Biopsych- ch. 1-4

What is the difference between a hormone and a neurotransmitter?

A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that's released from the axon terminal of the neuron after an action potential occurs. A hormone is a chemical mediator that's secreted by the endocrine gland into blood which is then sent to the target cells.

Chemically, what is the route from genes to their expression?

DNA to RNA to proteins

Dr. Benzing is working in the lab. He has been able to demonstrate that ______ increases the frequency of the spontaneous firing rate.

EPSPs

What is true about altruistic behavior?

It is difficult to explain from an evolutionary/genetic point of view

Which terms refers to a chemical that binds to another chemical?

Ligand

Which statement is true of EPSPs?

They decay over time and space.

Computerized axial tomography creates an image from ____.

X-rays

The circuit from sensory neuron to muscle response is called ___.

a reflex arc

When a membrane is at rest, what attracts potassium ions to the inside of the cell?

an electrical gradient

On the basis of what evidence were the properties of synapses first inferred?

behavioral observations

Which of the following best describes the process by which developing axons find their general target areas?

chemical attraction

Professor Deshon is lecturing about ESPSs and IPSPs. He tells the class that in order to produce an IPSP, there needs to be an increase is permeability for _____.

chloride

Mardell is in the lab studying for a physiology exam. She is studying a brain that has been dissected from the front. The brain was cut with ___ sections.

coronal

Mardell is in the lab studying for a physiology exam. She is studying a brain that has been dissected from the front. The brain was cut with _____ sections.

coronal

Many neurons release neuropeptides mostly from the ____.

dendrites

What is the main source of nutrition for vertebrate neurons?

glucose

A group of forebrain structures is important for motivated and emotional behavior. What term refers to this group of structures?

limbic system

Electrical gradients lead to the ___.

movement of ions to areas having the opposite electrical charges

The two basic kinds of cells in the nervous system are ___.

neurons and glia

The structure that contains a cell's chromosomes is called the ____.

nucleus

Which process indicates spatial summation?

present two or more weak stimuli at the same time

The effect of a neurotransmitter on a postsynaptic neuron is determined by the ___.

receptors on the postsynaptic membrane

The somatic nervous system carries signals from the ___ and is part of the ___.

senses; peripheral nervous system

Professor Lopez studies the specialized _________ in the eye that detect light.

sensory neurons

Paris is studying for a quiz on neurotransmitters. She should remember that all of the following are catecholamines except _____.

serotonin

Henrietta cannot overcome her alcohol addiction even though she is pregnant. What will likely be the outcome for the baby? What symptoms will the child likely experience?

the child will likely be born with fetal alcohol syndrome. children born with this usually have hyperactivity, distinctive facial features, heart issues or defects, learning disabilities, etc

Closed head injury is ___.

the most common cause of brain damage in young adults

What happens when a neurotransmitter is released by a presynaptic cell?

the neurotransmitter passively spreads across the synaptic cleft

Axons are usually formed before the dendrites

true

Which of the following represents Lamarckian evolution?

"if you don't use it, you lose it"

Explain why a human's back and the top of the head would be labeled dorsal.

Because the back and the top of a person's head are in the dorsal cavity. However, if you were talking about the front of the person's head that would fall in the cranial cavity.

Suppose you are interested in determining if the volume of the hippocampus is associated with the amount of stress a person was experiencing. Which method would be the best choice?

CAT

Explain the function and process of a neuron's refractory period.

Even though the electrical potential is coming back from the peak from the resting point, it is above the threshold. Right after an action potential occurs the cell is in what's called the refractory period. In the refractory period the cell denies any production of anymore action potential. This is when things get a little more complicated. You see, the first part of the refractory period called the absolute refractory period the membrane cannot create an action potential no matter the stimulation. However, during the second part of the refractory period called the relative refractory period an even stronger membrane is required in order to create an action potential.

Briefly compare the differences between ionotropic and metabotropic receptors. Include their mechanisms of action and how they explain the difference in the effects on the postsynaptic cell.

Ionotropic directly act and are for short and rapid responses. Usually they are a part of the ion channel and then when the neurotransmitter binds to the receptor it then responds with opening the ion channels. Metabotropic indirectly act and are for slower and long lasting responses. These responses can involve changes in the cell nucleus which influences the gene expression. When the neurotransmitter binds to the metabotropic receptor it can activate enzymes that lead to activating enzymes that then open nearby ion channels and also even a second messenger that start up the other cellular processes.

