Biology Study

What are the differences in how animals regulate their internal environments between reptiles and mammals?

Endotherms, such as birds and mammals, use metabolic heat to maintain a stable internal temperature, often one different from the environment. Ectotherms, like lizards and snakes, do not use metabolic heat to maintain their body temperature but take on the temperature of the environment.

Compare and contrast arteries and veins. "Arteries Away" means what? Veins have what special structures that help keep the blood moving back to the heart?

"Arteries Away"- means that arteries take blood away from the heart. 1.Arteries - pressurized; carry blood away from the heart. 2.Veins - not pressurized; return blood back to the heart. Most veins have valves that open and close. The valves control blood flow and keep your blood flowing in one direction.

"What controls the Pacemaker? ______________________________ The autonomic nervous system performs and controls the following: ___________________________________________________________________________________.

*MAYBE COMEBACK* The autonomic nervous system tightly controls input into the sinus node.

What are the four steps of food processing?

1.Ingestion - the act of eating. 2.Digestion - the physical & chemical breaking down of food into molecules small enough for the body to absorb. 3.Absorption - the take-up of the products of digestion by the cells lining the digestive tract. 4.Elimination - the removal of undigested materials out of the digestive tract.

Leptin

- is a hormone that signals the brain to suppress appetite. Sometimes the leptin is genetically deficient, or the leptin cell receptors are mis-shaped and cannot dock with the leptin molecule.

In animals, what are the four (4) main categories of tissues? What is the definition/description of each?

-Connective tissue: supports, protects, and gives structure to other tissues and organs in the body. Connective tissue also stores fat, helps move nutrients and other substances between tissues and organs, and helps repair damaged tissue. -Epithelial tissue: perform a variety of functions that include protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, filtration, diffusion, and sensory reception. -Muscle tissue: Movement is the main function of muscular tissue. They have the ability to contract and this is what brings about the movement of body parts. They also help to maintain body posture and position. -Nervous tissue: It is responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities. It stimulates muscle contraction, creates an awareness of the environment, and plays a major role in emotions, memory, and reasoning.

Define all connective tissues, structure and function. And, the six (6) types of connective tissues with an example of each type.

-Loose Connective Tissue Most abundant connective tissue. Occurs beneath skin & other epithelial tissues. Loosely packed cells with a loose weave of protein fibers. Ropelike collagen & elastic fibers. Provide strength with elasticity. -Fibrous Connective Tissue Comprised mostly of densely packed collagen fibers with scattered fibroblasts. Major component of tendons and ligaments: Tendons attach muscle to bone. Ligaments attach bone to bone. Very strong, functions mainly in structural support. -Adipose Connective Tissue Comprised mostly of swollen, densely packed cells filled with fat and interspersed with collagen fibers. Typically occurs beneath the skin, around the heart and other organs. Functions in energy storage and thermal insulation. -Cartilage Occurs primarily at the ends of long bones, ribs & between vertebrae; in ears, nose & respiratory passage way. Comprised of an extracellular matrix of collagen & a rubbery matrix of proteoglycans; forming a strong, moist, slippery surface. Interspersed with lacunae (cavities) containing chondrocytes (collagen-producing cells). Function mainly in support & protection. -Bone Hardest & most rigid of the connective tissues. Comprised of a collagen matrix hardened with calcium & magnesium phosphates (& carbonates). Formed in concentric rings around central canals (containing blood vessels) by Osteocytes. Functions mainly in support & protection; Ca2+ storage. •Hyaline cartilage is the most common type of cartilage. But two other forms also occur: 1. Elastic cartilage (has higher amounts of elastic fibers; found in ears); 2. Fibrocartilage (has thicker collagen fibers; found in pads between vertebrae. -Blood A fluid connective tissue comprised of a variety of cells dispersed in a fluid matrix (plasma). Composed of a variety of cells and substances. Cellular components include red blood cells, white blood cells & platelets. Functions in transport of O2, CO2, hormones, wastes; defense against disease agents; bodily heat distribution. Lymph (i.e. lymphatic fluid). Remember, Connective tissue = Living cells sparsely dispersed throughout a non-cellular matrix.

What are the distinguishing features of primates? Which characteristics gave them the capability to adapt to life in the trees?

-Many Primate Characters Are Adaptations to Life in Trees. Distinguishing Features of Primates Include . . . 1. Limber shoulder and hip joints - allow climbing and brachiation. 2. Five mobile digits & with opposable toes & thumbs - allow highly flexible & dextrous grasping hands and feet. 3. Short snout, flattened face; close forward-facing eyes - promote stereoscopic vision & depth perception. 4. Extremely sensitive hands and feet (loaded with a variety of sensory receptors) - aid in manipulation & highly coordinated use of hands, feet, fingers & toes

What are the four methods of ingesting food?

-Suspension Feeders - sift/filter small organisms or food particles from water (tubeworms, clams, humpback whales). -Substrate Feeders - live in or on their food source, eating their way through it (leaf miners, maggots, earthworms). -Fluid Feeders - suck nutrient-rich fluids from a living host (leeches, aphids, mosquitos, ticks). -Bulk Feeders - ingest large pieces of food (most animals that kill, cut or tear their food into pieces,

What are the conditions of too few Red Blood Cells (RBC's) called, Too many RBS called? What problems do these people face?

