Biology 212- Exam 2
larges and most complex of all algae commonly called seaweeds. All brown algae are multicellular and range in size from a few centimeters to 75 meters.
brown algae
specialized fungal hypha that produces conidia -asexual -nonmotile spores of a fungus
condiophore
many are photosynthetic but others are heterotrophic and ingest other microorganisms for food. They have cellulose plates impregnated with silicates.
dINOGLAGELLATES
A unicellular photosynthetic alga with a unique glassy cell wall containing silica
diatoms
Hyphae that contain two genetically distinct, sexually compatible nuclei within each cell n+n=2n because there are two separate haploid nuclei
dikaryotic
The female part of the flower which has three section: a stigma, style, and ovary.
pISTLE
An perfect flower has both stamens and carpels while an imperfect flower has either stamens or carpels but not both.
perfect flower vs imperfect flower
Dissolves sugar
phloem
a complex multicellular eukaryote that has cellulose cell walls, chlorophylls a and b in plastids, and starch as a storage product and that may have cells with two anterior flagella. In addition, all plants develop from multicellular embryos that are enclosed in maternal tissues.
plant
In sexual reproduction the hyphae of two genetically compatible mating types come together, and their cytoplasm fuses
plasmogamy
extinct seedless vascular plants that may be ancestral to seed plants
progymnosperms
small, green, heart-shaped gametophyte plant form of a fern that can make its own food and absorb water and nutrients from the soil
prothallus
Sequence of endosymbiotic events that led to an ancestral eukaryote.
serial endosymbiosis
spore capsule in which haploid spores are produced by meiosis
sporangium
Fungal bodies are typically haploid
Are fungal bodies typically diploid or haploid?
Member of the fungal phylum Ascomycota, commonly called sac fungus. The name comes from the saclike structure in which the spores develop.
Ascomycetes
large class of higher fungi coextensive with subdivision Basidiomycota. They are the largest and most familiar of the fungi: the mushrooms, bracket fungi, and puffballs. Their name derives from their microscopic clube-shaped basidia.
Basidiomycetes
A polymer that consists of subunits of a nitrogen-containing sugar
Chitin
A eukaryotic organism that has cell walls made of chitin, uses spores to reproduce, and is a heterotroph that feeds by absorbing its food.
Fungi
Pheromones. Pheromones bund to receptor on a different mate, then they grow towards each other to fuse.
Fungi communicate chemically by secreting signaling __________
coenocytic
Fungi that lack septa are called
sex organs of the plant are multicellular while algae are unicellular.
Gametangia
Fusion of two haploid nuclei to form a diploid nucleus. Occurs in many fungi, and in animals and plants during fertilization of gametes
Karyogamy
A group of protistans, including Trypanosoma, which have a single large mitochondrion associated with a kinetoplast that houses extranuclear DNA.
Kinetoplastids
An organism made of a fungus and either algae or autotrophic bacteria that live together in a mutualistic relationship.
Lichen
Monoecious
Most conifers have separate male and female reproductive parts on the same tree. This condition is referred to as
aquatic
Most protists are
produces haploid spores by the process of meiosis; these spores represent the first stage in gametophyte generation.
Sporophyte generation
The pollen-producing male reproductive organ of a flower, consisting of an anther and filament.
Stamens
A stemlike supporting structure of multicellular algae and basidiomycetes
Stipes
tiny pores which dot the surface of the leaves and stems of almost all plants to facilitate gas exchange.
Stomata
The technical term for a cluster of sporophylls known commonly as a cone, found in most gymnosperms and some seedless vascular plants.
strobilus
Reproductive cells that can develop into new organisms
Spores
Leaflike scales that bear sporangia on the underside of the cone
Sporophylls
where seed plants spend part of their lives in the multicellular diploid sporophyte stage and part in the multicellular haploid gametophyte stage.
Alternations of generations
female gametangia, each bearing a single egg.
Archegonia
lignin
A key in the evolution of vascular plants was the ability to produce ______, a strengthening polymer in the walls of cells that provide support and conduction
Monocot
A plant with parallel veins and floral parts in threes or multiples of three would be classified as a:
axopods
Actinopods are mostly marine plankton rhizarians with long, filamentous cytoplasmic projections called
oospores
After fusion of male and female nuclei, thick walled ______ develop from the oospores
spores
All plants produce _______ by meiosis
A life cycle in which there is both a multicellular diploid form, the sporophyte, and a multicellular haploid form, the gametophyte; characteristic of plants and some algae.