As axons from the spinal cord enter the skull, which structure do they enter?

Medulla

How are neurotransmitters removed from the synapse?

Neurotransmitters are removed from the synapse by diffusion (outside of the cleft), removed by an enzyme, or even by re-uptake pumps that continuously pump the neurotransmitter right back into that presynaptic axon.

Stan was in an accident and damaged his Cranial nerve II. What side-effects would doctors expect him to have?

Stan would have damage to his optic nerve (which is also known as cranial nerve II.) Damage to this nerve is likely because of a skull fracture. This could lead to temporary and also likely permanent blindness to the affected eye. Each nerve damage varies from one patient to another.

Which of the following cranial nerves does not play a role in taste and control of the tongue and throat movements?

XI

What mechanism prevents or slows some chemicals from entering the brain, while allowing others to enter?

a blood-brain barrier

A gene is found that controls the age at which a man grows bald, if at all. That gene seldom affects women, even if they have the gene. What kind of gene is this MOST likely to be?

a sex-limited gene

An IPSP represents ___.

a temporary hyperpolarization.

Riva is unable to eat eggs, milk, and peanuts. She might have altered levels of _____ as a result.

acetylcholine

Mae is studying for an exam on the action potential. She writes in her notes that the sodium channel closes ______.

after the neuron reaches threshold

Sympathetic ganglia ___.

are closely linked and often act as a single system

"Second messengers" carry their messages to ____.

areas within the postsynaptic cell

The nucleus basalts is a key part of the brain's system for ___.

attention

"Transporter" proteins transport neurotransmitters ___.

back into the presynaptic neuron

Leeann is studying for a test on neurotransmission. She wrote in her notes that neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic neuron when the action potential reaches the terminal and opens ______ channels.

calcium

When an action potential reaches the end of an axon, the depolarization causes what ionic movement in the presynaptic cell?

calcium into the cell

A metabotropic synapse, by way of its second messenger, ___.

can influence activity in much or all of the postsynaptic cell

Dopamine and norepinephrine are classified as ___.

catecholamines

Insulin increases the entry of tryptophan into the brain by ___.

causing certain competing amino acids to enter other cells, outside the brain

An axon that does not receive enough neurotrophins from a target cell will ____.

degenerate and die

Many neurons release neuropeptides mostly from the ___.

dendrites

An EPSP is to ___ as an IPSP is to ___.

depolarization; hyperpolarization

The cell bodies of sensory neurons that are in clusters of neurons outside the spinal cord are called ___.

dorsal root ganglia

Toshia is working in the lab trying to produce an IPSP in her cultured neurons. What should she do?

encourage chloride ions to enter the cell

Which factor appears to be particularly important for branching of neurons during brain development?

engaging in physical activity

Depolarization is to ___ as hyper polarization is to ___.

excitation; inhibition

At synapses, the cell that receives the message is called the presynaptic neuron.

false

Dr. Skinner is working in the lab measuring the voltage of neurons, and during one condition, she tried to depolarize the neurons from -70 mV to -80 mV.

false

Hai is exercising. His body prepares for movement by serotonin release in the substantia nigra.

false

Inhibitory synapses actively suppress excitatory responses.

false

Neurons communicate with both electrical and chemical signals. Scientists have shown that chemical communication is the preferred form as it is faster.

false

Nitric oxide (NO) can function as a hormone.

false

Professor Wick is teaching about neurotransmitter release and told his class that each neuron releases one kind of hormone.

false

Recent evidence suggests that phantom limb pain is caused by sensations coming from the stump of the amputated limb.

false

Sex-linked genes are usually found on the Y chromosome.

false

The choroid plexus reabsorbs the cerebrospinal fluid.

false

There are two types of glial cells that produce myelin sheath. In the central nervous system, Schwann cells fulfill this role and, in the periphery, oligodendrocytes produce it.

false

Transmission of information between neurons occurs in the same way as transmission along an axon.

false

What is one impediment to the regeneration of axons in the mammalian central nervous system?

glia releasing chemicals that inhibit axon growth

Professor Nuno explained to her class that glucose is so important to the brain because ______.