-Too few RBC's (anemia). Insufficient supply of O2 to cells of the body. Fatigue, fast heartbeat, shortness of breath, pale skin. -Too many RBC's (erythrocytosis). Excessively thick blood flows more slowly, increases blood pressure Decreased supply of O2 to cells of the body resulting from slower blood flow. Blood clots form more easily.

Describe the important lung volumes: Total capacity, Vital capacity, and Resting Tidal volume.

-Total Capacity ~ 5 - 6L. The residual volume (air you cannot expire) + vital capacity (total volume available for use) = total lung capacity. In other words, TLC is the total volume of the lungs! -Vital capacity (maximum useful volume) of lungs = 3 - 5 L. Vital capacity is the total usable volume of the lungs which is under voluntary control. This value does not include the entire lung volume as it is not possible to breath all of the air out of the lungs. -Resting Tidal Volume ~ 500 mL. This is the volume of air taken into the lungs when you inhale. Tidal volume increases with exercise or activity.

Be able to list the cardiac cycle in order and how long each part requires in time.

1) "Isovolumic relaxation", 2) Inflow, 3) "Isovolumic contraction", 4) "Ejection". - One cardiac cycle . . . Takes about 0.80 sec; equals 1 heartbeat. The heart is at rest about 50% of the time. The average human heart beats ~ 70 times/minute.

Describe the three major lineages of tetrapods on land. How is each different from the other?

1.Amphibians . . . use small lungs and their body surfaces. 2.Reptiles have . . . lower metabolic rates and simpler lungs. 3.Birds and mammals have . . . higher metabolic rates and more complex lungs. Note: Technically, birds should be included with the reptile group.

What are the 3 transportation methods of CO2 and their percentages?

1.Bound to hemoglobin as a carbamate (R-N-CO-) group (7%). 2.Dissolved CO2 gas (23%). 3.Bicarbonate (HCO3-) anion (70%).

What are the four (4) organ systems with enhanced surface areas for exchange? Describe them.

1.Circulatory System ® Capillary beds. Distributes gases, nutrients, and wastes throughout the body. Exchanges materials between blood and body cells via interstitial fluids. 2.Respiratory System ® Alveoli. Exchanges gases between the external environment and blood. 3.Digestive System ® Villi & microvilli. Acquires/absorbs food and eliminates wastes. Includes the liver & liver functions. 4.Urinary System ® Convoluted tubules & the Loop of Henle. Eliminates metabolic waste & excess water.

What are the three (3) groups of mammals and describe their distinguishing characteristics?

1.Monotremes - egg-laying mammals that partly develop both inside & outside the female's body with incubation; newly-hatched young lick up milk secreted from modified sweat glands (e.g. the Duckbill platypus & Echidna ). •"Monotreme" means 'single opening'. It is based on the fact that the urinary, defecatory, and reproductive systems all open into a single duct (the cloaca) in these animals. Monotreme is a taxonomic "order". •2. Marsupials - the "pouched" animals; the young begin development inside the female's body, but are born very immature and crawl into the abdominal pouch where they attach to a mammary nipple to complete their development (e.g. Kangaroos, Koalas & Opossums). 3. Placental Mammals - (aka Eutherians) - the largest group of mammals where developing young are dependent on the placenta (an organ of nutrition & waste exchange between maternal & fetal blood); the developing fetus is "parasitic" on the female, but this allows the female to move about freely during fetal development. Eutherians - the "true beasts" - a taxonomic division "clade" of mammals that specifically have a placenta, and the young completely develop internally.

What are the 4 basic food biomolecules in their complex form and their monomers.

1.Protein--amino acids. 2.Carbohydrate (disaccharides & polysaccharides) --monosaccharides. 3.Nucleic Acids--nucleotides. 4.Fats (& lipids) --glycerol & fatty acids.

What are the four attributes for effective respiration?

1.The gas exchange region must be moist - moisture allows gases to become/stay dissolved as they cross the gas exchange region. 2.The gas exchange region must be thin - diffusion works best over short distances. 3.The gas exchange region must have a large surface area - diffusion increases with increased surface areas (or increased surface to volume ratios). 4.The diffusing gas must have a large concentration difference between the regions where diffusion must occur.

Describe the defribillator. If you are holding the paddles to give the person a therapeutic dose, L hand negative paddle, Right hand positive paddle, where do you place them on the person in front of you, their chest is facing you?

Defibrillators are devices that send an electric pulse or shock to the heart to restore a normal heartbeat. They are used to prevent or correct an arrhythmia, an uneven heartbeat that is too slow or too fast. Place them on their chest.

What is a Myocardial infarction? How does it occur? What does plaque formation cause?

Death or damage of heart tissue due to partial or complete coronary arterial blockage and lack of oxygen to tissue. Plaque formation involves: 1) Damaged endothelium. The smooth, delicate lining of blood vessels is called the endothelium. 3) Plaque formation. White blood cells stream in to digest the LDL cholesterol. Over years, the toxic mess of cholesterol and cells becomes a cholesterol plaque in the wall of the artery.

In tetrapod evolution, what is the name of the animal believed to come onto land from the water?

Acanthostega

Describe how birds breathe/ventilate. How does that compare to human ventilation?