Alternation of generations
The terminal pollen sac of a stamen, inside which pollen grains with male gametes form in the flower of an angiosperm.
Anther
male gametangia in which sperm cells form.
Antheridia
a large group of parasitic, spore-forming alveolates, some of which cause serious diseases in humans. They produce sporozoites, small infective agents transmitted to the next host.
Apicomplexans
Include red algae and green algae, and land plants.
Archaeplastids
Plastids bounded by outer and inner membranesl include land plants; bikonts Representatives of clade: red algae and green algae Key characters: Chloroplast pigments include red pigments and blue pigments. Chloroplast pigments identical to those in land plants
Archeaplastids
Photosynthetic "leaf-like" blades on kelp.
Blades
The collective term for all the sepal of a flower
Calyx
unikonts
Cells that have a single flagellum or are amoebas with no flagella are ______
collared flagellates in the opisthokont clade, which also includes fungi and animals. They include both free swimming and sessile species that are permanently attached by a think stalk to bacteria-rich debris.
Choanoglagellates
Diverse protists that my have originated as a result of secondary endosymbiosis in which an ancestral cell engulfed red alga. Representatives: Alveolates- dinoglagellates, ciliates, apicomplexans Stramenopiles- Water molds, diatoms, brown algae, golden algae. Key Characters: flattened vesicles just inside the plasma membrane/ Most have two flagella, one with hairs. Some have none.
Chromalveolates
super group composed of diverse protists orignated as a result of secondary endosymbiosis in which an ancestral cell engulfed red algae. Most are photosynthetic
Chromoalveolates
Flagellate
Chytrids produce which of the following cells at some point during their life cycle, which is an indicator of fungal evolution?
unicellular alveolates have a pellicle that gives them a definite but changeable shape. They differ from other protists in having two kinds of nuclei: one or more small diploid micronuclei that function in reproduction; and a larger, polyploid macronucleus that controls cell metabolism and growth.
Ciliates
Multinucleate mass of cytoplasm
Coenocytes
fungal species that have hyphae lacking septa
Coenocytes
loosely connected groups of cells
Colonies
A relationship between two organisms in which one organism benefits and the other is unaffected
Commensalism
Complete flower has all reproductive parts whereas an incomplete flower lacks one or more of these parts
Complete flower vs non complete flower
Means "cone-bearing". These include Pines, spruce, hemlocks, and firs are most familiar group of gymnosperms
Conifers
Similar to water molds and are the only fungi that have flagellated cells. They are unicellular or composed of a few cells that form a simple body called a thallus. Sexual reproduction isn't common with cyrtids. It undergoes alternation of generation
Cytrids
chytrids, zygomycetes, glomeromycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes
Different types of fungi
excavates that have one or two nuclei, no functional mitochondria, no Golgi complex, and up to eight flagella.
Diplomonads
Fungal cells have cell walls made of complex carbohydrates, including chitin
Do fungal cells have cell walls? What materials are they made of?
A mechanism of fertilization in angiosperms, in which two sperm cells unite with two cells in the embryo sac to form the zygote and endosperm.
Double fertilization
form sheaths of hyphae over a root and also grow into the extracellular spaces of the root cortex
Ectomycorrhizal fungi
mature female gametophyte (7 cells, 8 nuclei)
Embryo sac
food-rich tissue that nourishes a seedling as it grows
Endosperm
include oaks, roses, cacti, blueberries, and sunflowers. They are either herbaceous or woody. Their leaves vary in shape but they are usually broader than monocot leaves with branched veins. The flower part usually occurs in 5's of 4's/
Eudicots
Mushroom :)
Fruiting body
Unicellular flagellates, and about one-third of them are photosynthetic. They generally have two flagella; one long and whip like and one that is often so short that it does not extend outside the cell.
Euglenoids
animals with true tissue except sponges
Eumetazoa
Unicellular protists with atypical, greatly modified mitochondria; bikonts. Diplomonads and parabasalids represent this group. Key Character: Two or more flagella, ventral oral (feeding) grove. Some with plastids, crystalline rod in flagella.
Excavates
Vascular plants that reproduce sexually by forming flowers and following a unique double fertilization [processe. seeds within fruits.
Flowering plants
marine rhizarians that produce tests (shells)
Foraminiferans (forams)
Cnidaria
From an evolutionary perspective, true nerve cells are first seen in the phylum _______
Member of the fungal phylum Glomeromycota, characterized by a distinct branching form of mycorrhizae called arbuscular mycorrhizae.
