BOOK HR 500: Organizational Behavior and Leadership
What is the nature of conflict in organizations? 2
"If I had a formula for bypassing trouble, I would not pass it round. Trouble creates a capacity to handle it. I don't embrace trouble; that's as bad as treating it as an enemy. ...But I do say meet it as a friend, for you'll see a lot of it and had better be on speaking terms with it." —Oliver Wendell Holmes
Chapter 11Communication
Communicating for relationships and results
Chapter 3Perception, Attribution, and Learning
A discerning eye tells the story
Chapter 10Conflict and Negotiation
Don't neglect the power of "yes"
Figure 10.3 Direct conflict management strategies.
Figure 10.4 Five direct conflict management strategies.
What are individual and cultural values?
Values •Broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes. •Values influence attitudes and behavior.
Chapter 2 Study Questions
Why are diversity and individual differences important? What is personality? How are personality and stress related? What are individual and cultural values?
Figure 9.2 Combinations of decision environments and types of decisions
Certain Environments Risk Environments Uncertain Environments Programmed Decisions Non-Programmed Decisions
What is the nature of negotiation in organizations? 3
Effective negotiation factors: •Quality - negotiation results offer a "quality" agreement that is wise and satisfactory to all sides. •Harmony - negotiation is "harmonious" and fosters rather than inhibits good interpersonal relations. •Efficiency - negotiation is "efficient" and no more time consuming or costly than absolutely necessary. NOTES Effective negotiation occurs when substance issues are resolved and working relationships are maintained or even improved.
What is personality? How are personality and stress related?
Emotional adjustment traits •How much an individual experiences distress or displays unacceptable acts. •Type A orientation •Type B orientation Notes: Type A orientation is characterized by impatience, desire for achievement, and perfectionism. Type B orientation is characterized as more easygoing and less competitive in relation to daily events.
What are teams and how are they used in organizations? 7
Employee involvement team •Teams whose members meet regularly to collectively examine important workplace issues. Quality circle - small team that meets periodically to discuss and develop solutions relating to quality and productivity. NOTES Employee involvement teams might discuss, for example, ways to enhance quality, better satisfy customers, raise productivity, and improve the quality of work life. Such employee involvement teams are supposed to mobilize the full extent of workers' know-how and experiences for continuous improvements.
Chapter 5 Motivation Theories
Achievement requires effort
What are the stages of team development?
Adjourning stage •A well-integrated team is able to Disband when its work is finished. Work together in the future. •Particularly important for temporary teams. Notes Team members must be able to convene quickly, do their jobs on a tight schedule, and then adjourn—often to reconvene later if needed.
What are teams and how are they used in organizations? 12
Advantages of virtual teams •Brings together individuals who may be located at great differences from one another. •Offers obvious cost and time efficiencies. •Focuses task accomplishment and decision making by reducing the emotional considerations that may surface in face-to-face meetings. NOTES Discussions and information shared among team members can also be electronically stored for continuous access and historical record keeping.
What are emotions and moods?
Affect •Range of emotions and moods that people experience in their life context. Emotions are strong positive or negative feelings directed toward something or someone.
How can team decisions be improved? 9
Assets and Liabilities of Consensus and Unanimity •Advantages: More information, knowledge and expertise is applied to solve problem. Discussion leads to broader understanding of final decision. Increases acceptance and strengthens commitment of members to follow through and support decision. •Disadvantages: Imperfect decisions may result from social pressures to conform to group, or undue influence of team leader. Team decisions take more time than individual decisions.
What is organizational behavior and why is it important?
Cross-Cultural Awareness •Understanding from managers, employees to government leaders and true understanding of how OB theories and concepts apply in different countries
How can team communications be improved? 2
Decentralized communication network •Members communicate directly, as needed, and share information with one another. NOTES These structures are also called all-channel or star communication networks. They work best for groups trying to accomplish complex and non-routine tasks.
How can team decisions be improved? 14
Delphi technique •Involves generating decision-making alternatives through a series of survey questionnaires. NOTES In this procedure, a series of questionnaires are distributed to a panel of decision makers, who submit initial responses to a decision coordinator. The coordinator summarizes the solutions and sends the summary back to the panel members, along with a follow-up questionnaire. Panel members again send in their responses, and the process is repeated until a consensus is reached and a clear decision emerges.
What is the link between motivation, performance, and rewards? 6
Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs) • Companies may give stock to employees, or allow stock to be purchased by them at a price below market value. notes The incentive value of the stock awards or purchases is like the stock options. "Employee owners" should be motivated to work hard so that the organization will perform well, its stock price will rise, and as owners they will benefit from the gains.
Figure 1.3 The Management Process of Planning, Organizing, Leading, and Controlling
Environment Supplies: Information Materials Technology Facilities Money People TO Organization Creates Value: Transformation process Circles Work Activitiy TO Environment Consumes: Finished Goods and Services All three go through consumer feedback Note: The management process of planning , organizing, leading and controlling
What is negotiation?
Ethical aspects of negotiation •The motivation to behave ethically in negotiations is put to the test by each party's desire to "get more" than the other from the negotiation and/or by a belief that there are insufficient resources to satisfy all parties. NOTES Managers and others involved in negotiations should strive for high ethical standards of conduct, but this goal can get sidetracked by an overemphasis on self interests.
What are the input foundations for teamwork? 6
FIRO-B Theory ("fundamental interpersonal orientation") •Identifies differences in how people relate to one another in groups. •Individual difference determine needs to express and receive feelings of inclusion, control, and affection. NOTES Developed by William Schultz, the theory suggests that teams whose members have compatible needs are likely to be more effective than teams whose members are more incompatible. Symptoms of incompatibilities include withdrawn members, open hostilities, struggles over control, and domination by a few members.
What is the Nature of Communication in Organizational Contexts?
Formal channels •Follow the chain of command established by an organization's hierarchy of authority. Informal channels •Do not adhere to the organization's hierarchy of authority. NOTES Because formal channels are recognized as authoritative, it is typical for communication of policies, procedures, and other official announcements to adhere to them. Informal channels help to create open communications in organizations and ensure that the right people are in contact with one another.
What are the alternative strategies for negotiation? 5
Foundations of Integrative negotiation 1.Attitudinal Willingness to trust, share information, and ask concrete questions.
In your experience...
In your current or former job, did your manager behave the same way with each of the people he/she managed? •A=Yes, B=No If no, what was different about the relationships between the manager and each employee?
What are the motivational opportunities of alternative work assignments?
Job sharing •One full-time job is assigned to two or more persons who then divide the work according to agreed-upon hours. •Advantages: For workers: less burnout and higher energy level. For organizations: attracting talented people who would otherwise be unable to work. NOTES Often, each person works half a day, but job sharing can also be done on a weekly or monthly basis.
What is the link between motivation, performance, and rewards?
Pay for performance •When pay functions well it can help organizations attract and retain highly capable workers. •Pay can also help satisfy and motivate workers to work hard to achieve high performance. •When something goes wrong with pay, negative effects on motivation performance may occur. NOTES Research generally concludes that pay only serves as a motivator when high levels of job performance are viewed as the paths through which high pay can be achieved. This is the essence of performance-contingent pay or pay for performance. It basically means that you earn more when you produce more and earn less when you produce less.
What are the essentials of performance management? 2
Performance appraisal •Formal procedure for measuring and documenting a person's work performance. notes There are a variety of alternative performance measurement methods. They each have strengths and weaknesses that make them more appropriate for use in some situations than others.
What are the barriers to effective communication? 8
Physical distractions •Another barrier that can interfere the effectiveness of the communication process. NOTES Any number of physical distractions can interfere with the effectiveness of a communication attempt.
How can team communications be improved? 5
Proxemics involves use of space as people interact. •Architects and consultants that specialize in office design help executives create spaces conducive to intense communication and teamwork needed in today's work environment. •Design of office space, and the size and availability of meeting rooms can positively impact the effectiveness of team communication. NOTES Businesses that have designed office space to encourage communication include Sun Microsystems, Google and b&a advertising.
What is the Nature of Communication in Relational Contexts?
Relationship Maintenance Relational Violation is a violation of the "boundary" of acceptable behavior in a relationship. Relational Repair involves actions to return the relationship to a positive state.
How do people respond to power and influence? 2
Resistance •Constructive Resistance Characterized by thoughtful dissent aimed at constructively challenging the influencing agent to rethink the issue. •Dysfunctional Resistance Involves a more passive form of non-compliance in which individuals ignore or dismiss the request of the influencing again. NOTES Responses to power include not only conformity, but also resistance. Resistance involves individuals saying no, making excuses, stalling or even arguing against the initiative. Research has distinguished two types of resistance strategies used by individuals when they perceive an impractical request from their supervisor.
What are the input foundations for teamwork? 7
Status •A person's relative rank, prestige or social standing. Status congruence •Occurs when a person's position within the team is equivalent in status to positions the individual holds outside of it. NOTES Any status in-congruence may create problems.
What are the input foundations for teamwork? 5
Team composition •The mix of abilities, skills, personalities, and experiences that the members bring to the team. NOTE The basic rule of thumb for team composition is to choose members whose talents and interests fit well with the tasks to be accomplished, and whose personal characteristics increase the likelihood of being able to work well with others.
Chapter 8Teamwork and Team Performance
Teams are worth the hard work
Contingency thinking
•Seeks ways to meet the needs of different management situations. •Recognizes responses to solutions must be crafted to best fit the circumstances and people involved.
What is involved in the decision-making process? 12
A decision environment is uncertain • When managers have so little information on hand that they cannot even assign probabilities to various alternatives and their possible outcomes. NOTES This is the most difficult of the three decision environments. Uncertainty forces decision makers to rely heavily on individual and group creativity to succeed in problem solving. It requires unique, novel, and often totally innovative alternatives to existing patterns of behavior. Responses to uncertainty are often heavily influenced by intuition, educated guesses, and hunches.
What is the Nature of Communication in Organizational Contexts? 3
Channel richness •The capacity of a communication channel to convey information.
What are individual and cultural values? 5
Cultural Values •Culture is the learned and shared way of thinking and acting among a group of people or society. Notes Values can also be discussed for their presence at the level of national or societal culture.
What is organizational behavior and why is it important?
Evidenced-based management •Uses hard facts and empirical evidence to make decisions. •Evidence-based thinking manifests itself through a contingency approach which researchers identify how different situations can best be understood and handled.
Figure 11.2 Furniture Placement and Nonverbal Communication in the Office
Figure 11.2 The figure shows three different office arrangements and the messages they may communicate to visitors.
Figure 6.4: A continuum of job design strategies
Figure 6.4 The figure shows three major alternative job design approaches, and also indicates how they differ in how tasks are defined and in the availability of intrinsic rewards. JOB SIMPLIFICATION: LOW OR HIGH jOB ENLARGEMENT & ROTATION Moderate: Intrinsic work rewards to Moderate: Task Specialization jOB ENRICHMENT: HIGH OR LOW
Figure 7.1: Organizational and Management Implications of Self-Managing Teams
Figure 7.1 The figure shows that members of true self-managing teams make their own decisions about scheduling work, allocating tasks, training for job skills, evaluating performance, selecting new team members, and controlling the quality of work.
Figure 8.3 Cohesiveness and norms influence behavior
Figure 8.3 When the performance norms are negative in highly cohesive group, the power toward conformity produces a 'worst case' situation. The team is good for the members individually, but results in poor performance for the group.
Figure 9.5 Individual and Team Creativity Drivers
Figure 9.5 INDIVIDUAL CREATIVITY DRIVERS: * Task Expertise * Creativity Skills * Task Motivation TO Creativity in Team Decision-Making TO Decision Techniques Creative Membership External Support Team Creativity Drivers
What are teams and how are they used in organizations? 2
Formal teams •Created and officially designated to serve a specific organizational purposes. •May be permanent or temporary and vary in size and composition. NOTES Formal teams are created to solve specific problems or perform defined tasks and are then disbanded once the purpose has been accomplished. Examples include temporary committees and task forces.
How do Human Needs Influence Motivation? 4
Hygiene factors •Sources of job dissatisfaction found in the job context or work setting. •Job dissatisfaction occurs when hygiene factors are poor. •Improving the hygiene factors only decreases job dissatisfaction. NOTES Hygiene factors relate more to the setting in which people work than to the nature of the work itself.
What are emotions and moods? 4
Moods •Generalized positive or negative feelings or states of mind. NOTES Moods can persist over time and can affect an individual's likeability and job performance.
How do Human Needs Influence Motivation? 5
Motivator factors •Sources of job satisfaction related to job content. •Presence or absence of satisfiers or motivators in people's jobs is the key to satisfaction, motivation, and performance. Job enrichment is a way of building more motivator factors into job content. NOTES When motivator factors are minimal, low job satisfaction decreases motivation and performance. When motivator factors are substantial, high job satisfaction raises motivation and performance.
What are the stages of team development? 3
Norming stage •The point at which the members really begin to come together as a coordinated unit. •Member challenges Holding team together may over supersede task accomplishment. Sense of cohesiveness may discourage minority views. Can result in false sense of team maturity.
How does Perceived Equity Influence Motivation? 5
Organizational Justice How fair and equitable people view the practices of their workplace.
What can be done to stimulate creativity in decision-making? 2
Personal creativity drivers •Task expertise •Task motivation •Creativity skill set
What is involved in learning by reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement •Administration of positive consequences that tend to increase the likelihood of repeating the desirable behavior in similar settings. Law of contingent reinforcement - states a reward should be given when the desired behavior occurs. Law of immediate reinforcement - states a reward should be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior occurs. NOTE The law of contingent reinforcement - Example: a supervisor's praise should be contingent on the worker's doing something identifiably well, such as giving a constructive suggestion in a meeting. Also, the reward must be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior. This is known as the law of immediate reinforcement. Example: If the supervisor waits for the annual performance review to praise a worker for providing constructive comments, the law of immediate reinforcement would be violated.