All terrestrial vertebrates (except birds) use a tidal ventilation mechanism. Birds have a one-way (cross-current) ventilation mechanism. Incoming air is carried past the lungs to posterior air sacs (lungs do not expand). Air then passes forward through the lungs into anterior air sacs and is finally expelled. One-way flow prevents oxygen-rich air from mixing with used air.

What are the distinguishing features of the amniotic egg?

Amnion - a transparent membranous sac that surrounds the developing embryo and is filled with fluid. It helps protect the embryo during development. Allantois - sac connected to the embryo's abdomen. It absorbs nutrients from the albumin and accumulates nitrogenous wastes. Chorion - enable the embryo to obtain O2 from the air & dispose of CO2. Albumin - storage protein of the egg (i.e. "eggwhite"). Yolk/Sac - contains/consists of minerals, vitamins, protein, fats and cholesterol to nourish the developing embryo. Air space - forms as the egg cools and the contents contract during development. Shell Membrane - a keratinized membrane that protects against dessication and bacterial infections. Shell - a porous CaCO3 matrix that protects the egg/embryo.

What are the distinguishing features of tetrapods with a terrestrially adapted egg?

An "Amniote" aka. (Tetrapods with a terrestrially adapted egg"); is an animal whose eggs have waterproof linings (i.e. an amnion & associated chorion & shell); all vertebrates after amphibians have amniotic eggs, allowing them to develop on land.

Explain and give examples of how living things are ordered. What are the levels, and new "emergent" properties that arise at each level.

Anatomy & Physiology - are the study of the forms & functions of an organism's structures. They have a hierarchy of organization, structure & function. Cells -Tissues -Organs - Organ Systems -Organisms.

What are the differences in skull attachment and other features in chimpanzee versus human?

Angle of skull attachment allows eyes to face forward, but in bipeds places the head directly over the rest of the body to facilitate/promote upright bipedally. When Chimps stand upright, they need to lower their heads to see forward. •Spine exits from directly beneath skull center in Humans (instead of rear of skull in apes). •Longer S-shaped Human spine places center of gravity over feet (vs. curved spine in apes). •Broader bowl-shaped pelvis and hip joints prevent swaying when walking (vs. longer, narrower pelvis in apes). •Longer femur in humans causes the femur to angle inward at the knees (vs. outward in apes). •Broader human knee joint supports more body weight than apes. •Human toe is not opposable; foot has an arch for easier long-distance walking.

What are anticipatory regulations/responses, give examples?

Anticipatory physiological regulation is an adaptive strategy that enables animals to respond faster to physiologic and metabolic challenges.

Describe the process of capillaries allowing the transfer of substances through their walls? An how does the lymphatic system aid in that process?

Arteriole Smooth Muscle: Constrict or dilate vessels to control blood flow to various organs. Precapillary Sphincters: Bands of smooth muscle at branch points in arteriole capillaries. Control blood flow through capillary beds. The lymphatic system transport and filter lymphatic fluids.

What are the structure and functions of blood?

Blood - a fluid connective tissue specialized for transport of various substances, homeostasis and protection. Specific Functions of Blood: 1.Transport gases, nutrients, waste products & hormones. 2.Help destroy pathogenic microorganisms. 3.Distribute antibodies involved in immune responses. 4.Maintain water balance & pH. 5.Help regulate body temperature. 6.Carry platelets & clotting factors for clotting & prevention of blood loss.

What are the steps the occurs when blood vessels are injured?

Blood Clots Plug Leaks When Blood Vessels are Injured. Tissue damage--exposed collagen--Platelets bind & aggregate--Clotting factors released--Prothrombin ® thrombin--Fibrinogen--fibrin.

Explain how fish / many sea animals, use gills, for their structure and function to obtain oxygen and release CO2? Is it cross current?

Bony fish have three pairs of gill arches (all beneath a single operculum), cartilaginous fish have five to seven pairs, and primitive jawless fish have seven. Dissolved oxygen is absorbed from—and carbon dioxide released to—the water, which is then dispelled. The gills are fairly large, with thousands of small blood vessels, which maximizes the amount of oxygen extracted.

Compare and contrast the carnivore, herbivore, and ruminant animals alimentary tracts look like?

Carnivores Pointed incisors, enlarged canines for piercing & tearing flesh; sharp jagged molars for cutting flesh. Large expandable stomachs for greater storage capacity. Shorter alimentary canals, with small cecum. Can not digest cellulose Herbivores Sharp, straight-edged incisors for clipping grasses; flat molars & premolars for grinding cellulosic material; small canines. Longer alimentary canal with a larger longer cecum. Contains bacteria & protists that digest cellulose. Ruminants have multi-chambered stomachs. Textbook (9th Ed) uses coyote & koala as examples of carnivores & herbivores, respectively. Note: Vertebrates can not produce cellulase to digest cellulose; thus herbivores rely on the microbes inhabiting their digestive system (cecum).

What are the three (3) lineages of jawed fishes.

Chondrichthyans, Ray-finned fishes, Lobe-finned fishes (*aka "Osteichthyans")

What does the circulatory system provide to the body? Define Circulatory System. What are it advanced functions?

Circulatory Systems Facilitate Exchange With All Body Tissues. Introductory Concepts: All cells must receive nutrients, exchange gases, and remove wastes. Diffusion alone is inadequate for large and complex bodies. In most animals, circulatory systems facilitate these exchanges. Circulatory System - an organ system that moves various substances to and from the cells of the body. Usually comprised of a heart, blood and blood vessels. Advanced functions: stabilize pH (via bicarbonate buffering system), temperature regulation, help fight infections.