Glomeromycota
found both in freshwater and marine environments. most species are biflagellate, unicellular organisms, although some are colonial. Most golden algae are photosynthetic and the pigment composition of golden algae gives them a golden or golden brown color.
Golden algae
Photosynthetic protists that include unicellular, colonial, and multicellular species with grass green chloroplasts; closely related to true plants.
Green algae
produces both microspores (male gametophytes) & megaspores (female gametophytes)
Heterospory
They can inhabit the gut of some animals to help them digest nutrients. I.e termites.
How do fungi form symbiotic relationships with animals?
A a seed develops, the ovary wall surrounds it and enlarges and develops into a fruit. - Other tissues associated with the ovary may also enlarge to form the fruit- Fruits protect devXelXoping seeds from desiccation and aid in dispersal of seeds
How does a fruit develop?
threadlike filaments which consist of tubular cell walls surrounding the plasma membrane of the fungal cells. They are an adaptation to the fungal mode of nutrition.
Hyphae
The sporophyte generation is dominant
In the pine cycle, the ______ generation is dominant
1: Mature sporophytes produce haploid spores, dispersed by the wind 2: Separate spores into female and male gametophytes 3:Haploid eggs form in archegonia, and haploid sperm form in antheridia 4: Haploid gametes undergo fertilization, forming a diploid zygote 5: The diploid zygote develops into a sporophyte
Life cycle of mosses
homospory
Many seedless plants produce spores of one morphological type, which is referred to as:
develops into egg
Megaspores
Dinoflagellates
Members of which group are known to form blooms known as red tides?
produce microspores that give rise to male gametophytes (sperm) in the form of a pollen grain.
Microsporangia
develop into sperm
Microspores
Bacteria: Horizontal gene fusion Vertical gene transfer Archaea: Vertical gene transfer Protist: triple-gene fusion. given that lateral gene transfer can occur at different points in phylogenetic history, specific genes can become part of a lineage by a different route taken by other genes of the organism. In the case of chlorophyll A, its history traces back to a bacterium being engulfed by a protist and forming a chloroplast.
Molecular tools, such as gene fusion events, are being used more and more to sort organisms based on their phylogeny. What type of gene fusion exists in bacteria? Archaea? Bikonts?
Include palms, grace orchids etc. Their leaves are mostly herbaceous with narrow leaves and parallel veins. Petals in threes. Monocots have a single cotyledon ( an embryonic seed leaf) or endosperm, a nutritive tissue.
Monocots
fungi with only one nucleus in each cell
Monokaryotic
pseudopodia AKA "false foot"
Most amobozoa produce temporary cytoplasmic projections called _____
in which two individuals come together to exchange genetic material.
Most ciliates are capable of sexual process called conjugation,. Conjugation is the process:
basidiocarps
Mushrooms that we eat are technically referred to as:
A relationship between two species in which both species benefit
Mutualism
a tangled mass of hyphae.
Mycelium
The study of Fungi
Mycology
Bryophytes. These include liverworts, mosses, and hornworts.
Nonvascular plants with a dominant gametophyte generation are known as ______
a megasporangium surround by integuments, layers of sporophyte tissue that enclose the megasporangium.
Ovules
anaerobic, flagellated excavates that often live in animals. Lives in guts of termites and wood-eating roaches to ingest wood chips.
Parabasilids
a relationship between two organisms: one species benefits and the other is harmed
Paratisim
Reproductive parts of a flower
Peduncle
A firm, flexible coating outside the plasma membrane which gives form to the cell
Pellicle
Attract animal pollinators with their bright colors. Petals are referred to collectively as the corolla.
Petals
Living vascular tissue that carries sugar and organic substances throughout a plant
Phloem
The floating, microscopic organisms that inhabit surface waters and are the base of the food web in aquatic surfaces in the water
Plankton
2 nuclei, within the same cell, created from the mitotic division of the megaspore during angiosperm reproduction; unite in the ovule to form a fusion nucleus, which gives rise to endosperm when fertilized
Polar nuclei
an outgrowth that digests its way through the megasporangium to the egg within the archegonium.
Pollen tube
Organisms with three or more complete sets of chromosomes
Polyploids
Aquatic, mainly marine animals that are most abundant in warm waters. Their name "porifera" literally means "to have pores".
Poriferans
In formal group of aquatic eukaryotic organisms. They are considered to be a paraphyletic group, meaning that protists contain some, but not all of the descendants of a common eukaryotic ancestor.