glucose is unique and can cross the blood-brain barrier to be used by neurons

Most of the brain's excitatory ionotropic synapses release ____ while the inhibitory ionotropic synapses release ____.

glutamate; GABA

Renee is in the lab studying for a physiology exam. She records in her notebook that the cell bodies of the motor neurons are all located in the ___.

gray matter

Danica is studying for a quiz. She writes in her notes that the _____ matter is in the center of the spinal cord and is made up of _____.

gray; mainly cell bodies and dendrites

A person with two recessive genes is considered to be ____ for that trait.

homozygous

Professor Basco is lecturing about the nervous system. He tells the class that the role of the pituitary gland is to make and release ___ into ___.

hormones; bloodstream

Chemicals known as ___ and ___ guide neuron migration.

immunoglobulins; chemokines

If Nicole had damage to her hypothalamus, which of the following would NOT be a symptom?

impaired movement and coordination

Many dendrites contain short outgrowths called spines that ___.

increase the surface area available for synapses

Which event will increase the concentration gradient of sodium?

increasing activity of the sodium potassium pump

What modern day practice helps prevent an inadequate production of thyroid hormones?

iodized salt

Glutamate opens sodium gates, enabling sodium ions to enter the postsynaptic cell. What type of effect is this?

ionotropic

Korsakoff's syndrome ___.

is marked by severe memory impairments

What is the function of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase?

it breaks acetylcholine down into components for recycling

The main advantage of a neuron releasing more than one neurotransmitter is that:

it can send more complex messages

The "spontaneous firing rate" of a neuron refers to ___.

its rate of producing action potentials even when it is not stimulated

A group of forebrain structures is important for motivated and emotional behavior. what term refers to this group of structures?

limbic system

Ionotropic effects ___.

may depolarize or hyperpolarize the postsynaptic membrane

Shasta abuses opiate drugs. Because receptors for the opiate drugs are found in the _____, one serious side effect of an overdose would be Shasta having suppressed breathing and heart rate.

medulla

Sophia is not feeling well and has been coughing and sneezing all day. These actions are controlled by her ___.

medulla

Meningitis is an inflammation of the ___.

membranes surrounding the brain

Meningitis is an inflammation of the _______.

membranes surrounding the brain

Membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord are called ___.

meninges

___ cells proliferate after a stroke.

microglia

In which area of the brain would one find the tectum, tegmenjtum, superior and inferior colliculi, and substantial nigra?

midbrain

In which area of the brain would one find the tectum, tegmentum, superior and inferior colliculi, and substantia nigra?

midbrain

If Vonnie's body needed to dilate her blood vessels, it would release ___.

nitric oxide

In addition to influencing other neurons, ____ increases blood flow to a specific area of the brain.

nitric oxide

Sympathetic is to ____ as parasympathetic is to ____.

norepinephrine; acetylcholine

Andrew was exposed to the chicken pox virus as a child. What happened to that virus after it crossed the blood-brain barrier and entered Andrew's brain?

nothing happened at first, but the virus remained there and caused negative effects for Andrew as he got older

What causes hydrocephalus?

obstruction in the flow of cerebrospinal fluid

Ischemia is to ____ as hemorrhage is to ____.

obstruction; rupture

Although the primary visual cortex is in the ____ lobe, the ____ lobe helps process information about movement and the recognition of faces.

occipital; temporal

What type of glial cells myelinate axons in the brain and spinal cord?

oligodendrocytes

An action potential causes the release of neurotransmitters by ___.

opening calcium pores in the membrane

The ___ monitors all the information about eye, head, and body positions and passes it on to the brain areas that control movement.

parietal lobe

The ____ monitors all the information about eye, head, and body positions and passes it on to brain areas that control movement.

parietal lobe

Together, the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system make up the ____ nervous system.

peripheral

Voltage-activated channels are channels for which a change in the voltage across the membrane alters their ____.

permeability

When the neuronal membrane is at rest, the potassium channels ___.

permit potassium ions to pass slowly

Lita has just eaten a lot of soy, which contains tryptophan. What should she try to consume less of to potentially increase tryptophan's entry to the brain?

phenylalanine

Franz Gall noticed that some people with superb verbal skills had protruding eyes. He inferred that verbal memory must be stored in the brain behind the eyes. This method of attempting to understand the brain was called _____.