What are the three (3) lineages of lobe finned fishes that survive today?

Coelacanths, Lungfishes, tetrapods

How does digestion occur from food vacuoles, to gastrovascular cavities, and finally alimentary canals?

Complexity of digestive compartments vary with complexity of organisms. Simplest: Protists & Sponges - cells engulf food particles (phagocytosis) to form food vacuoles. Cnidarians & Flatworms have a gastrovascular cavity & a closed digestive system. Food & waste enter & exit by the same opening.

Some babies are born with a liver disorder and must be placed under a special light to correct the issue.

Jaundice

Describe, characterize the structure and function of the 12 organ systems , the work together t perform life's vital functions.

Consider the Respiratory & Circulatory systems •They function together in CO2 & O2 exchange with the environment There are 12 different organ systems in the human body. 1.Circulatory System - delivers O2 & nutrients to cells of the body; transports CO2 to the lungs & metabolic wastes to the kidneys. 2.Respiratory System - exchanges CO2 & O2 with the environment; helps to regulate blood pH. 3.Integumentary System - protects the body against physical injury, infection, excessive heat or cold, and drying out. 4.Skeletal System - supports the body; protects vital organs (e.g. brain, heart, lungs); provides the framework (levers) for muscle attachment & motion. 5.Muscular System - moves the body, maintains posture & produces heat. 6.Urinary System - removes waste products from the blood & excretes urine; regulates the chemical makeup, pH & water balance of blood. 7.Digestive System - ingests & digests food, absorbs nutrients & eliminates undigested materials. 8.Endocrine System - produces & secretes hormones that regulate activities of the body; thus, maintaining internal steady state (homeostasis). 9.Lymphatic System - returns excess body fluid to the circulatory system; functions as part of the immune system. 10.Immune System - defends the body against infections & cancer. 11.Nervous System - coordinates the body's activities by detecting stimuli, integrating information & directing the body's response. 12.Reproductive System - produces gametes & sex hormones; female system supports the developing embryo & gives birth.

What are the distinguishing features of amphibians?

Considered to be the first tetrapods able to move on land. Include salamanders, frogs & caecilians. Use their moist skins for gas exchange to supplement their lungs.

Explain the diffusion between blood and tissues, interstitial fluids, nutrients, wastes, reverse osmosis and edema if not removed correctly. Remember what the lymph system does.

Diffusion is the process by which exchange of gases take place between blood and body tissues. Capillaries . . . Have very tiny diameters (allow passage of 1 RBC at a time). Have very thin walls (one cell thick - to maximize diffusion). Exchanges gases, nutrients & wastes across interstitial fluids. Are under positive pressure - results in reverse osmosis of water into interstitial spaces. Excess fluids (4 - 8L per day) are drained by lymphatic system and eventually returned to the circulatory system. If left untreated, edema can lead to increasingly painful swelling, stiffness, difficulty walking, stretched or itchy skin, skin ulcers, scarring, and decreased blood circulation.

What are the distinguishing features of animals?

Distinguishing Features of Animals: Eukaryotic multicellular heterotrophs. Individual cells lack cell walls. Acquire food & nutrients via ingestion (i.e. eating) with internal digestion.

What hypothesis described selective pressures for tetrapods to leave oceans?

Drying pond hypothesis- -First tetrapods became trapped in tidal pools/ponds. -Then supportive legs helped elevate heads above water to gulp air. -Ability to "walk" allowed return to oceans (or movement to new ponds).

Please tell me EVERYTHING about this slide and the notes underneath. What is an Electrocardiogram of a single heartbeat? What is the sequence of steps. Define P wave, QRX complex, and T wave.

Electrical Activity of a Single Heartbeat P-Wave = Membrane depolarization in atrial cells; Atria are about to contract. QRS Complex = Membrane depolarization in ventricular cells; Ventricles contract (R). T-Wave = Repolarization of ventricular cells; ventricles recover from contraction & prepare for the next heartbeat. 1.Signals from the SA node spread through the atria 2.Signals are delayed at the AV node. 3.Specialized muscle fibers pass signals to the heart apex. 4.Signals spread throughout the ventricles. Most cells, including neurons at rest, have a negative charge on the inside with a net positive charge on the outside.

Describe the structure and function of epithelial tissues.

Epithelial tissues are named according to: The number of cell layers they have. Simple (single layer). Stratified (multiple layers). The shape of the cells on their apical surface. Squamous—flattened like a fried egg. Cuboidal—as tall as they are wide. Columnar—taller than they are wide. -Simple Squamous Epithelium Typically, a single layer of flattened, irregularly shaped cells. Line the internal surfaces of the air sacs of lungs, and the walls of blood vessels. Function in protection & diffusion. Here, "protection" is taken to be mainly structural (or barrier) protection - i.e. selectively keeping some substances separated, while allowing other substances to pass. -Simple Cuboidal Epithelium Typically a single layer of cube-shaped cells. Line the surfaces of kidney tubules and various glands. Function in secretion and absorption. -Simple Columnar Epithelium Rectangular pillar or column-shaped cells. Nuclei typically near the base of each cell. Found in the lining of the digestive tract; function in secretion and absorption. Secretion of digestive juices & absorption of digestion products. Stratified Squamous Epithelium Layers of squamous cells are piled one upon another. Form the outer layer of skin; line the inner surfaces of the nose, mouth, esophagus, vagina. Function in protection (and replacement).