What is communication? 5
Potential barriers to feedback in the workplace •Noise Anything that interferes with the effectiveness of communication. NOTE There is an art to giving feedback so that the receiver accepts it and uses it constructively.
What is the nature of conflict in organizations? 4
Potential benefits of functional conflict •Brings important problems to the surface so they can be addressed. •Causes decisions to be carefully considered. •Increases amount of information used for decision making. •Provides opportunities for creativity. NOTES An effective manager or team leader is able to stimulate constructive conflict in situations in which satisfaction with the status quo inhibits needed change and development.
How can team communications be improved? 4
Restricted communication network •Subgroups disagree with one another's positions. •Poor communication is characteristic of this type of situation. NOTES As would be expected, limited and biased communication between the counteracting groups often creates problems.
How can team processes be improved? 5
Role overload •Occurs when too much is expected of the individual. Role underload •Occurs when too little is expected of the individual. NOTES Members of any group typically benefit from having clear and realistic expectations regarding their expected tasks and responsibilities. This minimizes the potential for role overload where team members may feel overwhelmed. Or, for role underload where team members may feel underused.
What is the link between perception and attribution? 2
Social learning theory •Describes how learning takes place through the reciprocal interactions among people, behavior, and environment. NOTES An individual uses modeling or vicarious learning to acquire behavior by observing and imitating others. The person then attempts to acquire these behaviors by modeling them through practice. In a work situation, the model may be a higher manager or co-worker who demonstrates desired behaviors. Mentors or senior workers who befriend younger and more inexperienced protégés can also be important models.
What are charismatic and transformational theories? 3
Transforming Leadership Theory •Power wielders Uses power to advance their own interests without considering follower's needs. NOTES Another approach that helped lift leadership studies out of the "doom and gloom" period was transformational leadership theory. Much of this work was inspired by James MacGregor Burns' and his 1978 book, Leadership. Transforming Leadership Theory Burns' theory describes leadership from the standpoint of power, purpose, and relationships. Burns distinguishes between leaders and power wielders: Leaders take followers' goals, motivations, needs and feelings into consideration and use power for good. Power wielders, on the other hand, are egocentric and Machiavellian. They use power to advance their own interests without considering followers' needs. Whereas leaders elevate followers (and themselves) to new heights, power wielders gain power over followers, often making followers engage in behaviors they otherwise would not do. In Burns' view, power wielders are not leaders.
What are charismatic and transformational theories? 6
Bass's Transformational Leadership •Refers to the exchange relationship between leaders and followers to meet their own self-interests. NOTES Like Burns' definition, Bass's transactional leadership refers to exchanges between leaders and followers. Bass emphasizes the role of these exchanges in meeting self-interests. Transactional leadership may take several forms. Contingent rewards represent the exchange of rewards in exchange for mutually agreed-upon goal accomplishment. Active management by exception involves watching for deviations from rules and standards and taking corrective action. Passive management by exception involves intervening only if standards not met. And laissez-faire leadership involves abdicating responsibilities and avoiding decisions. Typical incremental changes include the introduction of new products, technologies, systems, and processes. Although the nature of the organization remains relatively the same, incremental change builds on the existing ways of operating to enhance or extend them in new directions. The capability of improving continuously through incremental change is an important asset in today's demanding business environment.
What are the alternative decision-making models?
Classical decision model assumes a manager: •Acts rationally and in a fully informed manner. •Faces a clearly defined problem. •Knows all possible action alternatives and their consequences. •Chooses the optimum solution that give the absolute best solution to the problem. NOTES This classical decision model fits the five-step decision-making process described earlier. It is an ideal situation of complete information where the decision maker moves through the steps one by one in a logical fashion. And it nicely lends itself to various forms of quantitative decision analysis as well as to computer-based applications.
What are attitudes and how do they influence behavior ? 2
Cognitive component •Reflects underlying beliefs, opinions, knowledge, or information a person possesses. Affective component •Specific feeling regarding the personal impact of the antecedent condition evidenced in the cognitive component. Behavioral component •Intention to behave in a certain way based on the affect in one's attitude. NOTES Cognitive component represents a person's ideas about someone or something and the conclusions drawn about them. Affective component becomes the actual attitude. Behavioral component is a predisposition to act, but one that may or may not be implemented.
What can be done to stimulate creativity in decision-making?
Creativity •Involves the generation of a novel idea or unique approach to solving performance problems or exploiting performance opportunities. NOTES In a dynamic environment full of novel and challenging problems as well as vague but intriguing opportunities, creativity in crafting decisions often determines how well people, teams, and organizations do in response to complex challenges.
What are the input foundations for teamwork? 8
Diversity and Team Performance •Team diversity - consists of different values, personalities, experiences, demographics, and cultures among members. •In homogeneous teams, members are very similar to one another. •In heterogeneous teams, members are very dissimilar, teamwork problems are more likely. NOTES When homogeneous team members are too similar in background, training, and experience, they tend to underperform even though the members may feel very comfortable with one another. In heterogeneous teams, the mix of diverse personalities, experiences, backgrounds, ages, and other personal characteristics may create difficulties as members try to define problems, share information, mobilize talents, and deal with obstacles or opportunities. Nevertheless, if—and this is a big "if"—members can work well together, the diversity can be a source of advantage and enhanced performance potential.
What are Barriers to Effective Communication? 12
Ethnocentrism •The tendency to believe that one's culture and its values are superior to those of others. •Cross-cultural communication challenges: Language differences Use of gestures Parochialism The ways of your culture are the only ways of doing things. NOTES The difficulties with cross-cultural communication are perhaps most obvious in respect to language differences. Advertising messages, for example, may work well in one country but encounter difficulty when translated into the language of another. Gestures may also be used quite differently in the various cultures of the world.
What do we know about leader-follower relationships? 5
Idiosyncrasy Credits • Refer to our ability to violate norms with others based on whether we have enough "credits" to cover the violation. NOTES Another way to view the nature of exchange in relationships is idiosyncrasy credit theory, developed by social psychologist Edwin Hollander in the 1950s. Idiosyncrasy credits represent our ability to violate norms with others based on whether we have enough "credits" to cover the violation. If we have enough credits, we can get away with idiosyncrasies (i.e., deviations from expected norms) as long as the violation does not exceed the amount of credits. If we do not have enough credits, the violation will create a deficit. When deficits become large enough, or go on for too long, our account becomes "bankrupt," and the deviations will no longer be tolerated, resulting in deterioration of relationships.
What are the challenges in leadership in organizations?
Leadership Process involves individuals (followers) being influenced by others (leaders). Leading (Influencing) moves back and forth from Following (Deferring) These go to Following (Deferring) moves back and forth from Leading (Influencing) These move into Leadership These move to Outcomes
How do job designs influence motivation and performance? 6
Moderators that influence the degree of positive outcomes of enriched jobs: •Employee growth-need strength is high. •The employee has the required knowledge and skills. •Employee is satisfied with the work context (salary, supervision, relationships). NOTES Hackman and Oldham suggest that enriched jobs will lead to positive outcomes only for those persons who are a good match for them, the person-job fit again. Moderator variables tied to "fit" and the job characteristics theory are: *** Growth-need strength - Degree to which a person desires the opportunity for self-direction, learning, and personal accomplishment at work. *** Knowledge and skill - People whose capabilities fit the demands of enriched jobs are predicted to feel good about them and perform well. *** Context satisfaction - The extent to which an employee is satisfied with aspects of the work setting such as salary levels, quality of supervision, relationships with co-workers, and working conditions.
What are individual and cultural values? 2
Terminal values •Reflect a person's preferences concerning the "ends" to be achieved. Instrumental values •Reflect a person's beliefs about the means for achieving desired ends. NOTES Terminal values are the goals individuals would like to achieve during their lifetime. Instrumental values represent how a person might go about achieving important end states.
What is power and why is it important? 3
The Problem of Powerlessness Powerlessness is defined as a lack of autonomy and participation. NOTES One of the biggest problems associated with power and dependence is the perception of powerlessness. Powerlessness is defined as a lack of autonomy and participation. It occurs when power imbalances that make people feel they have no option but to do what others say. When people experience powerlessness, they feel little control over themselves and their work processes.
Chapter 4 Study Questions
What are emotions and moods? How do emotions and moods influence behavior? What are attitudes and how do they influence behavior? What are the job satisfaction trends and Issues?
Chapter 8 Study Questions
What are high-performance teams? How can team processes be improved? How can team communications be improved? How can team decisions be improved?
Chapter 9Decision Making and Creativity
You have to make good choices
How do we learn about organizational behavior?
* Get to Know Yourself Better ** Take assessment 5, personal values, in the OB skills workbook **** What did you learn about your values? **** Are they balanced? **** Do the results suggest how you would react in situations of ethics?
What are the challenges of management in organizations?
The management process. •Planning •Organizing •Leading •Controlling Notes: Planning - defining goals, setting specific performance objectives, and identifying the actions needed to achieve them. Organizing - creating work structures and systems, and arranging resources to accomplish the goals and objectives. Leading - instilling enthusiasm by communicating with others, motivating them to work hard, and maintaining good interpersonal relations. Controlling - ensuring that things go well by monitoring performance and taking corrective action as necessary.
What are the input foundations for teamwork?
The quality of inputs determine the eventual team effectiveness (TE). TE =Quality of Inputs + (Process gains - Process losses)
What is job satisfaction trends and issues? 4
Theory: Performance causes satisfaction •Satisfaction Causes Performance - increase someone's work performance, make them happy. OR •Performance Causes Satisfaction - The higher levels of lasting satisfaction come from high levels of job performance. NOTES Research does find a link between individual performance measured at one time and later job satisfaction.
In your experience...
Think of a conflict you had with a co-worker... •Was it handled directly or indirectly? •How was it resolved? Think about the technique that was used. •Has the conflict re-appeared?
How can team communications be improved?
To assure high performance, team interaction patterns and communication networks must be aligned with interaction patterns and team tasks. •Centralized •Decentralized •Restrictive NOTES: For an effective and high performing team, interaction patterns and communication networks should fit with assigned tasks. A common mistake teams make is not using correct interaction patterns and communication networks.
What are the essentials of performance management? 3
To be meaningful, an appraisal system must be: •Reliable - provide consistent results each time it is used for the same person and situation. •Valid - actually measure dimensions with direct relevance to job performance. NOTES Measurement errors can threaten the reliability or validity of performance appraisals.
Figure 14.2 Key differences in transformational and transactional leadership styles
Transformational Leadership: * Idealized Influence: Increases degree of followers' identification with the leader. * Inspirational Leadership: Communicates high expectations, uses symbols and expresses important purposes in simple ways. * Intellectual Stimulation: Influencing followers to look for more creative solutions. * Individualized Consideration: Provides everyone personal attention, and coaches and advises Transactional Leadership: * Contingent Reward: Leader clarifies what the follower needs to do to be rewarded for the effort. * Active Management-By-Exception: Leader monitors the follower's performance and takes corrective action when needed. * Passive Leadership: Leader waits for problems to arise before taking corrective action. * Laissez-faire: Leader Avoids taking any action
How do Human Needs Influence Motivation? 3
Two-Factor Theory •Identifies two different factors as primary causes of job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction. •Also known as the motivator-hygiene theory. NOTES This theory identifies motivator factors as primary causes of job satisfaction and hygiene factors as primary causes of job dissatisfaction. And, the two factors operate independent of one another.
What is the nature of negotiation in organizations? 4
Two-party negotiation: •Manager negotiates directly with one other person. Group negotiation: •Manager is part of a team whose members are negotiating. Inter-group negotiation: •Manager is part of a group that is negotiating with another group. Constituency negotiation: Each party represents a broader constituency. NOTES Managers and team leaders should be prepared to participate in at least four major action settings for negotiations.
What is Motivation? 2
Types of motivation theories •Content theories Focus on individual needs - that is, physiological or psychological deficiencies that individuals feel a compulsion to reduce or eliminate. •Process theories Focus on how cognitive processes as thoughts and decisions within the minds of people influence their behavior. NOTES Theories of both types contribute to our understanding of motivation to work. But none offers a complete explanation. The content theories try to explain work behaviors based on pathways to need satisfaction and on blocked needs. Whereas a content approach may identify job security as an important individual need, a process approach would probe further to identify why the decision to seek job security results in certain work behaviors.
Why are some scholar turning to complexity views?
Understanding Emergence •Emergence The process through which higher-level order arises out of the lower-level interactions. NOTES In complexity, emergence is the phenomenon through which higher-level order arises out of lower-level interactions. It occurs through an aggregation, or linking-up, process. The process initiates with agents, or nodes, linking up and becoming aggregates, or collectivities. This process repeats itself through a succession of linking-up, or aggregation, processes. At some point in this aggregation process, a linkage can occur that triggers a tipping point. When a tipping point happens, the system "collapses" on itself, creating what is know as a phase transition—a transition to a fundamentally new state. Once a phase transition happens there is no going back. The system at this point cannot be decomposed back into its original parts, as those parts are now fundamentally changed.
What is leadership?
