't actively replicating, they aren't able to fully repair themselves * so as we age, and more senescent cells present, less our cells are repairing themselves -- why damage to bone and other areas is harder for body to repair in older people
of the 3 muscle types, which muscle has the most nucleu
skeletal - which is multinucleated - smooth is uninucleated while cardiac is uni/binucleated
isoforms
slightly different versions of the same protein <- can be due to gene duplication or alternative splicing
Amphiarthrosis
slightly movable joint (eg. pubic symphysis)
what is lacunae
small cavities (empty spaces) that contain osteocytes/bone cells *canaliculi (in between layers of lamellae) branch out to lacunae
glomerulus
small network of capillaries encased in the upper end of a nephron; where the filtration of blood takes place - filters small solutes from blood
lymp nodes
small, bean shaped masses of tissue that remove pathogens and dead cells from the lymph. These are concentrated in the armpits, neck and groin. - allow immune cells to travel to site of infection - filter fluid from pathogens - preventing pathogens from traveling through blood
microfilament
solid rod of protein, thinner than a microtubule, that enables a cell to move or change shape - thinnest part of the cytoskeleton, and are made of actin - actin - a highly-conserved protein that is actually the most abundant protein in most eukaryotic cells - Actin is both flexible and strong, making it a useful protein in cell movement. In the heart, contraction is mediated through an actin-myosin system.
tubular resabsorption
the movement of substances from the tubular fluid back into the blood - process that moves solutes and water out of the filtrate and back into your bloodstream -- known as reabsorption, because this is the second time they have been absorbed; the first time being when they were absorbed into the bloodstream from the digestive tract after a meal. *The fluid that filters through the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule (glomerular filtrate) is very similar to blood plasma without the proteins, and at this point not at all like urine. If this filtrate flowed straight to your bladder and then out your body, you would lose more than 10-times the entire volume of your extracellular body fluids - why need tubular reabsorption
how does the nurtients filtered by the kidney return to the blood
the nurtients reabsorbed by the kidney returns through renal veins - efferent arteriole -> peritubular capillaries (capillaries that hang around the tubes) - collect all the reasorbed material -> renal vein
Brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions - most of gray matter inside and white matter outside - crainal nerves attached/come out of brain stem descending down the brainstem... midbrain-> pons -> medulla
countercurrent exchange
the opposite flow of adjacent fluids that maximizes transfer rates; for example, blood in the gills flows in the opposite direction in which water passes over the gills, maximizing oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide loss. Absorbed water is returned to the circulatory system via the vasa recta, which surrounds the tips of the loops of Henle. Because the blood flow through these capillaries is very slow, any solutes that are reabsorbed into the bloodstream have time to diffuse back into the interstitial fluid, which maintains the solute concentration gradient in the medulla. This passive process is known as countercurrent exchange.
if an acidc residue has a pKa of 2 near a neutral residue, what happens to the pKa when a basic residue replaces the neutral residue?
the overall pKa might increase, but this quest is asking of pKA of acidic residue soo how does basic residue impact an acidic - basic (positive, protonated at environmenta pH) and acidic (negative, deportonated at envrionmental pH) -- so involve stabilization of charge due to positive and negative charges attracting each other via ionic interaction -> more stabilized acid when it's deportonated => more likely to donate its H -> so pKa decrease ---* key= stabilized when has a chrge, when donating H, so allows for stronger acid ------ if stabilized before donating h, then less likely to dissociate => weaker acid
rhodopsin
the pigment in rod cells that causes light sensitivity a chemical synthesized from vitamin A; joins with an opsin to form a photopigment
autocrine signaling
the target cell is also the secreting cell
why are vitamins essential
they act as precursor to coenzyme
how are mutated cells kept in check
they are either repaired or die
what links the sertoli cells? and what does this linkage form
tight junction creates 2 compartments: - basal - closest to base of sertoli cell - luminal - includes luminal the compartment which is speerated by tight junction has different protein and dignaling molecules that helps each compartment bring a different developmental stage for the the developing sperm
why is sodium and potassium and other inorganic ions absorbed by organs
to facilitate movement of other particles like amino acids
why do kidneys often recycle/hold onto urea
to maintain osmolarity in medulla - that can help drive osmolarity
how is ATP used in glycolysis? what molecules in the glycolitic pathway require it?
to phosphorylate - glucose -> glucose-6-P - fructose-6-P -> fructose-1,6-BP
translocation and cancer
translocation = primary cause of blood cancer -> forms oncogene fusion protein -- an abnormal protein -> proto-oncogene activation by a new promoter -- overproduction of new protein
ligand - gated receptor
transmembrane ion channels open/close in response to binding of channel - ligand shape is complementary to the channel - allosteric binding - ligand binds in allosteric site, away from ion channel opening/closing - ligand typically binds on extracellular since the receptors are meant to bind on the extracellular side - allows ions to pass thrugh the channel - changing electrochemial gradient - cause intracellular electrical signal that tells cell to perform an action - not same as voltage gated ion channels
enzyme linked receptors/catalytic receptors
transmembrane proteins that bind a hormone signal and directly catalyze a reaction inside the cell - recieve signals from chemical messengers and also act as enzymes - extracellular - binds to tyrosine - intracellular - has enzyme function
Cytoplasmic/extranuclear inheritance
transmission of genetic material independent of the nucleus (aka mitochondrial dna) - DNA of these organelles is inherited by the offspring via the cytoplasm of the gametes
Na+/Cl- cotransporter
transports one Na+ and Cl- in same direction - but no net movement of charge --electroneutral process secondary active transporter is seen on the apical side of the cells of the distal convoluted tubule
is loss of function for tumor suppressor dominance or recessive alleles? what about oncogene
tumor suppressor gene - autosomal recessive -- since needs both alleles, it causes most inherited cancer syndromes ---- compatible with fetal development oncogene - autosomal dominant - can't be inherited -- since incompatible with fetal development as the fetus will die due to unctrolled cell growth
p53 protein
tumor-suppressor protein that responds to DNA damage by stopping the cell cycle and triggering apoptosis
way that GTP hydrolysis is regulated - RGS protein
turns off G protein; promote GTP hydrolysis; determine the magnitude and duration of cellular responses initiated by many GPCRs by functioning as GTPase-accelerating proteins (GAPs) for specific Gα subunits *the major mechanism whereby RGS proteins negatively regulate G proteins is via the GTPase activating protein activity of their RGS domain.
are cells diploid or haploid at end of meiosis I
two haploid daughter cells Meiosis I begins with one diploid parent cell and ends with two haploid daughter cells, halving the number of chromosomes in each cell. Meiosis II starts with two haploid parent cells and ends with four haploid daughter cells, maintaining the number of chromosomes in each cell. Each daughter cell will have half of the original 46 chromosomes, or 23 chromosomes. Each chromosome consists of 2 sister chromatids. The daughter cells now move in to the third and final phase of meiosis: meiosis II. At the end of meiosis I there are two haploid cells.
what type of muscle fiber is a fast-twitch muscle? how does it get its energy?
type 2 - since 'twitching fast' need energy in faster means so rely on anaerobic glycolysis and the creatine phosphate system -- which can produce a lot more energy over a shorter amount of time (less chemical steps needed)
Chemokines
type of cytokines that are released by infected cells - Infected host cells release chemokines in order to initiate an immune response, and to warn neighboring cells of the threat