Describe how the human fetus exchanges gasses with the mother's blood. What is special about fetal blood?

Fetal gas exchange occurs in the placenta; blood supplies do not mix. Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for O2 than maternal hemoglobin. After birth, fetal CO2 levels climb (& pH decreases); both stimulate the fetal respiratory control center.

1. Which of the following five (5) shared derived characters describe the five (5) major clades of chordates? What are the 5 major clades?

Five major clades are: Craniates, Vertebrates, Jawed vertebrates, tetrapods, and Amniotes. The lancelets have all five key characteristics of chordates. the Five key characteristics of chordates are: a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, an endostyle, and a post-anal tail.

What are the distinguishing features of the great apes?

Lack a tail; relatively larger brains with respect to size. More flexible behavior. Less instinctive, more adaptable. More social.

What are the characteristics of Chondrichthyans?

Flexible skeleton, fast-swimmin predators, electro sensors, mechanoreceptors, and rays. -Flexible skeleton made of cartilage; some calcification of vertebrae & skull. -Fast-swimming predators, with sharp vision and a keen sense of smell. -Electro sensors on their heads detect electric fields created by muscle contractions in their prey. -Mechanoreceptors in a lateral line system that detect vibrations of other fish. 5 - 7 individual gill slits w/o cover. -Rays - adapted for life on the bottom, with dorsoventrally flattened bodies and eyes on the top of their heads.

Know the important characteristics of hemoglobin . What structural and functional elements of it carries O2, helps transport CO2, and Buffers the pH of blood?

Found in red blood cells (250 million molecules/cell). Made up of four polypeptide chains: 2a & 2b. Oxygen is carried both physically dissolved in the BLOOD and chemically combined to hemoglobin.

Describe how the evolution of lungs facilitated the movement of tetrapods onto land. What is the name of this fossil fish?

Functions of ancestral lung likely included: Collection of digestive gases for later elimination. Gulping & storage of air in shallow water by lobe-finned fishes. Surface-to-volume ratio gradually increase with amphibians ® reptiles ® mammals.

Name and describe important problems and obstacles faced by the first terrestrial vertebrates for adapting to life on land?

Gas exchange - shift from gills to lungs. Water conservation - prevention of desiccation. Structural support - neutral buoyancy vs. limbs to support body weight. Locomotion - shift from swimming to walking. Sensory organs - those that work well in water but not on land. Sexual reproduction - overcoming their dependency on water.

What are the distinguishing features of mammals?

Hair to insulate their bodies. Milk-producing mammary glands to nurse their young. Internal development - within a uterus that shelters & protects the developing young while allowing the female to actively move about. Endothermic amniotes with high rates of metabolism. Efficient respiratory and circulatory systems (well-developed lungs & a four-chambered heart) to support their high rate of metabolism. Skeletal improvements - larger skull for a larger brain; a variety of teeth for a variety of diets; limbs located beneath the body rather than at sides.

What structures have the highest blood pressures? Where is the greatest cross sectional area? Where do different blood velocities occur, fastest, slowest, etc...

Highest in aorta & arteries during systole. Lowest in veins & vena cavae approaching the heart. Cross Sectional Area - greatest in capillary beds. Blood Velocity: Fastest in aorta & arteries. Slowest in capillary beds.

Describe the steps of negative and positive homeostasis and give descriptive examples of each type.

Homeostasis - the dynamic maintenance of the normal or optimal steady-state internal environment of a cell or organism by self-regulating mechanisms in response to widely fluctuating changes that occur in the external environment. 1.Sensors / Receptors - that monitor & detect changes in the environment (i.e. stimuli), and send information to the control center. 2.Control Center (integrator) - that processes information from sensors, and determines if/when an adjustment is necessary. 3.Effectors - that bring about, or cause an appropriate change in the environment. Note - homeostatic control systems normally use "negative feedback" (Human body temperature regulation). A positive feedback (Labor) loop results in a change in the body's status, rather than a return to homeostasis.

What are the characteristics of the hominins? What is the oldest know hominin?

Hominins - a tribe of extinct species that are more closely related to Humans than Chimpanzees. "Hominins" split off from the gorillas & chimpanzees about 7 mya; they (hominins) include all species shown in figure (starting w/ Sahelanthropus tchadensis). Sahelanthropus tchadensis, the oldest known hominin, lived about 7 to 6 mya. -Ape-like braincase; small skull / brain size (350-370 cc). -Central (humanoid) attachment of skull to spine; bipedal

What happened to the 24th pair of chromosomes in humans?

Human chromosome 2 is a fusion of two ancestral chromosomes (2A & 2B). Banding patterns & DNA base sequences of two Chimp chromosomes almost perfectly align (except for loss of the telomeres of two chimp chromosomes, and non-functional centromere remnants of Chimp chromosome in human chromosome # 2). Human Chromosome 2 is a fusion of two ancestral chromosomes (referred to as 2p & 2q) in other apes/primates.

Where are the origin and development of blood cells located? Contract Totipotent, to pluripotent, to multipotent.