Upward Leadership •Occurs when leaders within the organization influence those at higher levels in ways that create change. NOTES Whereas formal leadership is associated with the hierarchical, "manager-subordinate" views of leadership, informal leadership can occur anywhere in the organization and flow in any direction, including upward. Upward leadership occurs when leaders within the organization influence those at higher levels in ways that create change. This concept of leadership flowing upward is often missed in discussions of leadership in organizations—but it is absolutely critical for individual and organizational effectiveness. Individuals at lower levels often have much greater understanding and awareness of what is happening than those at the top, and without upward leadership and communication flows, organizations are not able to respond or adapt as effectively to pressures and demands from their environments.
How can conflict be managed? 10
Upward referral •Problems are moved from the level of conflicting individual or teams and referred up the hierarchy for more senior managers to address. Altering scripts and myths •Superficial management managed by scripts, or behavioral routines, that become part of the organization's culture. NOTES Managers removed from day-today affairs may fail to diagnose the real causes of a conflict, and conflict resolution may be superficial. By sticking with the script, expressing only low-key disagreement, and then quickly acting as if everything has been resolved, for instance, the managers publicly act as if problems are being addressed. Such scripts can be altered to allow and encourage active confrontation of issues and disagreements.
What are individual and cultural values? 4
Value congruence •Occurs when individuals express positive feelings upon encountering others who exhibit values similar to their own. NOTES Researchers have found greater follower satisfaction with the leader when there was congruence in terms of achievement, helping, honesty, and fairness values.
Why are diversity and individual differences important?
Valuing (or not Valuing) Diversity •Discrimination - the flip side of valuing diversity against women and minorities in the workplace. •Glass Ceiling Effect - An invisible barrier or "ceiling" that prevents women and minorities from rising above a certain level of organizational. •Race and Ethnicity - The value of heterogeneous perspectives within teams and organizations. Notes: Discrimination actively denies minority members the full benefits of or-ganizational membership. Race and Ethnicity The value of heterogeneous perspectives within teams and organizations can be gained from multicultural workforces with a rich mix of ra-cial and ethnic diversity. And, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects individuals against employment discrimination on the basis of race and ethnicity, as well as national origin, sex, and religion. It applies to employers with 15 or more employees, including state and local governments. The glass ceiling effect is an invisible barrier limiting career advancement of women and minorities.
What are teams and how are they used in organizations? 11
Virtual Team •Members convene and work together through computer mediation rather than interacting face-to-face . Can accomplish same tasks as face-to-face teams, but are free from geographic barriers. NOTES Working in electronic space and free from the constraints of geographical distance, members of virtual teams can do the same things as members of face-to-face groups: share information, make decisions, and complete tasks.
How can team communications be improved? 6
Virtual communication networks •Technology provide numerous resources for real time communication. •Empowers team members to be in constant electronic contact with one another or a central database. •Online team building activities are critically important to high quality results. NOTES Communication technologies provide team members various opportunities to contribute to team performance and achieve results.
How can team processes be improved? 14
Ways to achieve positive inter-team dynamics •Refocusing members on a common enemy or goal. •Negotiating directly. •Engaging members, of different teams, in activities learning how to work cooperatively together. •Refocusing reward systems to emphasize contributions to overall organizational performance and on how much teams help one another. NOTES It is important to avoid win-lose reward systems in which one group must lose something in order for the other to gain. Cooperation tends to increase as interaction between groups increases.
Chapter 11 Study Questions
What Is Communication? What are Barriers to Effective Communication? What Is the Nature of Communication in Organizational Contexts? What Is the Nature of Communication in Relational Contexts? Why is Feedback So Important?
What are teams and how are they used in organizations?
What Teams Do •Teams that recommend things Established to study specific problems and recommend solutions to them. •Teams that run things Have formal responsibility for leading organizations and their component parts. •Teams that make or do things Work units that perform ongoing tasks. NOTES Teams that recommend things typically work with a target completion date and often disband once the purpose has been fulfilled. The teams include task forces, ad hoc committees, special project teams, and the like. Members of these teams must be able to learn quickly how to pool talents, work well together, and accomplish the assigned task. Teams that run things may exist at all levels of responsibility, from the individual work unit composed of a team leader and team members to the top-management team composed of a CEO and other senior executives. Members of teams that make or do things must have effective long-term working relationships with one another, the right technologies and operating systems, and the external support needed to achieve effectiveness over time. They also need energy to keep up the pace and meet the day-to-day challenges of sustained high performance.
Chapter 7 Study Questions
What are teams and how are they used in organizations? When is a team effective? What are the stages of team development? What are the input foundations for teamwork?
Chapter 14 Study Questions
What can we learn from trait and behavioral approaches? What do situational contingency approaches tell us about leadership? What are charismatic and transformational theories? Why are some scholar turning to complexity views? What do we know about leadership ethics?
Chapter 9 Study Questions
What is involved in the decision-making process? What are the alternative decision-making models? What are key decision-making traps and issues? What can be done to stimulate creativity in decision making?
Chapter 13 Study Questions
What is leadership? What is followership? What do we know about leader-follower relationships? What do we mean by leadership as a collective process?
Chapter Study Questions
What is motivation? How do human needs influence motivation? How does perceived equity influence motivation? How does expectancy influence motivation? How do goals and goal setting influence motivation?
Chapter 3 Study Questions
What is perception and why is it important? What are the common perceptual distortions? What is the link between perception, attribution, and social learning? What is involved in learning by reinforcement?
Chapter 12 Study Questions
What is power and why is it important? What are the sources of power and influence? How do people respond to power and influence? What is organizational politics? How do individual navigate politics in organizations?
Chapter 6 Study Questions
What is the link between motivation, rewards, and performance? What are the essentials of performance management? How do job designs influence motivation and performance? What are the motivational opportunities of alternative work arrangements?
Chapter 10 Study Questions
What is the nature of conflict in organizations? How can conflict be managed? What is the nature of negotiation in organizations? What are alternative strategies for negotiation?
In your experience
Which personal power would you likely use to request a promotion? a.Coalition b.Rational persuasion c.Expertise NOTE b. By using facts of your accomplishments, and logic, you might persuade your boss that granting the request will benefit the department, can result in positive outcomes for the organization, and make him look good in the process.
What is organizational politics?
Why do we have organizational politics? • Formal Systems **** Dictate what is to be done in organizations and how work processes are to be coordinated and structured. • Informal Systems **** Patterns of activity and relationships that arise in everyday activities as individuals and groups work to get things done. NOTES Organizations are composed of both formal and informal systems. Formal systems dictate what is to be done in organizations and how work processes are to be coordinated and structured. Formal systems are the "rational" side of organization. They prescribe behavior and reduce uncertainty. But not all behaviors in organizations are rational and can be pre-designated, so informal systems fill in the blanks. Informal systems are patterns of activity and relationships that arise in everyday activities as individuals and groups work to get things done. They are highly changeable, and occur through personal connections. For example, when a salesperson uses a personal connection with someone in operations to help speed up an order for a customer, it is an example of the informal system.
When is a team effective? 3
Why teams are good for organizations •Teams are beneficial as settings where people learn from one another and share job skills and knowledge. •The learning environment and the pool of experience within a team can be used to solve difficult and unique problems. •Opportunities for social interaction within a team can provide individuals with a sense of security through work assistance and technical advice. •Team members provide emotional support for one another in times of special crisis or pressure. •Many contributions individuals make to teams can help members experience self-esteem and personal involvement.
How can conflict be managed? 12
Win-Lose conflict •One party achieves its desires at the expense and to the exclusion of the other party's desires. Competition - achieve domination through force, superior skill, or domination. Authoritative command - formal authority used to end conflict. NOTES Win-lose conflict is a high-assertiveness and low- cooperativeness situation. Win-lose strategies fail to address the root causes of the conflict and tend to suppress the desires of at least one of the conflicting parties. As a result, future conflicts over the same issues are likely to occur.
How can conflict be managed? 13
Win-Win conflict •Achieved by a blend of both high cooperativeness and high assertiveness. Collaboration or problem solving involves recognition by all conflicting parties that something is wrong and need attention. It Stresses gathering and evaluating information in solving disputes and making choices. NOTES Win-win outcomes eliminate the reasons for continuing or resurrecting the conflict because nothing has been avoided or suppressed. All relevant issues are raised and openly discussed. The ultimate test for collaboration and a win-win solution is whether or not the conflicting parties see that the solution to the conflict (1) achieves each party's goals, (2) is acceptable to both parties, and (3) establishes a process whereby all parties involved see a responsibility to be open and honest about facts and feelings. When success in each of these areas is achieved, the likelihood of true conflict resolution is greatly increased. Collaboration and problem solving may not be feasible if the organization's dominant culture rewards competition too highly and fails to place a value on cooperation.
What is job satisfaction trends and issues? 2
Withdrawal behaviors •Dissatisfied workers are absent more frequently, more likely to quit, or at least on the lookout for different employment. •Employee absenteeism and turnover can result in Loss of experience Replacement costs for recruitment and training Physical Withdraw and Psychological Withdrawal NOTES On this issue of turnover and retention, a survey by Salary.com showed not only that employers tend to overestimate the job satisfactions of their employees, they underestimate the amount of job seeking they are doing... The report concluded that "most employers have not placed enough emphasis on important retention strategies."
What are the motivational opportunities of alternative work assignments?
Work sharing •Workers agree to cut back on the number of hours they work in order to protect against layoffs. •Some employers may mandate a cutback due to economic necessity.
How are personality and stress-related? 4
Work-related stressors: •Task demands •Role ambiguities •Role conflicts •Ethical dilemmas •Interpersonal problems •Career developments •Physical setting Notes Without doubt, work can be stressful, and job demands can disrupt one's work-life balance. Work stressors can arise from many sources - from excessively high or low task demands, role conflicts or ambiguities, poor interpersonal relations, or career progress that is either too slow or too fast.
How do we learn about organizational behavior?
Workforce diversity •Presence of Individual differences based on gender, race and ethnicity, age, able-bodiedness, and sexual orientation. Notes: Consultant R. Roosevelt Thomas makes the point positive organizational cultures tap the talents, ideas, and creative potential of all members.
Figure 14.1 A comprehensive contingency model
independent Variable: Leader Behavior Style * Directive * Supportive * Achievement-Oriented * Paricipative Outcome (Dependent) Variable: Leadership Effectiveness * Subordinate Job Satisfaction * Performance (Individual and Group Level) * Subordinate Acceptance of Leader * Subordinate Motivation Moderator Variable Subordinate Characteristics * Subordinate Ability/Follower Readiness * Authoritarianism (Open-or-Closed-Mindedness) * Locus of Control (Internal or External Orientation) Task and Leader Characteristics * Task Structure (High or Low) * Leader Position Power (Strong or Weak) * Quality of Leader-Member Relations (Good or Bad)
What are charismatic and transformational theories? 4
• •Transactional Leadership Involves a focus on exchanging valued goods in return for something leaders want. •Transformational Leadership Involves inspirational relationships in which both leaders and followers are positively transformed in the process. NOTES In his work Burns noticed different styles and approaches used by leaders. Some used transactional leadership styles, in which they focused on exchanging valued goods in return for something they want (e.g., economic, political or social exchanges, such as exchange of money for goods or support for votes). In this leadership style the focus was purely transactional, there was no expectation beyond the exchange. Other leaders—the ones Burns was most interested in learning more about—used what he called transformational leadership styles. These leaders were able to develop inspirational relationships with followers, such that both leaders and followers were positively transformed in the process. This transformation involved raising human conduct and the aspirations of both leaders and followers—raising both to higher levels of motivation for the purpose of accomplishing common goals.
How do we learn about organizational behavior?
• Learning is an enduring change in behavior that results from experience. • Lifelong learning about organizational behavior requires a commitment to continuous learning from one's work and everyday experiences. •Most organizational behavior courses use a variety of instructional methods—self- assessments, experiential exercises, team projects, and case studies—to take advantage of the experiential learning cycle Notes: Multiculturalism is an attribute of organizations. It emphasizes pluralism, and genuine respect for diversity and individual differences. A key element in any organization that embraces multiculturalism is inclusivity - the degree to which the culture embraces diversity and is open to anyone who can perform a job, regardless of their diversity attributes.
How can team decisions be improved? 11
•Avoiding groupthink •Leader refrains from announcing any position. •Every team member acts as critical evaluator. •Different sub-groups explore same problems. •Bring in outside experts to evaluate information, realism of goals, and plans for action. •Assign someone to be a "devil's" advocate at each team meeting. Rotate an appointed team "devil's advocate" so that no one particular person appears to dissent. NOTES Groupthink is a serious threat to the quality of decision making in groups. Leaders and members alike should be alert to the symptoms of groupthink and be quick to take any necessary action to prevent its occurrence.
What are the essentials of performance appraisal?
•Comparative Methods of Performance Appraisal •Ranking •Raters rank order individuals from best to worst on overall performance. •Paired Comparisons •Raters compare each person with every other person. •Forced Distribution •Raters place a specific proportion of employees into each performance standard notes Comparative methods of performance measurement seek to identify one worker's standing relative to others.
What do situational contingency approaches tell us about leadership?
•Contingency Approaches State that the relationship between leader behavior and leadership effectiveness depends on (i.e., "is contingent upon") the situation. NOTES Common sense would tell us that not all traits or behaviors of leaders are positively related to effectiveness all of the time. Instead, whether a leader behavior is effective will depend on the situation. On the first day of class, what do you want from your professor? Do you want more considerate behavior, or do you want more structuring behavior? Most students want more structuring behavior. If your professor comes in and is nice and friendly (i.e., consideration) but does not hand out a syllabus (i.e., initiating structure), most students will not be very happy. In other words, certain situations call for some types of behaviors over others. This is the premise behind the contingency approaches in leadership theory. Contingency approaches state that whether a leader style or behavior is positively associated with leadership effectiveness depends on (i.e., "is contingent upon") the situation. In situations that require more direction and structure, task-oriented behavior will be more effective and desired. In situations requiring more support and consideration, relations-oriented behavior will be more effective.