Protists
secrete elaborate, beautiful glassy shells made of silica
Radiolarians
Conifers
Recent studies of gene function as it relates to reproductive development suggest that angiosperms evolved most directly from:
Tip of the flower stalk that bears the flower parts
Receptacle
Multicellular organisms with interwoven filaments that are delicate and feathery.
Red algae
Archaeplastids
Red algae, green algae, and land plants are collectively called
viscous, clear, or translucent substance consisting of several organic compounds that may protect the plant from attack by fungi or insects
Resin
Ameoboid cells that often have shells (tests). Representatives of clade: Forams and actinopods Characteristics: Porous tests (hard shells) through which projections extend. Exoskeletons (internal shell) through which axopods extend.
Rhizarians
a diverse supergroup of amoeboid cells that often have hard outer shells called tests through which cytoplasmic projections extend.
Rhizarians
primary means of reproduction for gymnosperms and angiosperms. Seeds represent an important adaptation for life on land.
Seed
1) Gymnosperms 2) angiosperms
Seed plants with naked seeds are known as _______. Seeds enclosed within a fruit are known as _______
cover and protect the other flower parts when the flower is a bud
Sepals
Individuals cells that made up hyphae which are separated by cross walls.
Septa
Sugar conducting cells in phloem
Sieve tube elements
Spore production usually occurs in certain areas on the fronds, which develop sporangia. Many species bear the sporangia in clusters, called sori.
Sori
Skeletal framework that gives support to the body
Spicules
collar cells
Sponges are believed to have arisen from choanoflagellates because they possess ____ ______
sponges reproduce sexually and asexually which makes hermaphrodites meaning the same individual can produce both egg and sperm.
Sponges reproduce ____ and_____ which makes them _______
A capsule in fungi and plants in which meiosis occurs and haploid spores develop.
Sporangia
chitin
The cell walls of fungi are composed of _______
Triploid (3n)
The endosperm of an angiosperm seed is typically:
gametophyte generation
The haploid portion of the life cycle is called the _________ because it gives rise to haploid gametes by mitosis
angiosperms
The most diverse, successful, and familiar group of plants today are the:
jointed appendages
The phylum name "Arthropoda" refers to
asci
The sac fungi are characterized by sexual reproductive structures called:
Fronds
The sori of most ferns are found on which part of the plant?
similar ribosomal DNA sequences and alveoli, flattened vesicles located just inside the plasma membrane.
The unifying features of protists classified as alveolates include:
fusion of two haploid nuclei of a dikaryon to form single diploid nucleus
What is karyogamy?
long tapering cells with pits through which water and dissolved minerals move from one cell to another
Tracheid
The fusion of three separate genes into a single unit early in the course of eukaryote evolution; provides evidence of a bifurcation; characteristic of unikonts.
Triple gene fusion
Microphylls are usually small and have a single vascular strand. Only club mosses have microphylls. Megaphylls form most leaves as we know them today.
Two basic types of true leaves are megaphylls and microphylls. what is the difference?
the fine details of cell structure revealed by electron microscopy
Ultrastructure
Cells that have a single flagellum or are amoebas with no flagella; have a triple gene fusion that is lacking in other eykaryotes; include animals and fungi Representative of clade: Amoebozoa and choanoflagellates Key Characters: Naked amoebas with lobelike pseudopods. No flagella or single posterior flagellu on motile cells.
Unikonts
Triple gene fusion
Unikonts also have a _____ that has major evolutionary significance
Seedless plants These include club mosses, ferns and their allies.
Vascular plants with a dominant sporophyte generation are known as _____
Water containing cells in their Xylem
Vessel elements
stramenopiles that were once classified as fungi because of their superficial resemblance. Both molds and fungi have a body, called a mycelium, that grows over organic material, digesting it and then absorbing the predigested nutrients.
Water molds
- Hyphae grow into and infiltrate food sources, and nutrients are absorbed through its very large surface area• Mycelium are The vegetative part of a fungus, consisting of a mass of branching, threadlike hyphae. Hyphae that contain only one nucleus per cell are monokaryotic (n)• Hyphae that contain two genetically distinct nuclei within each cell are as dikaryotic (n + n)- Presence of a dikaryotic stage is a defining character of phyla ascomycetes and basidiomycetes
What are hyphae and what is a mycelium?
mutually beneficial relationships between fungi and plant roots
What are mycorrhizae?
Conifers are woody trees or shrubs that produce annual additions to secondary tissues. Some characteristics are: - many produce resin -most have long, narrow, tough needles; some have small, scalelike leaves - most are evergreen; a few are deciduous - most are monoecious; reproductive parts are borne in male and female strobili (cones)
What are some characteristics of the conifers?