In the bone marrow. •Pluripotent - can differentiate into any cells of the body derived from the three germ layers, but cannot form placental cells; Multipotent - are more restricted, i.e. can only differentiate into a few related cell types. What is totipotent vs pluripotent? A totipotent cell has the potential to divide until it creates an entire, complete organism.

What is a non-prehensile versus a prehensile tale? Give examples of each and describe what each one can do.

Like cats', NON-PREHENSILE tails are designed to help an animal with balance as it swings, climbs and jumps through its environment. A prehensile tail is the tail of an animal that has adapted to grasp or hold objects. Fully prehensile tails can be used to hold and manipulate objects

What are the steps in taking blood pressure with a blood pressure cuff?

Locate your pulse. Secure the cuff. Inflate and deflate the cuff. Record your blood pressure.

Describe and name the four main evolutionary variations in respiratory organ systems?

Integumentary - gas exchange through the body surface (or skin) - small, wet or fully immersed animals with a high surface: volume ratio. Gills - countercurrent gas exchange between blood and water - the fishes & amphibians. Tracheal system - a network of tubes that direct/conduct gas flow - the insects. Lungs - saclike organs for (more) active gas exchange - in land-dwelling tetrapods (e.g. amphibians, birds, reptiles & mammals).

Where does digestion begin in the human and how does it occur?

Mainly mechanical, some chemical digestion. Chewing - cuts, smashes, and grinds food, making it easier to swallow. The tongue - tastes, shapes the food into a ball (called a bolus), and moves it back towards the pharynx. Salivary glands release . . . A slippery glycoprotein that moistens and lubricates food for easier swallowing. Buffers that neutralize food acids. Salivary amylase that begins the hydrolysis of starch. Antibacterial agents (lysozyme) that kill some bacteria ingested with food. •Teeth functions: Incisors cut; canines pierce & tear; molars grind.

What occurs with a prolapsed Mitral Valve? What is its other name? What is different about this valve? What does a heart beat sound like with a prolapsed Mitral Valve?

Mitral Valve Prolapse - a condition where the mitral valve does not close properly/completely after a beat, so that blood leaks back (i.e. "regurgitates") into the heart resulting in "backwards" or inefficient flow. Can sound like a heart murmur.

What are the distinguishing features of reptiles?

Most are tetrapods. Produce an amniotic egg protected by a waterproof shell. Skin covered with scales, and waterproofed with keratin. Obtain their oxygen via lungs. Ectothermic - ("cold-blooded) - regulate body temperature by absorbing external heat (instead of generating their own).

Do humans have negative pressure breathing or positive pressure breathing? Describe what happens and how the act of breathing, aka. ventilation occurs.

Negative Pressure Breathing Ventilates Your Lungs. All terrestrial vertebrates (except birds) use a tidal ventilation mechanism. Air moves in and out by the same route. Entering air mixes with used air in the lungs. Negative pressure moves air into lungs. Positive pressure moves air out of lungs. Conserves moisture, but decreases gas exchange efficiency.

What type of cells line the alveoli walls in the lungs and the capillary walls? What characteristics make the ideally adapted for gas exchange?

One cell layer thick - simple squamous epithelium..... -Very high surface to volume ratio. -Moist (internal) surfaces in direct physical contact with capillaries & the environment.

Compare and contrast the "NO" circulatory system to the "Open", "Closed one circuit", two-chambers-one circuit, three-chambers-two circuits, four-chambers-two-circuits". What are the pros and cons of each and an example of each?

Open = blood freely exits the circulatory system, mixes with interstitial fluids, bathes internal organs & tissues, & re-enters the system. In open circulation, the blood is not enclosed in the blood vessels and is pumped into a cavity called hemocoel. On the contrary, in closed circulation, the blood is pumped through the vessels separate from the interstitial fluid of the body.

Organs and organ systems, what are their vital functions?

Organ - a combination of two or more tissues that work together to perform a specific function. Each tissue performs a specific function in the organ. Organ System - a group of related organs that work together to perform a group of related functions. Each organ system performs a vital function for the organism.

Compare oxygen diffusion in air, to fresh water, to marine water?

Oxygen diffuses more slowly in water than in air. There is less O2 available in water than in air. It is more difficult to obtain O2 from water than air. Seawater contains approx. 7 & 90 ppm O2 & CO2, respectively.

Know the correct paths our blood travels and be able to list them in order, beginning with the oxygen poor blood in the right ventricle.

Oxygen poor blood comes into the right atrium from the body, moves into the right ventricle and is pushed into the pulmonary arteries in the lungs. After picking up oxygen, the blood travels back to the heart through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium, to the left ventricle and out to the body's tissues through the aorta.

We ventilate, (breathe) we are transporting and exchanging gases with body cells. In cellular respiration, you use ________________ as the last electron acceptor, and generate _____________________________ per turn of the Krebs cycle.

Oxygen....two ATP

The SA node is know as the "_________________________________" of the heart.

Pacemaker

What are the organs, enzymes, and secretions at the duodenum junction?

Pancreas An elongated flattened gland behind the stomach. Secretes NaHCO3 to neutralize acidic chyme; (pH 1-2 ® 8). Secretes digestive enzymes -Amylase -Trypsinogen -Chymotrypsinogen -Pro-Lipase Secretes insulin & glucagon - two hormones that regulate blood sugar levels.