How can team decisions be improved? 8
•Decision by majority rule Formal voting usually takes place, or members may be polled, publicly or confidentially, to find the majority viewpoint. •Decision by consensus Discussion leads to one alternative being favored by most members and the other members agree to support it. •Decision by unanimity All group members agree totally on the course of action to be taken. NOTES Teams use various decision-making processes in choosing alternative courses of action.
How are personality and stress related? 7
•Personal wellness Involves the pursuit of one's job and career goals with the support of a personal health management program. •Employee assistance programs Provide help for employees who are experiencing personal problems and related stress. NOTES The concept of personal wellness recognizes individual responsibility to enhance and maintain wellness through a disciplined approach to physical and mental health. It requires attention to such factors as smoking, weight management, diet, alcohol use, and physical fitness. Organizations can benefit from commitments to support personal wellness.
What are the essentials of performance appraisal?
•Rating scales Graphic - Lists a variety of performance dimensions that an individual is expected to exhibit. Behavioral - Adds more sophistication by linking ratings to specific and observable job-related behaviors. •Critical incident diaries Written records that give examples of a person's work behavior that leads to either unusual performance success or failure. notes Graphic rating scales allow the manager to assign the individual scores that an individual is expected to exhibit. Descriptions on a behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS) include descriptions of superior and inferior performance. Critical incident diaries are an excellent resource for employee development and feedback. Because it consists of qualitative statements rather than quantitative ratings, it is more debatable as an evaluation tool.
Organizational behavior
•Study of human behavior in organizations. •An interdisciplinary field devoted to understanding individual and group behavior, interpersonal processes, and organizational dynamics. Notes: OB is a scholarly discipline devoted to scientific understanding of individuals and groups in organizations and of the performance implications of organizational processes, systems, and structures. It is also a science, because it uses scientific research methods. It draws its knowledge base from a variety of the behavioral and social sciences. These include psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science and economics. OB integrates and applies this knowledge to real world problems. The ultimate goal of OB is to improve the performance of people, groups, and organizations, and to improve the quality of work life overall.
What is the link between motivation, performance, and rewards?
•The Integrated Model combines four key theories of organizational behavior: •Reinforcement - immediately rewarding positive behaviors with valued outcomes. •Equity - assuring fairness in type and distribution of rewards. •Content - acknowledging individual differences in motivational value •Expectancy - creating a linkage among 'effort→performance→reward
Scientific thinking is important to OB:
•The process of data collection is controlled and systematic. •Proposed explanations are carefully tested. •Only explanations that can be rigorously verified are accepted. Note: The science of OB focuses on applications that can make a real difference in how organizations and people in them perform.
Coping Mechanisms Used by New Team Members
•Tough Battler •Acts aggressive •Seeks authority •Friendly Helper •Acts insecure •Tries to be helpful •Objective Thinker •Acts reflective •Wants clear goals NOTES The defense mechanisms of insecure new members may hinder team performance. Teams must address the insecurities by discussions that include clarifying the team goals and expectations and clarifying each member's role.
What are the keys to designing motivating jobs?
•When the core characteristics are highly enriched, three critical psychological states are positively influenced: Experienced meaningfulness of work Experienced responsibility for work outcomes Knowledge of actual results of work activities NOTES Psychological Empowerment is a sense of personal fulfillment and purpose that arouses one's feeling of competency and commitment to work. It comes from three critical psychological states that have a positive impact on individual motivation, performance, and satisfaction: (1) experienced meaningfulness of the work, (2) experienced responsibility for the outcomes of the work, and (3) knowledge of actual results of the work.
What are the essentials of performance appraisal ?
360° Evaluation •Uses a combination of evaluations from a person's bosses, peers, and subordinates, as well as internal and external customers and self-ratings. NOTES The 360 evaluation is very common now in horizontal and team-oriented organization structures. The evaluation has also moved online with software that both collects and organizes the results of ratings from multiple sources.
Stages of Conflict
Antecedent Conditions: Set the conditions for conflict. Perceived Conflict: Substantive or emotional differences are sensed. Felt Conflict: Tension creates motivation to act. Manifest Conflict: Addressed by conflict resolution or suppression
What are the key decision-making traps and issues? 6
Authority decisions •Manager or team leader uses information that he or she possesses and decides what to do without involving others.
How can conflict be managed ? 2
Conflict antecedents •Establish the conditions from which conflicts are likely to emerge.
What is communication? 4
Feedback •Communicates how one feels about something that another person has done or said. NOTE Feedback represents two-way communication, going from sender to receiver and back again. Compared to one-way communication, which flows from sender to receiver only, two-way communication is more accurate and effective, although it may also be more costly and time consuming.
Why is Feedback So Important? 2
Feedback Seeking •Seeking feedback about yourself from others. Feedback Orientation •A person's overall receptivity to feedback.
Figure 5.3 Key terms and managerial expectations of Vroom's expectancy theory
Figure 5.3 In expectancy theory, and as summarized in the figure, a person is motivated to the degree that he or she believes that: (1) effort will yield acceptable performance (expectancy), (2) performance will be rewarded (instrumentality), and (3) the value of the rewards is highly positive (valence).
Figure 9.1 The decision-making process and ethical reasoning model
Figure 9.1 The figure links the steps in the decision-making process with corresponding issues of ethical reasoning. The figure suggests, we are advocating that an ethical reasoning approach be followed when decisions are made and that this approach be linked with each step in the decision-making process. In other words, decision making is incomplete without ethical analysis.
Chapter 6Motivation and Performance
It's about the person-job fit
How do job designs influence motivation and performance?
Job design •Process through which managers plan and specify job tasks and the work arrangements that allow them to be accomplished. NOTES One of the strongest influencers of motivation is a good 'fit' between the person, who offers individual skills and needs, and the job requirements, which match up with those skills and needs. The "best" job design is always one that meets organizational requirements for high performance, offers a good fit with individual skills and needs, and provides valued opportunities for job satisfaction.
Chapter 13 The Leadership Process
Leadership springs from relationships
How are personality and stress related? 5
Life stressors •Family events •Economic difficulties •Personal affairs Notes A less obvious, though important, source of stress for people at work is the spillover effect that results when forces in their personal lives "spill over" to affect them at work. Since it is often difficult to completely separate work and network lives, life stressors can affect the way people feel and behave on their jobs as well as in their personal lives.
What are the input foundations for teamwork? 3
Nature of task affects outcome Technical demands of a task The degree to which a task is routine or not, the level of difficulty involved, and the information requirements. Social demands of a task Involve the degree to which the issues of interpersonal relationships, ego, controversies, over ends and means, and the like that come into play. Notes Tasks that are complex in technical demands require unique solutions and more information processing. Those that are complex in social demands pose difficulties for reaching agreement on goals and methods to accomplish them.
What are Barriers to Effective Communication? 6
Nonverbal communication •Takes place through facial expressions, body position, eye contact, and other physical gestures. Presence - the act of speaking without using words. NOTES: The nonverbal side to communication can often hold the key to what someone is really thinking or meaning. It can also affect the impressions we make on others.
Chapter 4 Emotions, Attitudes, and Job Satisfaction
Nothing beats feeling good
How do we learn about organizational behavior?
Organizations and the External Environment ** Organizations are collections of people working together to achieve a common purpose. ** Open systems transform human and material resource inputs into finished goods and services. ** Complex adaptive systems interact and adapt with their environments to survive.
What is power and why is it important? 2
Power and Dependence •Dependency - One Person or group relies on another person or group to get what they want or need. •Control - Authority or ability to exercise restraining or dominating influence over someone or something. NOTES To understand how power can be taken away we have to recognize that power is based on dependencies. A dependency means that one person or group relies on another person or group to get what they want or need. If a dependency can be easily removed, an individual has power only as long as the other is willing to give it to him or her. If a dependency cannot be easily removed, an individual has little choice but to go along. A dependency means that one person or group relies on another person or group to get what they want or need.
When is a team effective? 6
Prevent social loafing •Keep group size small. •Redefine roles to make free riders more visible and peer pressures to perform more likely. •Increase accountability by making individuals performance expectations clear and specific. •Make rewards directly contingent on an individual's performance contributions.
What are the alternative strategies for negotiation? 8
Third party negotiations •A neutral third party works with persons involved in a negotiation to help them resolve impasses and settle disputes. Arbitration A neutral third party acts as a "judge" and has the power to issue a decision that is binding on all parties. NOTES Arbitration ruling takes place after the arbitrator listens to the positions advanced by the parties involved in a dispute.
What are the sources of power and influence?
Two primary sources of power: Position •Derives from a person's position in the organization. Personal •Resides in the individual. •Independent of that individual's position. •
What is personality?
"Big Five" personality dimensions •Extraversion Being outgoing, sociable, assertive. •Agreeableness Being good-natured, trusting, cooperative. •Conscientiousness Being responsible, dependable, persistent. •Emotional stability Being unworried, secure, relaxed. •Openness to experience Being imaginative, curious, broad-minded. Notes: Standardized personality tests determine how positively or negatively an individual scores on each of these dimensions. For instance, a person scoring high on openness to experience tends to ask lots of questions and to think in new and unusual ways. You can consider a person's individual personality profile across the five dimensions. In terms of job performance, research has shown that conscientiousness predicts job performance across five occupational groups of professions—engineers, police, managers, salespersons, and skilled and semiskilled employees. Predictability of the other dimensions depends on the occupational group. For instance, not surprisingly, extraversion predicts performance for sales and managerial positions.
Common negotiation pitfalls
"Fixed Pie" myth: • The pie can be expanded Escalating Commitment: • Taking a stand forces sticking to it. • self-discipline is needed. Overconfidence: • Always try to understand the merits of the other party's position as well. Too much telling and not enough active listening: • Seek to be understood, but also, to understand.
Figure 13.3 Followership in context
(AUTHORITARIAN CLIMATE) * Passive Beliefs: ****Passive Followers act as traditional "obedient" followers. * Proactive Beliefs: **** Proactive followers act passively, but this creates dissonance and dissatisfaction ----------------------- (EMPOWERING CLIMATE) * Passive Beliefs: ****Passive Followers uncomfortable- experience stress. * Proactive Beliefs: **** Proactive followers act as constructive partners in co-production leadership
What is organizational behavior and why is it important?
* Trends with human behavior in organizations ** Commitment to ethical behavior ** Broader view of leadership ** Emphasis on human capital and teamwork ** Demise of command-and-control ** Importance of connections and networks ** Influence of information technology ** Respect for new workforce expectations ** Changing concept of careers ** Concern of sustainability
What is organizational behavior and why is it important?
* What are the scientific foundations of organizational behavior? *** Interdisciplinary Body of Knowledge *** Use of Scientific Methods ***** Models - simplified views of reality that attempt to explain real-world phenomena ***** Independent variables - presumed causes that influence dependent variables ***** Dependent variables - outcomes of practical value and interest that are influenced by independent variables
How do we learn about organizational behavior?
*** Learning - an enduring change of behavior that results from experience *** Lifelong learning - involves learning continuously from day-today experiences
What are the alternative strategies for negotiation? 6
2.Behavioral Separate the people from the problem. Don't allow emotional considerations to affect the negotiations. Focus on common interests rather than solutions. Avoid premature judgments. Keep the identification of alternatives separate from their evaluation. Judge possible agreements by set criteria or standards. NOTES During a negotiation all behavior is important for both its actual impact and the impressions it leaves behind.
What are the alternative strategies for negotiation? 7
3.Informational Each party must know what he or she will do if an agreement can't be reached. Each party must identify and understand their personal interest in the situation. Each party must know what is really important to them in the case at hand, and they must come to understand the relative importance of the other party's interests. NOTES The information foundations of integrative agreements are substantial. They involve each party becoming familiar with the BATNA, or "best alternative to a negotiated agreement."
What is involved in the decision-making process? 10
A decision environment is certain •When information is sufficient to predict the results of each alternative in advance of implementation. NOTES Certainty is an ideal condition for managerial problem solving and decision making. The challenge is simply to locate the alternative that offers the best or ideal solution.
What is involved in the decision-making process? 11
A decision environment is risky •When decision makers lack complete certainty regarding the outcomes of various courses of action, but they are aware of the probabilities associated with their occurrence. NOTES Probabilities can be assigned through objective statistical procedures or through personal intuition. For instance, managers can make statistical estimates of quality rejects in production runs, or a senior production manager can make similar estimates based on past experience. Risk is a common decision environment in today's organizations.
How does expectancy influence motivation?
A person's motivation is a multiplicative function of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence (M = E x I x V). notes Expectancy theory posits that motivation is a result of a rational calculation - people will do what they can do when they want to do it.
Figure 12.3 Sample scenarios for connections and networks in organizations
A. Network Centrality b. Strong Internal Network c. R&D Department to Top Management To Marketing Department To Production Department
What do situational contingency approaches tell us about leadership?
Achievement - Oriented Leadership •Motivation-focused behavior that builds subordinated' confidence in achieving high standards through a focus on excellence and goal-setting. Participative Leadership •Democratic form of leadership that focuses on consulting with subordinated and taking their suggestions into account before making decisions.
How do Human Needs Influence Motivation? 2
Acquired needs theory •Need for achievement (nAch). The desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks. •Need for affiliation (nAff). The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with others. •Need for power (nPower). The desire to control others, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for others. NOTES Because each need can be linked with a set of work preferences, McClelland encouraged managers to learn how to identify the presence of nAch, nAff, and nPower in themselves and in others. Someone with a high need for achievement will prefer individual responsibilities, challenging goals, and performance feedback. Someone with a high need affiliation is drawn to interpersonal relationships and opportunities for communication. Someone with a high need for power seeks influence over others and likes attention and recognition.