Insects are articulated, tracheated hexapods- Body consists of three parts: head, thorax, and abdomen- Uniramous appendages: three pairs of legs that extend from the thorax—many have one or two pairs of wings- One pair of antennae; simple and compound eyes; complex mouthparts adapted for piercing, chewing, sucking, or lapping
What are some distinguishing characteristics of the phyla hexapoda (the insects)?
Key structures are -flagella -cell wall -nucleus -chloroplast -starch granule
What are some key structures of a basic free living unicellular protist?
Include the mushrooms, bracket fungi, and puffballs• Many are decomposers; some form mycorrhizae; others infect important crops; a few cause human disease• Called club fungi because of their microscopic club-shaped basidia, which are comparable in function to the asci of ascomycetes. • Mycorrhizal fungi decompose organic material; increase surface area of roots- Plant absorbs more water and minerals- Roots supply fungus with organic nutrients• Cells of fungi and plant roots communicate- Signaling molecules stimulate fungal cells to shift to a presymbiotic growth phase- A signaling pathway activates gene expression in the root cells. A lichen is a combination of a fungus (ascomycete or basidiomycete) and a photoautotroph (green alga, cyanobacterium, or both)- Typically, fungus forms most of lichen thallus- The photoautotroph produces energy-rich carbon compounds for the fungus, but unclear how the photoautotroph benefits• Air quality indicators: will die in polluted air. Lichens are often the first organisms to inhabit rocky areas - they secrete acid that etches rock, releasing minerals• Lichens exhibit one of three growth forms:- Crustose lichens are flat and grow tightly against a surface- Foliose lichens have leaflike lobes- Fruticose lichens grow erect and have many branches
What are some other examples of fungal symbiosis?
Excavates: group of unicellular protists with flagella and a deep oral groove. - Have atypical, greatly modified mitochondria - Many are endosymbionts and live in anoxic environments - Obtain energy by glycolysis - Include diplomonads, parabasalids, euglenoids, and trypanosomes for example, diplomonads are Excavates with one or two nuclei, mo functional mitochondria, no golgi complex, ad up to eight flagella. OR parabasilids, which are another type of anaerobic extravate, that live in animals. Chromaveolates: A supergroup composed of extremely diverse protists with few shared characters • Probably originated by secondary endosymbiosis in which an ancestral cell engulfed a red alga • Most are photosynthetic • Include alveolates and stramenopiles. Examples: dinoflagellates, ciliates because of their similar ribosomal DNA sequence and flattened vesicles inside their plasma membrane. OR water molds, diatoms, or brown algae/golden algae. Rhizarians: a monophyletic but diverse group of amoeboid cells. - Often have hard outer shells (tests) through which cytoplasmic projections extend - Include forams, actinopods, and certain shell-less amoebas For example. foraminiferans or actinopods because of their shells. Archeaplastids: Monophyletic group that includes red algae, green algae, and landplants, which are in a separate kingdom. These groups are classified together based on molecular data and the presence of similar chloroplasts, suggesting that they develop directly from a cyanobacterial endosymbiont. Examples: Red algae, Green algae because both contain chloroplast. Unikonts: A supergroup composed of certain amoebas, plasmodial slime molds, cellular slime molds, choanoflafellates, fungi, and animals. - Single posterior flagellum in flflagellate cells, such as sperm and motile spores - Separated from all other eukaryotes (bikonts) by evolution of triple-gene fusion • Two clades: opisthokonts and amoebozoa. Example: Aemoeba and cellular slime and choanoflagellates.
What are the differences between the five major protist groups, and examples of organisms in each?
they lack vascular tissues
Why are mosses and liverworts limited in size
Body plans: Eukaryotic cells have nuclei and other membrane-enclosed organelles such as mitochondria and plastids, 9 + 2 flagella, and multiple chromosomes Modes of nutrition: -Most algae are autotrophic photosynthesizers -Some heterotrophs obtain nutrients by absorption -Some heterotrophs ingest food -Some protists switch their modes of nutrition and are autotrophic at certain times and heterotrophic at others Reproductive: Sexual reproduction, meiosis, and mitosis are also characteristic of eukaryotes Lifestyles: Algae, water molds, slime molds, protozoa because Most protists live in the ocean, streams, lakes, and ponds
What are the different body plans, modes of nutrition, habitats, and reproductive lifestyles?
Gymnosperms have seeds that are totally exposed or borne on scales or cones while angiosperm seeds are surrounded by a mature ovary (fruit). Both gymnosperms and angiosperms have sporophyte generations for the dominant stage.