What is the path of airflow, in order, in the human body?

Path of airflow: Nose/nasal cavity--pharynx--glottis--larynx--trachea--bronchi--bronchioles--alveoli.

How does peristalsis work in our esophagus?

Peristalsis - carries the bolus downwards to the stomach.

What is the structure and function of pre capillary sphincters?

Precapillary Sphincters Control the Distribution of Blood

What are the two circuits called in humans?

Pulmonary Circuit Carries blood to/from the right & left lungs. Systemic Circuit Upper Systemic - carries blood to/from the head, chest & arms; Lower Systemic - carries blood to/from the trunk & legs.

What does the enzyme use for its substrate and ten the product. Where does the product go? capillary, lymph system, etc.?

Salivary amylase (neutral pH optimum) starts digestion of starch in mouth; intestinal amylase continues starch (and glycogen) digestion in sm. Intestine. Enteropeptidase (bound to walls of duodenum) activates trypsinogen (to trypsin), which then activates more trypsinogen; trypsin then activates chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase & prolipase.

List the structure and function of the small intestine.

The Small Intestine Is the Major Organ of Chemical Digestion & Nutrient Absorption. Specialized for most chemical digestion and absorption of digestion products.

Describe the structure and function of the small intestinal tissues.

The Tissues of the Small Intestine are Organized Into Layers of Specific Function Columnar Epithelium - secretes digestive juices & absorbs nutrients. Blood Vessels - absorb nutrients from epithelial cells & transport them to circulatory system. Connective Tissue - bind tissues together. Two layers of smooth muscle - create peristaltic movement of intestine contents.

Describe the role of Pseudo-stratified column epithelium in ventilation. (Ciliary elevator) helps to move the mucous up... What disease gives you dried out mucous?

Specialized epithelial cells that line the trachea. Goblet cells secrete mucus that covers the surfaces of trachea & bronchia, trapping dust & foreign particles. Upward beating cilia carry mucus, dust & particles upwards & back to the throat to be swallowed or "expectorated". Sjögren's syndrome

What caused the extinction of the dinosaurs?

The Cretaceous/Tertiary Extinction event believed to have been caused by the Chicxulub Asteroid, and to have killed off the dinosaurs.

What are the structures and function of the integumentary system?

The Integumentary System Consists of . . . Skin, Hair & Nails Skin is Comprised of Two Layers: 1.The Epidermis: A stratified squamous epithelium. Forms the outer surface of the skin. 2.The Dermis: Forms a deeper skin layer. Composed of moderately dense connective tissue with many elastin & collagen fibers. Contains hair follicles, oil and sweat glands, muscle cells, nerves, sensory receptors, and blood vessels. Integument - Latin origin - meaning "covering". The Integumentary system (sometimes equated with the skin) is the largest organ system of the Human body; it represents about 15% of the mass of the human body. The Dermis Collects sensory information. Synthesizes vitamin D. Helps regulate body temperature. Hair Comprised of a shaft of dead keratin-filled cells. Helps to insulate animal bodies. Oil (Sebaceous) Glands Lubricate hair, condition surrounding skin. Inhibit the growth of bacteria.

How does the transport of gasses occurs and depends on, in the human body? Understand how a higher partial pressure (pp) increases the solubility and concentration of molecules in the gas phase.

The circulatory system, especially . . .the pumping action of the heart and the alveoli of lungs. The solubility properties of CO2 & O2 in blood., and the physical laws of diffusion. Also including the structure & function of hemoglobin. The physical laws of diffusion involved here are Ficks Law of Diffusion, and Henry's Law concerning the solubility of gases (i.e. higher partial pressure (pp) of gas leads to increased solubility). Why does increasing pressure increase gas solubility?..... Because the concentration of molecules in the gas phase increases with increasing pressure, the concentration of dissolved gas molecules in the solution at equilibrium is also higher at higher pressures. Gas exchange is based on the differential partial pressures (mm Hg) of each gas. Gases diffuse from a region of high pp to a region of low pp.

What happens when you are flying on a plane, sitting for hours and you removed your shoes. When you land, you noticed your ankles and feet have swollen and you cannot get your shoes back on. What happened?????

You have just been sitting too long — and all the liquids (i.e. blood) in your body have sunk to your feet.

When heart cells are grown close to each other, how do they beat/contract? Tell me all about the Sinoatrial node cells and everything they do. (Look in the notes below the slide.

The heart muscle cells contract simultaneously because of their proximity. This is due to the fact that the cells are all connected by gap junctions, which allow for the transfer of ions and electrical impulses between cells. The sinoatrial node is located on upper dorsal wall of right atrium. Initiates a heartbeat every 0.85 sec; referred to as the "pacemaker". Emits electrical impulse causing both atria to contract and activate the AV node.

Define the vocabulary and list in order the alimentary canal.

The mouth, pharynx (throat), esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus.

Replacement

The production of new cells via division of stem cells that replace those at the surface that are continuously being shed or lost; dandruff is a good example of excessive loss of epithelial cells from the scalp. Stem cells are located adjacent to the basement membrane.

What are the prosimians and give examples, and the locations of their normal habitat.

The prosimians include: Mouse Lemur, Ring-tailed Lemur; Loruses; Bush Babies, & Tarsiers. These primates are tree-dwellers that mainly inhabit the tropical regions of the world.