What is the Nature of Communication in Relational Contexts? 3
Active Listening •Involves listening to another person with the purpose of helping a person think through his or her problem. •Reflecting Involves paraphrasing back what the speaker said, summarizing what was said, or taking a step further by asking a question for clarification or elaboration. •Probing Asking for additional information that helps elaborate, clarify or repeat if necessary. •Deflecting Shifting the conversation to another topic. •Advising Telling someone what to do. NOTES Supportive communication principles emphasize the importance of active listening. Active listening involves various types of listening responses and match your response to the situation: Reflecting, Probing, Deflecting and Advising
What are the motivational opportunities of alternative work assignments? 3
Advantages of part-time work •For workers: appeals to people who want to supplement other jobs or do not want full-time work. •For organizations: lower labor costs, ability to better accommodate peaks and valleys of business cycle, can easily release and hire as needs dictate. Disadvantages •For workers: added stress and potentially diminished performance if holding two jobs, failure to qualify for benefits, and lower pay rates than full-time counterparts. ›For organizations: when a person holds multiple part-time jobs, the work burdens can be stressful; performance may suffer on the job, and may have negative effects on family and leisure. NOTE The use of part- timers is growing as today's employers try to cut back labor costs.
What are teams and how are they used in organizations? 10
Advantages of self-managing teams •Productivity and quality improvements. •Production flexibility and faster response to technological change. •Reduced absenteeism and turnover. •Improved work attitudes and quality of work life. Disadvantages of self-managing teams •May be hard for some team members to adjust to the "self-managing" responsibilities. •Higher-level managers may have problems dealing with the loss of the first-line supervisors. NOTES Self-managing teams are probably not right for all organizations, work situations, and people. They have great potential, but they also require a proper setting and a great deal of management support. At a minimum, the essence of any self-managing team—high involvement, participation, and empowerment—must be consistent with the values and culture of the organization.
Why are diversity and individual differences important?
Age •Diverse workforce (40% Baby Boomers, 36% GenXers, 16% Millennials). •Generational mix provides an excellent example of diversity in action. •Interesting discussion of this subject on current blogs. (e.g. CNNMoney) Notes: Millennials can bring to the workplace is their appreciation for gender equality and sexual, cultural, and racial diversity—Millennials embrace these concepts more than any previous generation. Millennials also have an appreciation for community and collaboration. They can help create a more relaxed workplace that reduces some of the problems that come from too much focus on status and hierarchy. Boomers and Gen Xers bring a wealth of experience, dedication, and commitment that contribute to productivity, and a sense of professionalism that is benefiting their younger counterparts. Together, Millennials and Gen Xers may be able to satisfy the Gen X desire for work-life balance through greater demand for more flexible scheduling and virtual work.
What are the motivational opportunities of alternative work assignments?
Alternative work arrangements •New work arrangements reshaping the traditional 40-hour week. •Designed to provide work-life balance and more "family friendly" employers are growing ever more apparent. NOTES 78 percent of American couples are dual wage earners; 63 percent believe they don't have enough time for spouses and partners; 74 percent believe they don't have enough time for their children; 35 percent are spending time caring for elderly relatives. Both Baby Boomers (87%) and Gen Ys (89%) rate flexible work as important; they also want opportunities to work remotely at least part of the time—Boomers (63%) and Gen Y's (69%).
In your experience
An interesting site with simulations and training on creative techniques and ways to enhance your own individual creativity. Brainstorming.co.uk
What are key decision making traps and issues? 3
Anchoring and adjustment heuristic •Involves assessing an event by taking an initial value from historical precedent or an outside source and then incrementally adjusting this value to make a current assessment. NOTES An example is the executive who makes salary increase recommendations for key personnel by simply adjusting their current base salaries by a percentage amount. In this case, the existing base salary becomes an "anchor" that drives subsequent salary increases. In some situations this anchor may be inappropriate, such as in the case of an individual whose market value has become substantially higher than is reflected by the base salary plus increment approach.
How can conflict be managed? 9
Appeal to common goals •Focusing the attention of potentially conflicting individuals and teams on one mutually desirable conclusion. NOTES By elevating the potential dispute to a common framework wherein the parties recognize their mutual interdependence in achieving common goals, petty disputes can be put in perspective.
Chapter 2 Diversity, Personality, and Values
Appreciation opens doors to opportunity
What is perception?
Attention and selection •Selective screening Lets in only a tiny portion of all the information available. •Two types of selective screening Controlled processing Screening without conscious awareness NOTES Some of the selective screening that we do comes from controlled processing—consciously deciding what information to pay attention to and what to ignore. Think, for example, about the last time you were at a noisy restaurant and screened out all the sounds but those of the person with whom you were talking. Some screening also takes place without conscious awareness. We often drive cars without thinking about the process; we're aware of things like traffic lights and other cars, but we don't pay conscious attention to them. This selectivity of attention and automatic information processing works well most of the time. But if a non-routine event occurs, such as an animal darting onto the road, you may have an accident unless you quickly shift to controlled processing.
What are attitudes and how do they influence behavior?
Attitude •Predisposition to respond in a positive or negative way to someone or something in one's environment. NOTES Attitudes are inferred from the things people say or through their behavior. Attitudes are influenced by values and are acquired from the same sources— friends, teachers, parents, role models, and culture. Attitudes, however, focus on specific people or objects.
What is the link between perception and attribution?
Attribution •Process of developing explanations or assigning perceived causes for events. Can be classified as internal or external: Internal causes - Believed to be under an individual's control. External causes - Seen as coming from outside a person. NOTES Attribution theory helps us understand how people perceive the causes of events, assess responsibility for outcomes, and evaluate the personal qualities of the people involved.
What is the link between perception and attribution?
Attribution Errors: •Fundamental Attribution Error - overestimates internal factors and underestimates external factors as influences on someone's behavior. •Self-serving Bias - underestimates internal factors and overestimates external factors as influences on someone's behavior.
What is personality? 2
Authoritarianism •Tendency to adhere rigidly to conventional values and to obey recognized authority. Dogmatism • Leads a person to see the world as a threatening place and to regard authority as absolute. NOTES: Authoritarians are concerned with toughness and power and oppose the use of subjective feelings. Superiors who possess traits of dogmatism tend to be rigid and closed. At the same time, dogmatic subordinates tend to want certainty imposed upon them.
What are key decision making traps and issues? 2
Availability heuristic •Involves assessing a current event based on past occurrences that are easily available in one's memory. • Representativeness heuristic •Involves assessing the likelihood that an event will occur based on its similarity to one's stereotypes of similar occurrences NOTES Availability heuristic: An example is the product development specialist who decides not to launch a new product because of her recent failure with another product offering. In this case, the existence of a past product failure has negatively, and perhaps inappropriately, biased her judgment regarding how best to handle the new product. Representativeness heuristic: An example is the team leader who selects a new member, not because of any special qualities of the person, but only because the individual comes from a department known to have produced high performers in the past. In this case, the individual's current place of employment—not his or her job qualifications—is the basis for the selection decision.
What are the alternative strategies for negotiation? 3
Bargaining zone •Range between one party's minimum reservation point and the other party's maximum reservation point. NOTES Classic two-party bargaining always involves the delicate tasks of first discovering the respective reservation points (one's own and the other's) and then working toward an agreement that lies somewhere within the resulting bargaining zone and is acceptable to each party.
What are charismatic and transformational theories? 5
Bass's Transformational Leadership •Involves leaders motivating followers to transcend self-interest for the sake of the organization or team. NOTES Bass and colleagues focused their theory on measures of transformational and transactional leadership styles (the Multi-factor Leadership Questionnaire, or MLQ). As described by Bass, transformational leadership moves the follower beyond immediate self-interests through four leader behaviors: idealized influence (charisma), inspiration, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. Idealized influence and inspirational leadership are similar to charismatic leadership described earlier. They are displayed when the leader envisions a desirable future, articulates how it can be reached, sets an example to be followed, sets high standards of performance, and shows determination and confidence. Intellectual stimulation is displayed when the leader helps followers to become more innovative and creative. Finally, individualized consideration is displayed when leaders pay attention to the developmental needs of followers by providing support, encouragement and coaching. A transformational leader is one who articulates a shared vision of the future, intellectually stimulates subordinates, provides a great deal of support to individuals, recognizes individual differences, and sets high expectations for the work unit. These leaders increase followers' social identity by enhancing pride in contributing to a higher purpose. Transformational leaders use the focus on the collective to align the individual and group level, making followers feel more secure in their membership and status in the group.
What are the alternative decision-making models? 2
Behavior decision model •Suggests that people act only in terms of their perceptions, which are frequently imperfect. Satisficing decisions •Decision makers choose the first alternative that appears to give an acceptable or satisfactory resolution of the problem. NOTES Behavioral scientists recognize that the human mind is a wonderful creation, capable of infinite achievements. But they also recognize that human beings have cognitive limitations—literally limits on what we are able to know at any point in time—that restrict our information-processing capabilities. The result is that information deficiencies and overloads compromise the ability of decision makers to achieve complete certainty and otherwise operate according to the classical model. They end up acting with bounded rationality in which things are interpreted and made sense of as perceptions and only within the context of the situation. They engage in decision making "within the box" of a simplified view of a more complex reality.
What can we learn from trait and behavioral approaches? 2
Behavioral Leadership Approaches •Leadership study focuses on identifying categories of relevant leadership behavior and examining their efforts on performance and other outcomes. NOTES If you want to know whether a leader has a certain trait—e.g., is more intelligent, extraverted or persuasive—how would you find out? The answer is, you would look at their behaviors. Not surprisingly, then, when the early trait approaches failed to produce meaningful results, researchers began considering other types of leader characteristics, such as what leaders did, or how they behaved. This led to what is known as the Behavioral Leadership Approaches in management research. The Behavior Approach focuses on identifying categories of relevant leadership behavior and examining their relationships with outcomes. It does this primarily through the use of interviews and questionnaires that gather subordinates' perceptions of the supervisors' behaviors.
How can team decisions be improved? 12
Brainstorming •Used in teams to actively generate as many ideas and alternatives as possible. All criticism is ruled out All ideas are welcomed Emphasis on creativity and imagination Quantity is wanted Building on others' ideas or "piggy-backing" is encouraged NOTES IBM's program, called Innovation Jam uses the brainstorming technique. Everyone is encouraged to suggest how others' ideas can be turned into new ideas or how two or more ideas can be joined into still another new idea.
How do individual navigate politics in organizations?
Building Power Bases •Power Bases The sources of power individuals and subunits develop in organizations. Non-Substitutable means the individual or the work performed by the sub-unit cannot be easily replaced. NOTES At the core of managing power and politics is establishing one's power bases. Power bases are the sources of power (position, personal, information, connection) individuals and subunits develop in organizations. As can be seen in Figure 12.2, building power bases helps prepare one for navigating organizational political climates. Power bases are the sources of power individuals and subunits develop in organizations.
Figure 14.3 Major differences between bureaucratic and complexity assumptions
Bureaucratic Assumptions: * Environments stable, controllable * Hierarchical organizing systems using centralized control * Coordination from hierarchy, formal rules, regulations. * Change is linear, predictable * Value= efficiency and reliability * Direction set by a few leaders * Leaders are experts, authorities Complexity Assumptions: * Environments dynamic, uncontrollable * Self-organizing systems with no centralized control * Coordination from interactions within system, simple rules. * Change is non-linear, unpredictable * value = adaptability and responsiveness * Direction set by participation of many * Leaders are facilitators, supporters.
Figure 11.1 The Communication Process
CHANNEL: SOURCE: * Intended meaning * Encodes messages Receiver: * Decodes Message * Perceived Meaning FEEDBACK: * Physical Distractions * Semantic Errors * Mixed Messages * Cultural Differences * Absence of Feedback * Status Effects Figure 11.1 Key elements in the communication process.
How can conflict be managed? 5
Causes of conflict •Vertical conflict Occurs between levels and commonly involves supervisor-subordinate and team-leader disagreements over resources, goals, deadlines, or performance results. •Horizontal conflict Occurs between persons or group working at the same hierarchical level. •Line-staff conflict Involves disagreements between line and staff personnel over who has authority and control over decisions on matters such as budgets, technology, and human resource practices. NOTES The very nature of organizations as hierarchical systems provides a basis for conflict as individuals and teams work within the authority structure.
How can team communications be improved? 3
Centralized communication network •Team leader acts as a central control point. •Team leader collects and distributes information among members. •Members work independently. Results are passed to the team leader and pooled to create finished product. NOTES Sometimes called wheel or chain communication networks. They work best in teams when tasks are routine and/or easily subdivided. In this type of co-acting team, it is usually the team leader who is most involved in and informed about all aspects of the team's work.
How can we create high performance teams?
Characteristics of High Performance Teams •Set a clear and challenging direction. •Believe in the goals and motivated to work hard to accomplish them. •Turn a general sense of purpose into specific objectives. •Set standards for measuring results and obtain feedback. •Members have the right mix of technical, problem-solving and interpersonal skills. NOTES The current focus on reality teams appeals to today's work force. However, no matter the type, all teams must possess the essential core requirements of commitment to core values, goal attainment, and cooperative contributions toward high performance. Members of newly formed teams must learn how to work together while passing through the stages of team formation. Team building is an effective way to arrive at this goal.
What are charismatic and transformational theories?
