Bisc 132 Exam 5 Kemege

where are the kidneys located

lower back

what are the components of plasma

mostly water nutrients waste hormones ions proteins

what are characteristics of red blood cells

-disc shaped -no nucleus -contain hemoglobin that contains O2

what is a heart attack caused by and what are its effects

-due to lack of blood/O2 -causes death of cells in the heart

what is a stroke caused by and what are its effects

-due to lack of blood/O2 to the brain -causes death of brain cells

how do t cells achieve regulation of the immune system

by secreting lots of cytokines

what is the difference in an open and closed circulatory system

open circulatory systems has blood flowing freely while closed circulatory systems have blood flowing through vessels

how is the diversity created in B cells

randomly rearranging the DNA for Ab gene in maturing B cells

what are memory cells

B cells and/or T cells that were involved in an immune response

right atrium

a chamber of the heart where deoxygenated blood enters the heart

aptosis

a process of programmed cell death

from where does blood arrive at the kidney

artery

what organ stores urine

bladder

what do cytoxic t cells do

cause death of altered self cells

which molecules of the glomerular filtrate are re-absorbed

glucose and amino acids

what is a myocardial infarction

heart attack

how are cytoxic t cells similar to b cells

in their creation and specificity

what is causing herd immunity to break down

more individuals are electing to not get vaccinated

how are neutrophils and macrophages different

neutrophils are the first to arrive macrophages arrive next, but are also capable of releasing cytokines

what are the components of blood

plasma blood cells platelets

how is serum different from plasma

plasma is the part of blood that contains both serum and clotting factors serum is the part of the blood that remains once the clotting factors have left

serum

plasma that has had its fibrinogen removed

antibodies

proteins that bind to the epitopes of antigens

what are antibodies

proteins that bind to the epitopes of antigens

what are the two major types of blood cells

red blood cells (erythrocytes) and white blood cells (leukocytes)

what do helper t cells do

regulate the immune system

what is the function of secreted antibodies

signals for it to be phagocytized

what occurs at the glomerulus

small molecules (H2O, glucose, urea, ions) are filtered through the porous walls

cytokines

small signaling molecules used by the immune system

what are cytokines

small signaling molecules used by the immune system

how are cytoxic t cells different from b cells

t-cells have t cell receptors on ALL surfaces never secreted

what is biles function in digestion

the bile salts emulsify fats

what features does the stomach have to resist digestion by itself

the cells are lined with mucous

mastication

the process of chewing

what is mastication

the process of chewing

what does the result of binding of toll-like receptors result in

the signaling of other immune cells

through what is urine secreted

urethra

what is coprophagy

when nonruminant herbivores eat their own feces

what is the function of saliva and where is it produced

-produced in the salivary glands -moistens food for easier passage

what is the function of the loop of henle

-re-absorb H2O -concentrate waste in the urine

how does the small intestine increase its surface area and why

-the walls are lined with villi and microvilli -absorption

what is the function of the anal sphincter

allows for delayed defacation

what do toll-like receptors bind to

common patterns found in viruses and bacteria

why are flu vaccines given every year

the flu virus changes its epitopes rapidly so old memory cells may not recognize the new epitopes

plasma

the fluid matrix of blood

what are nephrons

the functional units in the kidney

what happens in the glomerulus to different things in the blood (water, glucose, blood cells, proteins) at this stage

the glomerular filtrate enters a convoluted system of nephron tubes that are surrounded by capillaries

what is atherosclerosis

the hardening of arteries

what is the function of the gall bladder

to store bile

describe the digestive tract of a ruminant that performs foregut fermentation

-have a four chambered stomach, 1st chamber is called rumen -bacteria are mixed with plant/cellulose in rumen -regurgitate contents of rumen to chew more thoroughly so more cellulose can be freed

what are the characteristics of white blood cells

-involved in immune system

what roles does the pancreas play in digestin

-secretes enzymes into small intestiine to break down proteins, carbohydrates, and fats -secretes bicarbonate to neutralize acidity of chyme

why do nonruminant herbivores perform coprophagy

-to give a second pass through small intestine -required for proper nutrition

what are the charaacteristics of platelets

-very small -not cells -involved in clotting

what are neutrophils and macrophages

leukocytes

what is bile

liver waste products

how does the skin act as part of the immune system

-a physical barrier preventing entry by micrboes -oil and sweat create a low pH which inhibits microbial growth -normal, non-pathogenic bacteria and fungi live on the skin which helps to crowd out harmful microbes

what is the function of the small intestine

-breaks down sugars, fats, and proteins and absorbs it into bloodstream -also absorbs most of the liquids in chyme

what processes occur in the stomach

-cells secrete gastric juice -denatures/unfolds protein -makes them easier to break down -kills many microbes

what is the function of the large intestine

-compacts waste -absorbs last of water -bacteria break down fiber and produce some vitamins

describe the digestive tract of a non-ruminant that performs hindgut fermentation

