Bisc 132 Exam 5 Kemege
where are the kidneys located
lower back
what are the components of plasma
mostly water nutrients waste hormones ions proteins
what are characteristics of red blood cells
-disc shaped -no nucleus -contain hemoglobin that contains O2
what is a heart attack caused by and what are its effects
-due to lack of blood/O2 -causes death of cells in the heart
what is a stroke caused by and what are its effects
-due to lack of blood/O2 to the brain -causes death of brain cells
how do t cells achieve regulation of the immune system
by secreting lots of cytokines
what is the difference in an open and closed circulatory system
open circulatory systems has blood flowing freely while closed circulatory systems have blood flowing through vessels
how is the diversity created in B cells
randomly rearranging the DNA for Ab gene in maturing B cells
what are memory cells
B cells and/or T cells that were involved in an immune response
right atrium
a chamber of the heart where deoxygenated blood enters the heart
aptosis
a process of programmed cell death
from where does blood arrive at the kidney
artery
what organ stores urine
bladder
what do cytoxic t cells do
cause death of altered self cells
which molecules of the glomerular filtrate are re-absorbed
glucose and amino acids
what is a myocardial infarction
heart attack
how are cytoxic t cells similar to b cells
in their creation and specificity
what is causing herd immunity to break down
more individuals are electing to not get vaccinated
how are neutrophils and macrophages different
neutrophils are the first to arrive macrophages arrive next, but are also capable of releasing cytokines
what are the components of blood
plasma blood cells platelets
how is serum different from plasma
plasma is the part of blood that contains both serum and clotting factors serum is the part of the blood that remains once the clotting factors have left
serum
plasma that has had its fibrinogen removed
antibodies
proteins that bind to the epitopes of antigens
what are antibodies
proteins that bind to the epitopes of antigens
what are the two major types of blood cells
red blood cells (erythrocytes) and white blood cells (leukocytes)
what do helper t cells do
regulate the immune system
what is the function of secreted antibodies
signals for it to be phagocytized
what occurs at the glomerulus
small molecules (H2O, glucose, urea, ions) are filtered through the porous walls
cytokines
small signaling molecules used by the immune system
what are cytokines
small signaling molecules used by the immune system
how are cytoxic t cells different from b cells
t-cells have t cell receptors on ALL surfaces never secreted
what is biles function in digestion
the bile salts emulsify fats
what features does the stomach have to resist digestion by itself
the cells are lined with mucous
mastication
the process of chewing
what is mastication
the process of chewing
what does the result of binding of toll-like receptors result in
the signaling of other immune cells
through what is urine secreted
urethra
what is coprophagy
when nonruminant herbivores eat their own feces
what is the function of saliva and where is it produced
-produced in the salivary glands -moistens food for easier passage
what is the function of the loop of henle
-re-absorb H2O -concentrate waste in the urine
how does the small intestine increase its surface area and why
-the walls are lined with villi and microvilli -absorption
what is the function of the anal sphincter
allows for delayed defacation
what do toll-like receptors bind to
common patterns found in viruses and bacteria
why are flu vaccines given every year
the flu virus changes its epitopes rapidly so old memory cells may not recognize the new epitopes
plasma
the fluid matrix of blood
what are nephrons
the functional units in the kidney
what happens in the glomerulus to different things in the blood (water, glucose, blood cells, proteins) at this stage
the glomerular filtrate enters a convoluted system of nephron tubes that are surrounded by capillaries
what is atherosclerosis
the hardening of arteries
what is the function of the gall bladder
to store bile
describe the digestive tract of a ruminant that performs foregut fermentation
-have a four chambered stomach, 1st chamber is called rumen -bacteria are mixed with plant/cellulose in rumen -regurgitate contents of rumen to chew more thoroughly so more cellulose can be freed
what are the characteristics of white blood cells
-involved in immune system
what roles does the pancreas play in digestin
-secretes enzymes into small intestiine to break down proteins, carbohydrates, and fats -secretes bicarbonate to neutralize acidity of chyme
why do nonruminant herbivores perform coprophagy
-to give a second pass through small intestine -required for proper nutrition
what are the charaacteristics of platelets
-very small -not cells -involved in clotting
what are neutrophils and macrophages
leukocytes
what is bile
liver waste products
how does the skin act as part of the immune system
-a physical barrier preventing entry by micrboes -oil and sweat create a low pH which inhibits microbial growth -normal, non-pathogenic bacteria and fungi live on the skin which helps to crowd out harmful microbes
what is the function of the small intestine