Charismatic Leader • Charisma **** A special personal quality or attractiveness that enables an individual to influence others. NOTES We are all familiar with charismatic leadership. We have been witness to the powerful effects, both good and bad, charismatic leaders can have on those around them. But what exactly is charisma, and how does it operate in leadership? Charisma is a special quality or attractiveness that enables an individual to influence others. It is often characterized as personal magnetism or charm. Charisma evokes enthusiasm and commitment among followers. For example, John F. Kennedy, Oprah Winfrey, and Nelson Mandela are often described as charismatic leaders.
What are charismatic and transformational theories?
Charismatic Traits and Behavior Characteristics of Charismatic Leaders •Novel and appealing vision •Emotional appeals to values •Use strong and expressive forms of communication when articulating the vision •Unconventional behavior •Personal risk and self-sacrifice to attain the vision •Communicating high expectations •Confidence and optimism NOTES What most distinguishes charismatic leaders is their skill as communicators. Charismatic leaders connect with followers on a deep, emotional level. They use metaphors and symbols to articulate their vision in ways that captivate followers and build identification. Their vision may offer promises that otherwise appear impossible. For many, this was the appeal of Barack Obama's 2008 election platform of "Change We Can Believe In" and "Yes We Can." Charismatic leaders often use unconventional behavior to demonstrate their exceptional qualities. For example, Virgin Group Founder Richard Branson's charisma emanates in part from his high profile and dangerous stunts, such as his record-breaking crossing of the Pacific Ocean in a hot air balloon.
What is involved in learning by reinforcement?
Classical conditioning •A form of learning through association that involves the manipulation of stimuli to influence behavior. Stimulus •Something that incites action and draws forth a response. NOTE The Russian psychologist, Pavlov, "taught" dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell by ringing the bell when feeding the dogs. The sight of the food naturally caused the dogs to salivate. Eventually, the dogs "learned" to associate the bell ringing with the presentation of meat and to salivate at the ringing of the bell alone. Such learning through association is so common in organizations that it is often ignored until it causes considerable confusion.
What do we mean by leadership as a collective process? 3
Co-Leadership •Occurs when leadership is divided so that on one person has unilateral power to lead. NOTES Another form of collective leadership is co-leadership. Co-leadership occurs when top leadership roles are structured in ways that no single individual is vested with the power to unilaterally lead. Co-leadership can be found in professional organizations (e.g., law firms that have partnerships), the arts (the artistic side and administrative side), and healthcare (where power is divided between community, administration and medical). Co-leadership has been used in some very famous and large businesses (e.g., Google, Goldman-Sachs).
What are attitudes and how do they influence behavior?
Cognitive dissonance •Describes a state of inconsistency between an individual's attitudes and/or between attitudes and behavior. Cognitive dissonance can be reduced by: •Changing the underlying attitude. •Changing future behavior. •Developing new ways of explaining or rationalizing the inconsistency. NOTES The way we respond to cognitive dissonance is influenced by the degree of control we seem to have over the situation and the rewards involved.
How can team processes be improved? 12
Cohesiveness •The degree to which members are attracted to a group and motivated to remain a part of it. •There is a strong relationship between cohesiveness, conformity to group norms, and performance. NOTES Persons in a highly cohesive group value their membership and strive to maintain positive relationships with other group members. In this sense, cohesive groups and teams are good for their members.
What do we mean by leadership as a collective process?
Collective leadership •Represents view of leadership not as a property of individuals and their behaviors but as a social phenomenon constructed in interaction. NOTES Relational interactions are the foundation of leadership, and relational approaches have allowed us to understand that leadership is more aptly described as a collective, rather than an individual, process. Collective leadership considers leadership not as a property of individuals and their behaviors but as a social phenomenon constructed in interaction. It advocates a shift in focus from traits and characteristics of "leaders" to a focus on the shared activities and interactive processes of "leadership."
What are the common perceptual distortions? 4
Common Stereotypes •Racial •Ethnic •Gender •Ability •Age
Figure 1.1 Common Scientific Research Methods in Organizational Behavior
Common scientific research methods in organizational behavior. sources of research insight of OB Field Studies: In real-life organizational settings Laboratory studies: IN simulated and controlled settings Case Studies: Looking in depth at single situations Survey Studies: Using questionnaires and interviews in sample populations Meta Analyses: Using statistics to pool results of different empirical studies
When is a team effective? 4
Common team challenges •Social loafing •Personality conflicts •Uncertainty over tasks or competing goals •Poorly defined agendas •Lack of motivation •Perceptions that team lacks purpose
What is communication?
Communication •A process of sending and receiving messages with attached meanings. NOTE Communication is the glue that holds collaboration and organizations together. The way we share information, ideas, goals, directions, expectations, feelings and emotions in the context of coordinated action.
What is communication? 3
Communication Channels: * Face-To-Face Meetings * Email * Online Discussions * Written Letters * Telephone * Voice Mail NOTE The choice of channel can have an important impact on the communication process. Some people are better at using certain channels over others, and specific channels are better able to handle some types of messages.
What is the Nature of Communication in Organizational Contexts? 4
Communication Flows •Downward communication- Follows the chain of command from top to bottom. •Lateral communication- The flow of messages at the same levels across organizations. •Organizational -Silos Unites that are isolated from one another by strong departmental or divisional lines. Upward Communication- Differences between persons of higher and lower ranks.
Why are some scholars turning to complexity views?
Complex Adaptive Systems •Systems that adapt and evolve in the process of interacting with dynamic environments. NOTES Complexity leadership approaches draw from complexity science to bring a dynamic systems view to leadership. Complexity science originates in fields such as biology, physics, mathematics, economics and meteorology. It studies complex adaptive systems—systems that adapt and evolve in the process of interacting with dynamic environments.
Why are some scholars turning to complexity views? 2
Complexity Leadership Theory •Administrative Leadership Occurs in formal, managerial roles and focuses on alignment and control aimed at driving business results. •Entrepreneurial Leadership Fuels innovation, adaptability, and change. •Adaptive Leadership Operates in the interface between the administrative and entrepreneurial systems fosters conditions for emergence. NOTES Complexity leadership theory describes a framework for considering leadership in the context of both bureaucracy and complex adaptive systems. It argues that for organizations to operate effectively as complex adaptive systems, they need to foster emergence. Emergence comes from the tension generated in interactions between top-down (administrative) forces and bottom-up (entrepreneurial) pressures. Administrative leadership represents the top-down forces. It occurs in formal, managerial roles (i.e., the administrative system) and focuses on alignment and control. The goal of administrative leadership is to drive business results through tools such as policy, efficiency, strategic planning, resource allocation, budgeting, and scheduling. Entrepreneurial leadership represents the "bottom-up" forces. It is the fuel that drives innovation, adaptability, and change. This form of leadership can be subtle, such as when people develop new ways of working as part of their day-to-day functioning and these changes dissipate into the system. Or it can be more intentional, as in the case of entrepreneurial leaders acting as "intrapreneurs"—individuals who work to create and actively champion new ideas and innovations. These types of entrepreneurial leaders are often highly proactive, self-motivated, and action-oriented in taking initiative in the pursuit of innovative products or services. Top-down and bottom-up alone are sufficient—they need to function effectively together to generate emergence. Therefore, complexity leadership adds a third function: adaptive leadership. Adaptive leadership operates in the interface between the administrative and entrepreneurial systems. Its job is to foster the conditions for emergence. It does this by leveraging tensions and pressures to produce adaptive responses, providing critical resources, and helping ideas from the entrepreneurial system flow into the formal, administrative system to generate productive outcomes for the firm.
Why are diversity and individual differences important?
Components of Self •Self-concept: The view individuals have of themselves as physical, social, spiritual, or moral beings. •Self-esteem: A belief about one's self-worth based on overall self-evaluation. •Self-efficacy: A belief in one's ability to successfully accomplish a specific task. Notes: A person's self-concept is greatly influenced by culture. Self-esteem is a belief about one's own worth based on an overall self-evaluation. People high in self-esteem see themselves as capable, worthwhile, and acceptable; they tend to have few doubts about themselves. People who are low in self-esteem are full of self-doubt and are often afraid to act because of it. While OB research has shown that high self-esteem generally can boost performance and satisfaction outcomes, it can also have drawbacks. For example, when under pressure, people with high self-esteem may become boastful and act egotistically. They may also be overconfident at times and fail to obtain important information. Self-efficacy sometimes called the "effectance motive," is a more specific version of self-esteem. You could have high self-esteem and yet have a feeling of low self-efficacy about performing a certain task, such as public speaking.
What are the motivational opportunities of alternative work assignments?
Compressed work weeks - any scheduling of work that allows a full time job to be completed in fewer than the standard five days. •Advantages For workers: added time off, increased leisure time, lower commuting costs. For organizations: lower absenteeism and improved recruiting of new employees. •Disadvantages For workers: increased fatigue from the extended work day and family adjustment problems. For organizations: work scheduling problems, customer complaints, possible union opposition.
How can conflict be managed?
Conflict resolution •Situation in which the underlying reasons for a given destructive conflict are eliminated. NOTES When conflicts go unresolved the stage is often set for future conflicts of the same or related sort. Rather than trying to deny the existence of conflict or settle on a temporary resolution, it is always best to deal with important conflicts in such ways that they are completely resolved. This requires a good understanding of the stages of conflict, the potential causes of conflict, and indirect and direct approaches to conflict management.
What is the nature of conflict in organizations?
Conflicts occur whenever disagreements exist in a social setting or when emotional antagonisms create friction between individuals or groups. •Substantive A fundamental disagreement over ends or goals to be pursued, and the means for their accomplishment. •Emotional Interpersonal difficulties that arise over feelings of anger, mistrust, dislike, fear, resentment, and the like. NOTES Conflicts in teams, at work, and in our personal lives occur in at least two basic forms—substantive and emotional. Both types are common, ever present, and challenging.
What are the sources of power and influence? 8
Connection Power •The ability to call on connections and networks both inside and outside the organization for support in getting things done and in meeting one's goals. Association Power •Arises from influence with a powerful person on whom other depend. NOTE The "right to know" and use information can be, and often is, conferred on a position holder. Thus, information power may complement legitimate hierarchical power. Information power may also be granted to specialists and managers who are in the middle of the information systems in the firm. In most complex organizations there is a wide variety of constituencies that may have an important impact on the firm's operations and its success. They include such groups as investors, customers, alliance partners, and, of course, unions. In government, it is not at all unusual to find positions established to represent officials. The top job of this type is, of course, Presidential Press Secretary.
What are charismatic and transformational theories?
Consequences of Charisma •Socialized Power Orientation A focus on power for collective (e.g., societal) rather than personal benefit. •Personalized Charismatics Charismatic leaders with personalized power orientation. NOTES For charisma to achieve positive outcomes, it needs to be used from a socialized power orientation, where power is used for collective (e.g., societal) rather than personal benefit. When used for personal interests it can have destructive consequences. Personalized charismatics dominate followers and keep them weak and dependent on the leader. Many dictators do not allow access to schooling or meaningful employment for this reason. In organizations, personalized charismatics centralize decision-making, restrict information, and manipulate through rewards to look more important than others.
What are the key decision-making traps and issues? 7
Consultative decisions •Manager or team leader solicits input from other people and then, based on this information, the decision maker arrives at a final choice. •
What is involved in learning by reinforcement? 2
Continuous reinforcement •Administering a reward each time the desired behavior occurs. Intermittent reinforcement •Rewards behavior only periodically. NOTE In general, continuous reinforcement draws forth a desired behavior more quickly than does intermittent reinforcement. But it is costly in the consumption of rewards, and the behavior is more easily extinguished when reinforcement is no longer present. Behavior acquired under intermittent reinforcement is more resistant to extinction and lasts longer upon the discontinuance of reinforcement. This is why shaping typically begins with a continuous reinforcement schedule and then gradually shifts to an intermittent one.
What are the common perceptual distortions? 8
Contrast effects •The meaning or interpretation of something is arrived at by contrasting it with a recently occurring event or situation. NOTES This form of perceptual distortion can occur, say, when a person gives a talk following a strong speaker or is interviewed for a job following a series of mediocre applicants. A contrast effect occurs when an individual's characteristics are contrasted with those of others recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.
How are personality and stress related? 6
Coping Mechanisms •Problem focused Manage the problem that is causing the distress. •Emotion focused Regulate emotions or distress. Positive 'self talk' can help. (Dr. Shad Helmstetter, video, 7 min.) NOTES With rising awareness of stress in the workplace, interest is also growing in how to manage, or cope, with distress. Coping is a response or reaction to distress that has occurred or is threatened. It involves cognitive and behavioral efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by the stressful situation.
What are Barriers to Effective Communication? 11
Cross-Cultural Communication Low - content cultures - message are expressed mainly by the spoken and written word. High - content cultures - words convey only part of message while the rest of the message must be inferred from body language and additional contextual cues. NOTES: The role of language in cross-cultural communication has additional and sometimes even more subtle sides. The anthropologist Edward T. Hall notes important differences in the ways difference cultures use language, and he suggest that these differences often cause misunderstandings. Low-Context Cultures and High-Context Cultures.
What are teams and how are they used in organizations? 5
Cross-Functional and Problem-Solving Teams •Cross-functional teams or task forces Members brought together from different functional departments or work units to achieve horizontal integration and better lateral relations. •Problem-solving teams Created temporarily to serve a specific purpose by dealing with a specific problem or opportunity. •Employee involvement team Meet regularly to collectively examine important workplace issues Quality circles meet periodically to discuss and make proposals for ways to improve quality. NOTES Members of cross-functional teams are expected to work together with a positive combination of functional expertise and integrative team thinking. The expected result is higher performance driven by the advantages of better information and faster decision making.