-have a large cecum pouch before the large intestine -houses bacteria that breakdown cellulose

what are vaccines composed of

-inactivated/dead pathogen -live "attenuated" pathogen or -purified antigens from pathogen

how does the innate immune system respond to tissue damage

-lets microbes in, past primary defense (skin) -blood clots to close wound -cytokines released by damaged tissue attracts neutrophils from blood stream -neutrophils (and later macrophages) perform phagocytosis -skin cells regenerate

explain the 8 steps of a circulatory system with a 4 chambered heart

1. blood in body/head loses its O2 2.deoxygentated blood enters heart through veins into right atrium 3. blood is pumped from right atrium to right ventricle 4. blood (deoxygenated) is pumped from right ventricle to lungs 5. at lungs, blood obtains O2 6. oxygenated blood enters heart into left atrium 7. blood is pumped from left atrium to left ventricle 8. blood (oxygenated) is pumped from left ventricle to head/body

what do vaccines do to the immune system

1. expose individuals to the vaccine 2.have immune response to antigen 3. make memory cells that prevent subsequent infection

what are the steps in blood clotting

1. platelets adhere to wound site, form a sticky plug 2.signals for fibrinogen to converted to fibrin 3. fibrin traps RBCs, holds together clot 4. as wound heals, clot dissolves

how can B cells lead to an autoimmune disease

Abs dont bind to antigens in normal human body which means they are not killed during development

right ventricle

a chamber of the heart where deoxygenated blood exits the heart

left atrium

a chamber of the heart where oxygenated blood enters the heart

left ventricle

a chamber of the heart where oxygenated blood exits the heart

epiglottis

a flat flap of cartilage at the root of the tongue that prevents food from entering the trachea to the lungs

soft palate

a flat flap of skin in the back of the mouth that prevents food from entering nasal passage

chyme

a fluid composed of food mixed with gastric juices

what is chyme

a fluid composed of food mixed with gastric juices

paristalsis

a series of muscular contractions that move food through the digestive tract

what is peristalsis

a series of muscular contractions that move food through the digestive tract

what are antigens

a substance that an antibody binds to

epitopes

a very specific structural region of an antigen

what is a epitope

a very specific structural region of antigen

why is it important that molecules of the glomerular filtrate are re-absorbed

because glucose should not be present in urine

why must some drugs be taken multiple times per day

because they are filtered out of the body and not reabsorbed

what molecule do herbivores have specialized digestive tracts to break down

cellulose

How do specific B cells within a population of Bcells respond to a particular antigen

it replicates and secrets Abs

what do B cells do

create antibodies

how is one B cell different from another B cell in the body

each produces its own Ab that binds to a specific epitope

what is the function of the pyloric sphincter

ensures that chyme enters the small intestine a little at a time

what are the characteristics of mucosal epitheleal surfaces

entries and exits of the body that are covered with secreted mucous that physically trap invaders and degrade them with enzymes

explain a single loop circulatory system and which animal uses it

fish blood is pumped from heart to gills, to body, back to heart

how is foregut fermentation different from the human digestive tract

humans do not have rumen and do not regurgitate and rechew their food

what is herd immuntiy

if a certain high percentage of individuals in a population are protected, this will provide protection to the others

what does atherosclerosis result in

impedes on blood flow

how does lung cancer affect respiration

it prevents airflow because the tumors in the walls of large bronchi constrict airways

what role does the liver play in digestion

it secrets bile

what is the function of antibodies present on the surface of B cells

results in a robust response to a particular antigen

antigen

substance (protein, carbohydrate, etc.) that an antibody binds to

what occurs in the lungs during an asthma attack

the bronchi constrict which leads to a reduction of airflow in and out of the alveoli

how are neutrophils and macrophages alike

they both eat foreign material and destroy it

how are the soft palate and epiglottis involved in swallowing

they ensure that food enters the esophagus rather than elsewhere

what are the lungs of a person with emphysema like

they have fewer functional alveoli due to the loss of flexibility in the alveolar walls

what do memory cells do

when they encounter the antigen again, they mount a more rapid, robust immune response