-breaks down sugars, fats, and proteins and absorbs it into bloodstream -also absorbs most of the liquids in chyme
what processes occur in the stomach
-cells secrete gastric juice -denatures/unfolds protein -makes them easier to break down -kills many microbes
what is the function of the large intestine
-compacts waste -absorbs last of water -bacteria break down fiber and produce some vitamins
describe the digestive tract of a non-ruminant that performs hindgut fermentation
-have a large cecum pouch before the large intestine -houses bacteria that breakdown cellulose
what are vaccines composed of
-inactivated/dead pathogen -live "attenuated" pathogen or -purified antigens from pathogen
how does the innate immune system respond to tissue damage
-lets microbes in, past primary defense (skin) -blood clots to close wound -cytokines released by damaged tissue attracts neutrophils from blood stream -neutrophils (and later macrophages) perform phagocytosis -skin cells regenerate
explain the 8 steps of a circulatory system with a 4 chambered heart
1. blood in body/head loses its O2 2.deoxygentated blood enters heart through veins into right atrium 3. blood is pumped from right atrium to right ventricle 4. blood (deoxygenated) is pumped from right ventricle to lungs 5. at lungs, blood obtains O2 6. oxygenated blood enters heart into left atrium 7. blood is pumped from left atrium to left ventricle 8. blood (oxygenated) is pumped from left ventricle to head/body
what do vaccines do to the immune system
1. expose individuals to the vaccine 2.have immune response to antigen 3. make memory cells that prevent subsequent infection
what are the steps in blood clotting
1. platelets adhere to wound site, form a sticky plug 2.signals for fibrinogen to converted to fibrin 3. fibrin traps RBCs, holds together clot 4. as wound heals, clot dissolves
how can B cells lead to an autoimmune disease
Abs dont bind to antigens in normal human body which means they are not killed during development
right ventricle
a chamber of the heart where deoxygenated blood exits the heart
left atrium
a chamber of the heart where oxygenated blood enters the heart
left ventricle
a chamber of the heart where oxygenated blood exits the heart
epiglottis
a flat flap of cartilage at the root of the tongue that prevents food from entering the trachea to the lungs
soft palate
a flat flap of skin in the back of the mouth that prevents food from entering nasal passage
chyme
a fluid composed of food mixed with gastric juices
what is chyme
a fluid composed of food mixed with gastric juices
paristalsis
a series of muscular contractions that move food through the digestive tract
what is peristalsis
a series of muscular contractions that move food through the digestive tract
what are antigens
a substance that an antibody binds to
epitopes
a very specific structural region of an antigen
what is a epitope
a very specific structural region of antigen
why is it important that molecules of the glomerular filtrate are re-absorbed
because glucose should not be present in urine
why must some drugs be taken multiple times per day
because they are filtered out of the body and not reabsorbed
what molecule do herbivores have specialized digestive tracts to break down
cellulose
How do specific B cells within a population of Bcells respond to a particular antigen
it replicates and secrets Abs
what do B cells do
create antibodies
how is one B cell different from another B cell in the body
each produces its own Ab that binds to a specific epitope
what is the function of the pyloric sphincter
ensures that chyme enters the small intestine a little at a time
what are the characteristics of mucosal epitheleal surfaces
entries and exits of the body that are covered with secreted mucous that physically trap invaders and degrade them with enzymes
explain a single loop circulatory system and which animal uses it
fish blood is pumped from heart to gills, to body, back to heart
how is foregut fermentation different from the human digestive tract
humans do not have rumen and do not regurgitate and rechew their food
what is herd immuntiy
if a certain high percentage of individuals in a population are protected, this will provide protection to the others
what does atherosclerosis result in
impedes on blood flow
how does lung cancer affect respiration
it prevents airflow because the tumors in the walls of large bronchi constrict airways
what role does the liver play in digestion
it secrets bile
what is the function of antibodies present on the surface of B cells
results in a robust response to a particular antigen
antigen
substance (protein, carbohydrate, etc.) that an antibody binds to
what occurs in the lungs during an asthma attack
the bronchi constrict which leads to a reduction of airflow in and out of the alveoli
how are neutrophils and macrophages alike
they both eat foreign material and destroy it
how are the soft palate and epiglottis involved in swallowing
they ensure that food enters the esophagus rather than elsewhere
what are the lungs of a person with emphysema like
they have fewer functional alveoli due to the loss of flexibility in the alveolar walls
what do memory cells do
when they encounter the antigen again, they mount a more rapid, robust immune response