What are Barriers to Effective Communication? 10
Cultural Barriers •Ethnocentrism - the tendency to believe one's culture and its values are superior to those of others. •Parochialism - assumes that the ways of your culture are the only ways of doing things. NOTES: The ability to listen well is a distinct asset to anyone whose job success depends on communicating with other people. After all, there are always two sides to the communication process: (1) sending a message, or "telling," and (2) receiving a message, or "listening." And as you know, too many of us emphasize the telling and neglect the listening.
What is the nature of conflict in organizations? 6
Culture and conflict •Culture and cultural differences must be considered for their conflict potential. •Sensitivity and respect when working across cultures can often tap the performance advantages of both diversity and constructive conflict. NOTES Among the dimensions of national culture, for example, substantial differences may be noted in time orientation. When persons from short-term cultures such as the United States try to work with persons from long-term cultures such as Japan, the likelihood of conflict developing is high. The same holds true when individualists work with collectivists and when persons from high-power-distance cultures work with those from low-power distance cultures. People who are not able or willing to recognize and respect cultural differences can contribute to the emergence of dysfunctional situations in multicultural teams.
What are charismatic and transformational theories? 2
Dangers of Charismatic Leadership •Power Distance The extent to which one accepts that power is institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. NOTES When charismatic leaders do not live up to the high expectations associated with charisma followers can feel let down. This can create morale and motivation problems in the workplace. To help avoid these problems, those who use charismatic leadership in organizations should reduce power distance and not allow others to put them on a pedestal. They can do this by empowering others to think critically, openly question them, push back with concerns, and share credit for innovations and successes.
What are key decision making traps and issues? 4
Decision Bias •Confirmation error - only seeking cues in a situation that support a preexisting opinion. •Hindsight error- overestimate the degree to which an event that has already taken place could have been predicted . •Framing error - tendency to evaluate and resolve a problem in the context in which it is perceived - either positive or negative.
What is involved in the decision-making process?
Decision-making •The process of choosing a course of action for dealing with a problem or opportunity. NOTES In our personal lives, at work, within teams, and in management in general, a continuing stream of information, data, problems, and opportunities fuel decision making.
What is involved in the decision-making process? 9
Decisions are made in the context of three general environments. •Certainty •Risk •Uncertainty
How do emotions and moods influence behavior in organizations? 2
Deep acting •Trying to modify feelings to better fit the situation. Surface acting •Hiding true feelings while displaying different ones. NOTES Deep acting and surface acting are two terms reflecting ways of dealing with emotional dissonance.
What is involved in the decision-making process? 3
Define Problem: •Caution: Not too broad or narrow •Caution: focus on problem, not symptom •Caution: ID the right problem Analyze Alter-natives •Determine exact information needed •ID effect on stakeholders •Make a Choice •Consider time, cost, impact, and ethics •Who makes the decision? (team or leader) •Take Action •Ensure that all affected parties have have input •Necessary to secure 'buy in' from all •Evaluate Results •Have desired outcomes been attained? •Has team performance been effective?
How do individual navigate politics in organizations? 2
Developing Political Skills • Political Savvy **** The skill and adroitness at reading political environments and understanding how to influence effectively in these environments. NOTES Developing Political Skills Rarely in organizational politics are things as they appear. Rather, they are more like 3D hidden "stereogram" images, in which on the surface you see a bunch of dots but when you peer deeply into the image, the hidden picture emerges. Individuals who are successful at politics know how to read political situations and uncover the real motivations and connections going on behind the scenes. They have what can be described as political savvy—skill and adroitness at reading political environments and understanding how to influence effectively in these environments.
Why is Feedback So Important?
Developmental Feedback •A Sensitive and caring way to give feedback is both honest and constructive in the way that helps another to improve. Johari Window •A tool that helps people understand their relationship with self and others. NOTES When done properly, giving feedback can be a rewarding experience. It can help build relationships and strengthen trust. Just like with the supportive communication principles, however, there are important techniques you should keep in mind when giving feedback: 1. Make Sure It Is Developmental: Be positive and focus on improvement. 2. Be Timely: Provide feedback soon after the issue occurs so it is fresh in mind. 3. Prepare Ahead of Time: Be clear about what you want to say so you stick to the issue. 4. Be Specific: Don't use generalities, as that will just leave them wondering. 5. Do it in Private: Have the discussion in a safe and comfortable place for the other. 6. Limit the Focus: Stick to a behavior the person can do something about. 7. Reinforce: Don't bring the person down...make sure they know there are good things about them too! 8. Show Caring: Convey a sense of caring, and that you are trying to help.
How do Goals and Goal Setting Influence Motivation? 2
Difficult goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than are less difficult ones. Specific goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than vague or very general ones. NOTES If the goals are seen as too difficult or impossible, however, the relationship with performance no longer holds. All too often people work with very general goals such as the encouragement to "do your best." Research indicates that more specific goals, such as selling six computers a day, are much more motivational than a simple "do your "best" goal.
What do situational contingency approaches tell us about leadership? 2
Directive Leadership Task-oriented, production-centered behavior that provides clarity and direction for subordinates. •Supportive Leadership Relations-oriented, employee-centered behavior that promotes a friendly work climate by focusing on subordinate needs and wellbeing. NOTE Contingency theories start with a manager's behavioral style. The most common leadership behaviors used by managers are task-oriented and relations-oriented behavior. In contingency approaches these are often referred to as directive leadership and supportive leadership styles. Two additional behavioral styles were added later: achievement-oriented leadership and participative leadership. Achievement-oriented leadership focuses on building subordinates' confidence in their ability to achieve high standards of performance through a focus on excellence and goal setting. Participative leadership focuses on consulting with subordinates and taking their suggestions into account before making decisions. See Martin Evans, "The Effects of Supervisory Behavior on the Path-Goal
Why are diversity and individual differences important?
Disability •Any form of impairment or handicap. •Advocates are seeking new definition in order to remove the stigma that has been associated with the term 'disability Notes: Americans with Disabilities Act is a federal civil-rights statute that protect the rights of people with disabilities. The ADA has helped to generate a more inclusive climate in organizations. Universal design has resulted in greater access to buildings and work spaces.
What are teams and how are they used in organizations? 13
Disadvantages of virtual teams •Members of virtual teams can have difficulties establishing good working relationships. •The lack of face-to- face interactions limits the role of emotions and non verbal cues in the communication process.
How do emotions and moods influence behavior in organizations? 3
Display rules •The degree to which it is appropriate to display emotions. NOTES Norms for emotional expression vary across cultures. Collectivist cultures, such as Japan, emphasize group relationships. individual emotional displays are less likely to occur and less likely to be accepted in individualistic cultures.
How can team processes be improved? 3
Disruptive behaviors: •Bullying and being overly aggressive toward other members. •Withdrawing and refusing to cooperate with others. •Using the group as a forum for self-confession. •Talking too much about irrelevant matters. •Trying to compete for attention and recognition. Notes In addition to helping meet a group's task and maintenance needs, team members share additional responsibility for avoiding disruptive behaviors that harm the group process.
What do we mean by leadership as a collective process? 2
Distributed Leadership •Sees leadership as a group phenomenon that is distributed among individuals. NOTES One of the first areas to recognize leadership as a collective process was distributed leadership approaches, distinguishing between "focused" and "distributed" forms of leadership. These approaches draw heavily on systems and process theory, and locate leadership in the relationships and interactions of multiple actors and the situations in which they are operating
How can team processes be improved? 2
Distributed leadership •Sharing of responsibility for meeting group task and maintenance needs. Task activities •Various things members and leaders do that directly contribute to the performance of important group tasks. Maintenance activities •Support the social and interpersonal relationships among team members. NOTES Sustained high performance requires meeting both task needs and maintenance needs of team members. Maintenance activities can include team members or leaders encouraging the participation of others, trying to harmonize differences of opinion, praising the contributions of others and agreeing to go along with the popular course of action.
What are the alternative strategies for negotiation? 2
Distributive negotiation •"Who is going to get this resource?" •"Hard" distributive negotiation (win/lose) Each party holds out to get its own way. •"Soft" distributive negotiation (lose/lose) One party tries to find the ways to meet the other's desires. NOTES The hard approach may lead to a win-lose outcome in which one party dominates and gains. Or it can lead to an impasse. A soft approach leads to accommodation, in which one party gives in to the other, or to compromise, in which each party gives up something of value in order to reach agreement. In either case at least some latent dissatisfaction is likely to develop. Even when the soft approach results in compromise (e.g., splitting the difference between the initial positions equally), dissatisfaction may exist since each party is still deprived of what it originally wanted.
What are the alternative strategies for negotiation?
Distributive negotiation •Focuses on positions staked out or declared by the conflicting parties. Integrative negotiation •Sometimes called principled negotiation. •Focuses on the "merits" of the issues. NOTES Managers and workers alike are constantly negotiating over not only just pay and raises, but also such things as work goals or preferences and access to any variety of scarce resources. These resources may be money, time, people, facilities, equipment, and so on. In all such cases the general approach to, or strategy for, the negotiation can have a major influence on its outcomes.
What are the input foundations for teamwork? 9
Diversity-Consensus Dilemma •The tendency for diversity to make it harder for team members to work together, even though the diversity itself expands the skills and perspectives available for problem solving. Collective Intelligence The ability of a group or team to perform well across a range of tasks. • NOTES Working through the diversity-consensus dilemma can slow team development and impede relationship building, information sharing, and problem solving. Researchers have found only a slight correlation between average or maximum individual member intelligence and the collective intelligence of teams. But they found strong correlations between collective intelligence and two process variables—social sensitivities within the teams and absence of conversational domination by a few members.
How do Human Needs Influence Motivation?
ERG theory is also based on needs, but it differs from Maslow's theory in three main respects. First, ERG theory collapses Maslow's five needs categories into three: existence needs, desires for physiological and material well-being; relatedness needs, desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships; and growth needs, desires for continued personal growth and development. Second, ERG theory emphasizes a unique frustration-regression component. An already satisfied lower-level need can become activated when a higher-level need cannot be satisfied. If a person is continually frustrated in his or her attempts to satisfy growth needs, for example, relatedness needs can again surface as key motivators. Third, unlike Maslow's theory, ERG theory contends that more than one need may be activated at the same time.
What can we learn from trait and behavioral approaches?
Early Trait Approaches •Trait Approach Leadership study assumes that leaders are endowed with certain traits or qualities that explain their leadership status and success. NOTES For over a century, scholars have been on a quest to identify the elusive qualities that separate leaders from nonleaders. In the earliest leadership research, the assumption was that people who become leaders are endowed with certain traits or characteristics. Based on this assumption, scholars began searching in the 1930s for the "Holy Grail" of leader traits and characteristics that would reveal the essence of leadership. These studies, collectively called Trait Approaches, assumed that if scholars could identify leadership qualities they would be able to predict who would become leaders and who would not. They could then select individuals for leadership positions based on their leadership qualities. The focus was on personality, needs, motives, values, and even physical characteristics such as height and sex. In fact, these early theories were often called "Great Man Theories" due to their assumption that one of the necessary traits was being male.
What are the challenges in leadership in organizations?
Effective Leaders are individuals who use influence to create change that benefits the mission and vision of the organization. Figure 1.7
When is a team effective?
Effective Team •One that achieves high levels of task performance, member satisfaction, and team viability. Effective teams achieve high levels of: •Task performance Members attain performance goals regarding quantity, quality, and timeliness of work results. •Members satisfaction Members believe that their participation and experiences are positive and meet important personal needs. •Team viability Members are sufficiently satisfied to continue working together on an ongoing basis. NOTES With regard to member satisfaction, an effective team is one whose members believe that their participation and experiences are positive and meet important personal needs. They are satisfied with their tasks, accomplishments, and interpersonal relationships.
How do emotions and moods influence behavior in organizations?
Emotion and mood contagion - spillover effects of one's emotions and mood onto others. Emotional labor - relates to the need to show certain emotions in order to perform a job well. Emotional dissonance - emotions we actually feel are inconsistent with the emotions we try to project. NOTE Evidence shows that positive and negative emotions are "contagious" in much the same ways, even though the tendency may not be well recognized in work settings. The positive attitude of up beat leaders is often reflected in their employees. Emotional labor isn't always easy; it can be hard to be consistently "on" in displaying the desired emotions in one's work. If you're having a bad mood day or have just experienced an emotional run-in with a neighbor, for example, being "happy" and "helpful" with a demanding customer might seem a little much to ask. Emotional dissonance often requires almost constant self-regulation to display organizationally desired emotions in one's job. Imagine, for example, how often service workers struggling with personal emotions and moods experience dissonance when having to act positive toward customers.
What are the challenges of management in organizations?
Emotional intelligence ›Ability to understand and manage emotions both personally and in relationships with others. *** Self-awareness *** Self-regulation *** Motivation *** Empathy *** Social skill Notes: Self-awareness - ability to understand your moods and emotions. Self-regulation - ability to think before acting and control bad impulses. Motivation - ability to work hard and persevere. Empathy - ability to understand the emotions of others. Social skill - ability to gain rapport with others and build good relationships. Human skills in emotional intelligence and interpersonal relationships are essential to managerial success in managerial activities and roles. Managers and team leaders need to develop, maintain, and work well with a variety of people, both inside and outside the organization. This can be done through task networks, social networks or career networks. This, in turn, helps with building social capital. Social capital is a capacity to get things done due to relationships with other people.
What are emotions and moods? 2
Emotional intelligence (EI) •Ability to understand emotions in ourselves and others and to use that understanding to manage relationships effectively. Notes If you are good at knowing and managing your emotions and are good at reading others' emotions, you may perform better while interacting with other people. This applies to work and life in general, and to leadership situations.