What are the features of a gymnosperm vs angiosperm seed? What is the dominant generation of each?
1.Chytridiomycota - 1. Chytridiomycota 2. Zygomycota -Are not a monophyletic group• Most are decomposers; some form symbiotic mycorrhizae; a few cause disease in plants and animals. Are not a monophyletic group• Most are decomposers; some form symbiotic mycorrhizae; a few cause disease in plants and animals. Originally classified with yeasts and bacteria; then assigned to the protozoa; now considered descendent of zyogomycetes• May be smallest and simplest eukaryotes- Genomes are smaller than bacterial genomes- Lack mitochondria, flagella, and Golgi complexes- Ribosomes resemble those of prokaryotes 3. Glomeromycota Have coenocytic hyphae, and reproduce asexually with large, multinucleate blastospores• Endomycorrhizal fungi: symbionts that form mycorrhizae with the roots of most trees and herbaceous plants- Arbuscular mycorrhizae are most widespread endomycorrhizae; hyphae inside the root cells form tree-shaped structures (arbuscules). Both partners benefit:- Roots supply the fungus with organic nutrients; fungus provides the plant with nutrient minerals- If a plant grows in phosphate-deficient soil or if it has a limited root system, its growth is enhanced by its fungal partner- Some fungi also release alkaloids that protect plants from herbivores and pathogens4. Ascomycota- Both partners benefit:- Roots supply the fungus with organic nutrients; fungus provides the plant with nutrient minerals- If a plant grows in phosphate-deficient soil or if it has a limited root system, its growth is enhanced by its fungal partner- Some fungi also release alkaloids that protect plants from herbivores and pathogens. Many form mycorrhizae with tree roots, or join with green algae or cyanobacteria to form lichens• The cause of most fungal diseases of plants and animals, including humans• Called sac fungi because their sexual spores are produced in microscopic sacs called asci 5. Basidiomycota- Include the mushrooms, bracket fungi, and puffballs• Many are decomposers; some form mycorrhizae; others infect important crops; a few cause human disease• Called club fungi because of their microscopic club-shaped basidia, which are comparable in function to the asci of ascomycetes
What are the five major groups of fungi and their distinguishing characteristics?
Evolutionary adaptations account for the ecological dominance of flowering plants - Seeds, fruits, and endosperm increase likelihood of reproductive success- Coevolution with pollinators increases cross-pollination and promotes genetic variation- Vascular systems with vessel elements and sieve tube elements increase efficiency- Leaf, stem, and root adaptations allow plants to live in a variety of habitats
What are the four major adaptations that allow angiosperms to dominate the plant world?
Each seeds has an embryonic sporophyte, nutritive tissue, and a protective coat; develops from a fertilized egg cell and its associated tissues. Some advantages of seeds over spores are: • A seed is further along in its development before it is released to survive on its own• A seed contains an abundant food supply that nourishes the plant embryo• A seed is protected by a multicellular seed coat that is very thick and hard
What are the major features of seeds and the seed plants?
Protist classification is evolving; two types of research contribute substantially to understanding phylogenetic relationships among protists - Molecular analysis of the gene for small subunit ribosomal RNA, and other nuclear genes - Ultrastructure data revealed by electron microscopy
What are the modern tools being used to sort out the protist kingdom?
Monocots are herbaceous plants with long, narrow leaves that have parallel veins - flower parts usually occur in threes - seeds have a single cotyledon -Endosperm is usually present in the mature seed -fibrous root system Eudicots are herbaceous or woody plants with broader leaves than monocots, with netted veins. -Flower parts occur in multiples of fours of fives - Seeds have two cotyledons - endosperm is usually absent in the mature seed -taproot system
What are the primary differences between monocot and dicot?
The end products of double fertilization are: Diploid Zygote Primary Endosperm Nucleus
What are the products of the double fertilization event?
• Stamens: the whorl inside the petals- Each stamen has a thin filament and saclike anther where meiosis occurs and microspores develop into pollen grains• Each pollen grain produces two cells: - One cell divides to form two male gametes (sperm cells)- The other produces a pollen tube through which sperm cells travel to reach the ovule Carpels: the center whorl of most flowers- Closed "female" reproductive organs, bearing ovules that develop into seeds- May be separate (simple) or fused into a single structure (compound)• The female part of the flower, consisting of one or more carpels, is also called a pistil Each pistil has three sections: - A stigma on which the pollen grain lands- A style through which the pollen tube grows- An ovary that contains one or more ovules Each ovule contains a female gametophyte that forms one female gamete, two polar nuclei, and other haploid cells After fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed and the ovary develops into a fruit
What are the sexual reproductive organs of the angiosperms?