phrenology

By both neural and hormonal pathways, the hypothalamus regulates activity of the ___.

pituitary gland

By both neural and hormonal pathways, the hypothalamus regulates activity of the ____.

pituitary gland

A stereotaxic instrument would most likely be used for ___.

placing an electrode in the brain

Professor Michaels is explaining to his students that, when the neuron is at rest, ______ is mostly responsible for the movement of potassium ions out of the cell.

potassium's concentration gradient

Vesicles are located ___.

presynaptic terminals

What is the primary target area in the cortex for information regarding muscle-stretch and joint receptors?

primary somatosensory cortex

The function of neurotrophins is to ___.

promote survival of axons

Organisms that help those they recognize as capable of returning the favor are displaying ____.

reciprocal altruism

One function of the thalamus is to ___.

relay sensory information to the cerebral cortex

The spinal cord communicates with ___.

sense organs and muscles below the level of the head

The amino acid tryptophan is a precursor to which neurotransmitter?

serotonin

In general, a single neuron releases ____ neurotransmitter(s) and can respond to ____ neurotransmitter(s).

several; many

Neurons differ most strongly from other body cells in their ___.

shape

Hang's doctors would like to get an image of her brain. Her doctors decided that an MRI might be a challenge because ____.

she is afraid of loud, enclosed places

Hormones exert their effects ___.

similarly to metabotropic neurotransmitters

Karissa is in the lab working and was able to produce a reflexive response by stimulating several different locations all at one time. She successfully demonstrated ______ summation.

spatial

Even at rest, most neurons have periodic production of action potentials, known as the ____.

spontaneous firing rate

Herb is watching a documentary on Dr. Loewi. He learned that neuroscientists first understood that synapses use chemicals to communicate because Dr. Loewi _____.

stimulated a frog's heart that was in a fluid bath and then used just the fluid to simulate a second heart

Which part of the nervous system prepares the body for "fight or flight" activities?

sympathetic

Winnifred is in the lab drawing illustrations of neurons in her lab notebook. She labeled the specialized area between two neurons as the _____.

synapse

Bonita is learning to speak and process language. She is likely to have increased activity in her ___.

temporal lobe

Which of the following is not part of the hindbrain?

thalamus

Which structure provides the main source of input to the cerebral cortex?

thalamus

In general, biologists who speak of sex-linked genes are typically referring to genes on ____.

the X chromosome

Jasmine is in her physiology lab practicing labeling a neuron. When she gets to the nodes of Ranvier, she will be labeling ______.

the gaps in the myelin sheath along the axon

Evolution improves the fitness of the population, which is evolutionarily defined as ____.

the number of copies of one's genes that endure in later generations

Acetylcholine is the only neurotransmitter released by ___.

the parasympathetic nervous system's postganglionic axon

Sherrington deduced that transmission at a synapse must be slower than conduction along an axon. This was based on what kind of evidence?

the speed of reflexive responses

A membrane produces an action potential whenever the potential across it reaches what level?

the threshold of excitation

In order to produce an action potential, the collective amount of depolarization must exceed the _____

threshold of excitation

How is it possible to prevent the intellectual disabilities that are generally associated with PKU?

through diet

Temporal summation is to ___ as spatial summation is to ___.

time; location

Temporal summation is to ____ as spatial summation is to ____.

time; location

Why is the speed of conduction through a reflex arc slower than the speed of conduction of an action potential along an axon?

transmission between neurons at synapses is slower than along axons

Diaschisis refers to the decreased activity of surviving neurons after damage to other neurons.

true

Most of the brain's excitatory inotropic synapses use the neurotransmitter glutamate.

true

Most of the known neurotransmitters are synthesized from amino acids.

true

Santiago Ramón y Cajal used special staining techniques to reveal that the brain is composed of individual cells.

true

Spatial summation is the result of synaptic inputs from different locations arriving at the same time.

true

Tanya has suffered damage to her striate cortex. She now experiences visual disturbances.

true

Whether or not a neurotransmitter is excitatory depends on the response of the postsynaptic receptor.

true

Luis is studying for a quiz on neurotransmission. He wrote in his notes that neurotransmitters are typically stored in _____ in the _____ neuron.

vesicles; presynaptic