What are the adaptions for birds?

Thought to have evolved from a lineage of small, two-legged dinosaurs called theropods. Adaptations for flight include . . .Feathered wings that act as airfoils. Large flight muscles to provide power. Many features to reduce weight.

What are the three (3) Domains, and the four (4) Kingdoms of Eukarya?

Three Domains: Bacteria, Archaea & Eukarya; Four Kingdoms: Protists, Fungi, Plants & Animals.

Describe the details the stomach and its enzymes.

The stomach has folded & elastic walls, and can stretch to accommodate ~ 2 L of food & drink. Stretching of stomach wall triggers release of Gastrin - hormone that stimulates the release of gastric juice. Gastric glands in the stomach wall secrete gastric juice, comprised of . . . Mucus - protects the walls of the stomach. Pepsinogen - an inactive protease. HCl - a strong acid with a pH of ~ 2. Kills ingested bacteria. Breaks apart cells in food. Denatures proteins. Activates pepsinogen ® pepsin.

Describe and define the four methods of obtaining and processing food.

Three Main Dietary/Feeding Behaviors: 1.Herbivores - eat plants (e.g. cattle, snails, sea urchins, rabbits) 2.Carnivores - eat meat (e.g. lions, hawks, spiders, snakes, jelly fish). 3.Omnivores - eat plants & animals (e.g. humans, bears, raccoons, pigs). 4.Detritivores - eat dead & decomposing organic matter (earthworms, some insects, microbes).

Describe the structure and function of the three (3) types of muscle tissue.

Three Main Types: -Skeletal Muscle ªDistinctly striated in appearance with multiple nuclei per cell. ªAttached to skeletal system. ªFunction in voluntary motion & generation of body heat. -Cardiac Muscle ªFound only in the heart. ªComprised of branched striated cells with one nucleus per cell. ªSpecialized (gap & adhesion) junctions between cells. ªInvoluntary muscle that functions in pumping blood. -Smooth Muscle ªComprised of spindle-shaped cells without striations & have one nucleus per cell. ªFound in the walls of blood vessels & the digestive tract. ªFunctions in the involuntary movement of substances in the body.

What are Thrombus, Embolus, and Stroke?

Thrombus - stationary clot attached to artery wall. Embolus - dislodged clot that can move with blood. Stroke - occurs when an artery of the brain is blocked by an embolus (embolism); artery may swell (aneurism) and then burst; brain tissue dies due to lack of oxygen.

What are the general characteristics of nervous tissue, and the structure and function of the two basic cell types.

Tissue comprising the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nervous system. Three basic functions: 1.Sensory input - i.e. the perception of stimuli. 2.Integration of data - the analysis of stimuli in preparation for a response. 3.Motor output - the elicitation of a response appropriate for stimuli. Composed of two basic cell types: 1.Neurons - cells that perceive stimuli and transmit or conduct information (impulses) to other cells. 2.Neuroglia - an assortment of non-conducting cells that support & nourish neurons (see later).

Describe the structure and function of insects tracheal system. What are their advantages and disadvantages of using air versus water for gas exchange?

Using Air vs. Water for Gas Exchange. Air contains higher concentrations of O2 than water. Air is lighter and easier to move than water. Air-breathing animals lose water through their respiratory surfaces

A proper human diet must contain the essential nutrients. What does essential mean and what are some examples?

Vitamins & Minerals are "essential": They cannot be made by the body. They are (generally) required in minute amounts. They are absolutely needed for good health.

Cecum

sometimes referred to as the "blind gut", i.e. food materials & digestion products enter & exit via the same opening.

What are balloon angioplasty and stents? What is re-stenosis?

•A "stent" is a small wire mesh tube that is inserted into an occluded artery, then stretched via inflation of the balloon (i.e. balloon angioplasty). Angioplasty - an invasive procedure where a blood vessel is enlarged (or cleared) to improve or restore blood flow. Stent - an expandable wire mesh tube that is inserted into a blood vessel to provide extra support or maintain a functionally open vessel.

Blood is composed of the following, ?

•Blood proteins include albumin (60%), Globulins (18%), Fibrinogen (4%), Lipoproteins (%'s given are % of proteins). •Albumin binds water, cations (such as Ca2+, Na+ and K+), fatty acids, hormones, bilirubin, thyroxine (T4) and pharmaceuticals (including barbiturates): its main function is to regulate the oncotic (osmotic) pressure of blood. •Salts of blood fluid are mainly NaCl (0.9%), and smaller amounts of Ca2+ and HCO3-. •Normal blood glucose is approximately 0.1% (i.e. 100 mg/dL).

Which characteristics mark the evolution of Homo?

•Larger Brains Mark the Evolution of Homo Sahelanthropus tchadensis - 6.5 mya - 320-380 cc. Australopithecus afarensis - 3.5 mya - 400-450 cc. Homo habilis - 2 mya - 510-690 cc. Homo ergaster - 1.5 mya - 750 to 850 cc. Homo erectus - 1 mya - 940 cc. Homo neanderthalensis - 350,000 to 28,000 ya - 1400-1500 cc. H. sapiens (Cro-Magnon) - 100,000-36,000 ya - 1500-1600 cc. H. sapiens (Modern Man) - 1250-1350 cc.