1) seedless vascular plants 2) gymnosperms 3) flowering plants They are the same because they each have vascular tissues which is why they are known as vascular plants.
What are the three groups of plants and how are they all the same?
Monocots and eudicots
What are the two large classes in Phylum Anthophyta?
1) gymnosperms 2) angiosperms (flowering plants)
What are two groups of seed plants?
Seeds
What do ferns lack?
Megasporangia
What do the large female cones of a pine tree contain?
It means "seed enclosed in a vessel or case". Angiosperms are flowering plants that produce their seeds within a fruit
What does angiosperm mean?
It means "naked seed". Gymnosperms produce seeds that are totally exposed or borne on the scales of cones. Pine, spruce, fir, hemlock, and ginkgo are examples of gymnosperms.
What does gymnosperm mean?
gymnosperms and angiosperms
What groups are considered "Seed plants"?
Protists are a heterogeneous group of living things, comprising those eukaryotes that are neither animals, plants, nor fungi
What is a protist in the most general sense?
Mitochondria and chloroplasts probably originated from endosymbionts: - Serial endosymbiosis hypothesis assumes certain organelles arose from symbiotic relationships between larger cells and smaller bacteria incorporated to live within them - Mitochondria may have originated as aerobic bacteria and chloroplasts may have originated as a cyanobacterium within a host cell
What is the endosymbiotic theory?
Antheridium
What is the male sexual structure that produces sperm in plants?
Filter feeders
What is the mode of nutrition for the clams and oysters?
Canal systems
What kind of system do sponges have?
Underground mycelium
What makes up most of the mass of an individual mushroom?
• Food: Fermentation for alcoholic beverages and baking, also many edible mushrooms• Medicine: produce antibiotics, anticancer • Bioremediation: breakdown synthetic/toxic chemicals• Diseases: athlete's foot, mycotoxins• Plant pathogens: cause disease and crop failure
What roles do fungi play in the environment? What about human economies?
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.Male and Female Cones (1 of 4)• A male cone consists of sporophylls that bear sporangia on the underside• Microsporangia contain microsporocytes, each of which undergoes meiosis to form four haploid microspores• Microspores develop into pollen grains consisting of four cells, two of which are involved in reproduction (generative cell and tube cell) © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.Male and Female Cones (1 of 4)• A male cone consists of sporophylls that bear sporangia on the underside• Microsporangia contain microsporocytes, each of which undergoes meiosis to form four haploid microspores• Microspores develop into pollen grains consisting of four cells, two of which are involved in reproduction (generative cell and tube cell) • Each cone scale of a female cone bears two megasporangia on its upper surface• Within each megasporangium, meiosis of a megasporocyte produces four haploid megaspores • One megaspore divides by mitosis, developing into the female gametophyte, which produces an egg within each of several archegonia
What roles do the male and female cones play in reproduction?
The aerial hyphae of some fungi produce spores in large, complex reproductive structures (fruiting bodies)- The familiar part of a mushroom is a large fruiting body
What structure do fungi form to reproduce?
Taproot
What type of root system is prevalent of eudicots?
Cuticle: the waxy area which covers the aerial portion of the plant. It helps the plant tissues from drying out via evaporation.
What's one important difference between a plant an algae?
Diatoms
Which algal group contains individuals that are typically unicellular and form siliceous shells?
Spider
Which arthropod has chelicerae, pepdipals, and silk glands?
Mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Which eukaryotic organelles likely arose from symbiotic relationships between larger cells and bacteria?
Sporophyte generation
Which generation is dominant in seed plants?
sporophyte generation is dominant
Which generation is dominant?
They have a segmented body
Which is a characteristic of annelids?
High intraspecific competition is NOT an adaptation. However, diverse body plants that are adapted to many lifestyles, the ability to fly, the high reproductive capacity, and the offense and defense are all adaptations which contribute to the success of the insect. d) yes, this organism's body is segmented
Which of the following is NOT an adaptation that contributes to the biological success of insects?
They are acoelomate (have no body cavity)
Which of the following is a characteristic of flatworms?
Chlorophylls a and b in plastids
Which of the following is a characteristic shared between green algae and plants?
Arthropods have an incomplete digestive track is false. - display segmentation, have an exoskeleton, have a true coelom, and an open circulatory system are all true.
Which of the following statements about arthropods is false?
Squids
Which of the mollusks have a closed circulatory system?
Pollen grain
Which part of a flowering plant is the immature male gameophyte?
plasmogamy
Which process marks the start of the dikaryotic stage (n+n) in the fungal reproductive cycle?
Karyogamy
Which process takes place within the young basidia on the gills of the mushroom before meiosis and the formation of spores?
Excavates
Which protist clade (supergroup) is characterized by their greatly modified mitochondria?
Both groups have free-living gametophytes
Which statement about gymnosperms and angiosperms is FALSE?
Apixomplexans
Which type of protist is responsible for malaria in humans, parasitic to both humans and mosquitoes?
Bees carry pollen to other plants
Why are bees important to the reproductive success of flowering plants?
1) because a seed is further along in its development before it is released to survive on its own whereas a spore is a single cell. 2) A seed contains an abundant food supply. 3) a seed is protectede by a multicellular seed coat
Why are seeds superior to spores?
the vascular tissue in plants that conducts water and dissolved nutrients upward from the root and also helps to form the woody element in the stem.
Xylem
the vascular tissue that conducts water and dissolves minerals
Xylem
a unicellular fungus that lives in liquid or moist habitats.
Yeasts
budding
Yeasts produce asexually by _______
a fungal group that is not very pathogenic; complex life cycle consisted on sexual and asexual fungal groups...fungi spend most of their time as haploids; black bread mold; It's very similar to chytrids... but they are not a monophyletic group. Most zygomycotic are decomposers that live in the soil on decaying plants or animals. During sexual reproduction, they produce spores called zygospores. These zygospores are typically produced in spore sacs called zygosporangia.
Zygomycetes
the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
Zygote
Microphylls
_____ are small leaves with a single vascular strand
a) fungus b) spore c) hypha d) karyogamy e) mushrooms!
a) Above is a life cycle from what group of organisms? b) What grows into hyphae? c) what structure is formed as a spore germinates? d) Letter "A" is labeling a zygote. In this life cycle, this is a result of the process called: e) What kind of fungi are basidiomycetes?
a) haploid and diploid b) sporophyte c) egg and sperm (the gametes) d) archegonium e) vascular seedless plant
a) The gametophyte generation is ______ and the sporophyte generation is ______. b) for fern life cycle, the ___________ is the dominant generation c) All plants exhibit an alternation of generations, through the time they spend in each stage and structures can vary. For all of them though, what is the product of the gametophytic generation? d)What is the name of the structure that produce the egg? e) This life cycle is from a ______ ______ _______
a) bilateral symmetry b) Cephalization- which is the evolution of the head with the concentration of the sense organs and nerve cells at the anterior end, increasing the effectiveness of bilateral animal activity to find food, shelter, and mates and to detect enemies. c) yes, this organism possesses a complete digestive system d) an open circulatory system
a) What type of symmetry does this animal (grasshopper) display? b) This organisms (the grasshopper) demonstrates c) Does this organism possess a complete digestive system? d) What kind of circulatory system does this organisms have? e) is this organisms segmented?
a) aquatic b) uniknots c)choanoflagellate d) mitochondria and chloroplasts e) excavata
a. Most protists are: b. Which group is characterized by a triple-gene fusion and either a single flagellum or no flagellum? c. The protist group that seems to be the closest living group to the animal kingdom is: d. Which eukaryotic organelles likely arose from symbiotic relationships between larger cells and bacteria? e. Which protist clade (supergroup) is characterized by their greatly modified mitochondria and a deep oral groove?
par of their lives in a multicellular haploid stage and part in a multicellular diploid stage.
alternation of generations
two flagellum
bikonts
haploid production of male and female gametes because it gives rise to haploid gametes by mitosis
gametophyte generation
Root like structures that some organisms have to help them hold on to rocks.
holdfasts
When nonvascular and most seedless vascular plants produced one type of spore, which gives rise to the gametophyte by mitosis
homospory
A plant structure in which megaspores are formed, such as those of the female cones of pines (egg)/
megasporangium
microscopic protozoans that cause disease in insects
microsporidia
separate male and female reproductive parts in different locations on the same plant.
monoecious
plants probably evolved from a common ancestral green algae.
monophyletic group
toxins produced by fungi - blood diseases - nervous system disorders - kidney damage - liver damage - cancer
mycotoxins
1) Spongocoel 2) Osculum
water passes into the central cavity 1) ________ and flows out the 2)_______
Xylem
which vascular tissues is responsible for conducting water and dissolved minerals in plants?
a sporangium or spore case in which zoospores are produced.
zoosporangium