What do we know about leadership ethics? 4
Empowering Leadership •Authoritarian (or Autocratic) Leadership Involves making decision independently with little or no input from others. •Empowering Leadership Enables power sharing with employees by clarifying the significance of the work, providing autonomy, expressing confidence in the employee's capabilities, and removing hindrances to performance. NOTES: Empowering leadership is similar to servant leadership in its focus on valuing and developing people. While it was not developed as an ethical leadership theory, it is consistent with leadership ethics in its core premise that employees should be treated with dignity and respect. Empowering leadership is in direct contrast to authoritarian leadership styles that involve leaders dictating policies and procedures, making all decisions about what goals are to be achieved, and directing and controlling all activities without any meaningful participation by subordinates. Empowering leadership focuses instead on conveying the significance of the work, allowing participation in decision-making, removing bureaucratic constraints, and instilling confidence that performance will be high. Empowering leadership emphasizes the importance of leaders delegating authority and employees assuming responsibility. It argues that by sharing knowledge and information, and allowing employees responsibility and self-control, organizations will be rewarded with a more dedicated and intrinsically motivated workforce.
How does Perceived Equity Influence Motivation?
Equity Theory Any perceived inequity becomes a motivating state of mind. •People are motivated to behave in ways that restore or maintain equity in situations. •Foundation of equity is social comparison. Notes Motivation is a function of how one evaluates rewards relative to efforts made, and as compared to the rewards received by others relative to their efforts made. A key word in this comparison is "fairness."
How does Perceived Equity Influence Motivation? 4
Equity restoration behaviors. •Reduce work inputs. •Change the outcomes received. •Leave the situation. •Change the comparison points. •Psychologically distort things. •Try to change the efforts of the comparison person. notes Research on equity theory indicates that people who feel they are overpaid (perceived positive inequity) are likely to try to increase the quantity or quality of their work, whereas those who feel they are underpaid (perceived negative inequity) are likely to try to decrease the quantity or quality of their work.
How does Perceived Equity Influence Motivation? 3
Equity theory prediction: •Felt Negative inequity. Individual feels he/she has received relatively less than others in proportion to work inputs. •Felt Positive inequity. Individual feels he/she has received relatively more than others have. Notes When either feeling exists, the theory states that people will be motivated to act in ways that remove the discomfort and restore a sense of felt equity.
What do we know about leader-follower relationships? 4
Equivalence •Whether the amount given back is roughly the same as what was received. Immediacy •How quickly the repayment is made. Interest •The motive behind the exchange. • NOTES The norm of reciprocity can be seen as involving three components. Equivalence represents the extent to which the amount of what is given back is roughly the same as what was received (e.g., the exact same or something different). Immediacy refers to the time span of reciprocity—how quickly the repayment is made (e.g., immediately or an indeterminate length of time). Interest represents the motive the person has in making the exchange. Interest can range from pure self-interest, to mutual-interest, to other-interest (pure concern for the other person).
What are the key decision-making traps and issues? 9
Escalating commitment •Continuation and renewed effort on a previously chosen course of action, even though it is not working. •Avoid by: Setting limits on your involvement and commitment. Making your own decisions. Determining reasons for continuing a course of action. Considering costs of a course of action. NOTES Escalating commitments are a form of decision entrapment that leads people to do things that the facts of a situation do not justify. We should be proactive in spotting "failures" and more open to reversing decisions or dropping plans that do not appear to be working. But again, this is easier said than done. The tendency to escalate commitments often outweighs the willingness to disengage from them. Decision makers may rationalize negative feedback as a temporary condition, protect their egos by not admitting that the original decision was a mistake, or characterize any negative results as a "learning experience" that can be overcome with added future effort.
What are the challenges in leadership in organizations?
Essential Followership Skills •Upward Delegation means passing problems or responsibilities upward in the hierarchy.
What are the challenges in leadership in organizations?
Essential Leadership Skills * Framing means tailoring communication in ways to encourage certain interpretations and discourage others. * Social Exchange means that people build human relationships and trust through exchanges of favors based on reciprocity. * Law of reciprocity says that if someone does something for someone else it will involve a sense of obligation to return the favor.
What is involved in the decision-making process? 7
Ethical Double Checks •Spotlight Questions How would I feel if my family found out about this decision? How would I feel if the decision was published? What would the person you know or know of who has the strongest character do in this situation? NOTES Spotlight questions basically expose a decision to public scrutiny and forces us to consider it in the context of full transparency. They are especially powerful when a person comes from a morally scrupulous family background or social structure and prospects for shame would be very upsetting.
What do we know about leadership ethics? 5
Ethical Leadership Theory •Normative Theory One that implies or prescribes a norm or standard. •Ethical Climates The ethical values, norms, attitudes, feelings and behaviors of employees in an organization. NOTES Ethical leadership theory is a normative theory focused on understanding how ethical leaders behave. A normative theory implies or prescribes a norm or standard. Ethical leadership theory prescribes that leaders should be role models of appropriate behavior, such as openness, honesty, and trustworthiness, who are motivated by altruism, meaning they are unselfish and concerned for others (e.g., treating employees fairly and considerately). Ethical leaders should (1) communicate to followers what is ethical and allow followers to ask questions and provide feedback regarding ethical issues; (2) set clear ethical standards, and ensure followers comply with those standards by rewarding ethical conduct and disciplining those who don't follow standards; and (3) take into account ethical principles in making decisions and ensure that followers observe and follow this process.
What are the challenges of management in organizations?
Ethical Management - includes ethics in decision-making. •Immoral manager •Amoral manager •Moral manager Practices ethics mindfulness. Notes: An immoral manager chooses to behave unethically. She or he doesn't subscribe to any ethical principles. An opportunity may be exploited for purely personal or business gain (i.e. Bernard Madoff). The amoral manager acts unethically at times but does so unintentionally. The manager fails to consider the ethics of a decision or behavior. The moral manager incorporates ethics principles and goals into his or her personal behavior. Ethical behavior is a goal, a standard, and even a matter of routine; ethical reasoning is part of every decision, not just an occasional afterthought. Ethics mindfulness is an enriched awareness that causes one to behave with an ethical consciousness from one decision or behavioral event to another.
What is involved in the decision-making process? 6
Ethical double checks •Criteria Utility - all stakeholders satisfied? Rights - are all rights and duties respected? Justice - is it consistent with cannons of justice? Caring - is it consistent with responsibility to care? NOTES The ethical double checks is a way of testing to make sure our decisions at least meet personal moral standards. The recommended ethics double-checks are accomplished by asking and answering two sets of questions—criteria questions and spotlight questions.
What is involved in the decision-making process? 4
Ethics •The philosophical study of morality or standards regarding good character and conduct. Moral problem •One that poses major ethical consequences for the decision maker or for others. NOTES When we apply ethical reasoning to decisions made by individuals and teams in organizations, the focus is on moral problems and dilemmas that are associated with the decision-making process. It is possible to address a personal, management, or business problem and not properly consider any moral problems that might be associated with it. A preferred approach is to carefully examine the consequences of each alternative for all decision stakeholders, and make choices that minimize negative impact and maximize respect for everyone's rights.
What is personality?
Evaluation in problem solving •Making judgments about how to deal with information once it has been collected. •Styles of information vary from an emphasis on feeling to an emphasis on thinking. Notes: The second component of problem solving, evaluation, involves making judgments about how to deal with information once it has been collected. Styles of information evaluation vary from an emphasis on feeling to an emphasis on thinking. Feeling-type individuals are oriented toward conformity and try to accommodate themselves to other people. They try to avoid problems that may result in disagreements. Thinking-type individuals use reason and intellect to deal with problems and downplay emotions.
How does expectancy influence motivation? 2
Expectancy •effort will yield acceptable performance Instrumentality •performance will be rewarded Valence •value of the rewards is highly positive notes Equity theory is based on the concept of fairness. Expectancy is the probability assigned by an individual that work effort will be followed by a given level of achieved task performance. Instrumentality is the probability assigned by the individual that a given level of achieved task performance will lead to various work outcomes. Valence is the value attached by the individual to various work outcomes.
What is involved in learning by reinforcement? 4
Extinction •The withdrawal of the reinforcing consequences in order to weaken undesirable behavior. Reinforcement Pros and Cons NOTES An example: Enya is often late for work and co-workers provide positive reinforcement by covering for her. The manager instructs Enya's co-workers to stop covering, thus withdrawing the positive consequences. This is a use of extinction to try and get rid of an undesirable behavior.
Figure 1.6 Moral Leadership, ethics mindfulness, and the virtuous shift
Figure 1.6 Moral leadership, ethics mindfulness, and the virtuous shift. Source: Developed from Terry Thomas, John R. Schemerton Jr., and John W. Dinehart, "Strategic Leadership of Ethical Behavior in Business," Academy of Management Executive 18 (May 2004), pp. 56-66. Note: Moral leadership, ethics mindfulness, and the virtuous shift. Taken from Strategic Leadership of Ethical Behavior in Businesses.
Figure 10.1 Functional and Dysfunctional Conflict
Figure 10.1 The two faces of conflict: functional conflict and dysfunctional conflict. Dysfunctional Conflict: too little conflict is bad for perforamnce Functional Conflict Moderate: Levels of conflict are good for performance Dysfunctional Conflict: too much conflict is bad for performance
Figure 11.3 Richness of Communication Channels
Figure 11.3 The richest channels are face to face. Next are telephone, video conferences, and instant messaging, followed by e-mail, written memos, and letters. The leanest channels are posted notices and bulletins. When messages get more complex and open ended, richer channels are necessary to achieve effective communication. Leaner channels work well for more routine and straightforward messages, such as announcing the location of a previously scheduled meeting.
FIGURE 12.1 Hypothetical psychological contract for a secretary.
Figure 12.1 The figures shows link between the zone of indifference and the psychological contract.
Figure 2.1: Four problem-solving styles of the Jungian typology
Figure 2.1. When the two dimensions (information gathering and evaluation) are combined, four basic problem-solving styles result: sensation-feeling (SF), intuitive-feeling (IF), sensation-thinking (ST), and intuitive-thinking (IT), together with summary descriptions as shown in the figure.
Figure 3.1: What is perception?
Figure 3.1 The figure shows substantial differences in how a performance appraisal discussion is perceived by managers and their subordinates. These managers may end up not giving much attention to things like career development, performance goals, and supervisory support since they perceive these issues were adequately addressed at performance appraisal time. But the subordinates may end up frustrated and unsatisfied because they perceive less attention was given and they want more.
Figure 3.2 Attributions of Causes for Poor Performance
Figure 3.2 When managers were asked to identify, or attribute, causes of poor performance among their subordinates, they most often blamed internal deficiencies of the individual—lack of ability and effort, rather than external deficiencies in the situation—lack of support.
Figure 3.4 Alternative ways to schedule positive reinforcement
Figure 3.4 As shown in the figure, intermittent reinforcement can be given according to fixed or variable schedules. Variable schedules typically result in more consistent patterns of desired behavior than do fixed reinforcement schedules. Fixed- interval schedules provide rewards at the first appearance of a behavior after a given time has elapsed. Fixed-ratio schedules result in a reward each time a certain number of the behaviors have occurred. A variable-interval schedule rewards behavior at random times, while a variable-ratio schedule rewards behavior after a random number of occurrences.
Figure 4.1: Four key emotional intelligence competencies
Figure 4.1 The four emotional intelligence competencies are self-awareness, social awareness, self-management, and relationship management. •Self-awareness - The ability to understand our emotions and their impact on us and others. •Social awareness - The ability to empathize and understand the emotions of others. •Self-management - The ability to think before acting and control disruptive impulses. •Relationship management - The ability to establish rapport with others to build good relationships.
Figure 4.2: What are emotions and moods?
Figure 4.2 In general, emotions are intense feelings directed at someone or something; they always have rather specific triggers; and they come in many types—anger, fear, happiness, and the like.
Figure 4.3 Figurative Summary of Affective Events Theory
Figure 4.3 Affective Events Theory summarizes the discussion of emotions, moods, and human behavior in organizations. The basic notion of the theory is that our emotions and moods are influenced by events involving other people and situations. Our emotions and moods, in turn, influence the work performance and satisfaction of us and others.
Figure 4.4: What are attitudes and how do they influence behavior?
Figure 4.4 Work-related example of three components of attitudes.
Figure 4.5 Simplified Porter-Lawler model of the performance à satisfaction relationship?
Figure 4.5 The model suggests that performance leads to rewards that, in turn, lead to satisfaction. PERFORMANCE TO VALUED REWARDS TO SATISFACTION BETWEEN VALUED REWARDS & SATISFACTION PERCEIVED EQUITY OF REWARDS ENTERS
Figure 5.1: Higher-order and lower-order needs in Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
Figure 5.1 The figure identifies five levels of individual needs. They range from self-actualization and esteem needs at the top, to social, safety, and physiological needs at the bottom. The concept of a needs "hierarchy" assumes that some needs are more important than others and must be satisfied before the other needs can serve as motivators. For example, physiological needs must be satisfied before safety needs are activated; safety needs must be satisfied before social needs are activated; and so on. Some research suggests that higher-order needs (esteem and self-actualization) tend to become more important than lower-order needs (psychological, safety, and social) as individuals move up the corporate ladder. Studies also report that needs vary according to a person's career stage, the size of the organization, and even geographic location.4 There is also no consistent evidence that the satisfaction of a need at one level decreases its importance and increases the importance of the next-higher need.
Figure 5.2: Sources of dissatisfaction and satisfaction in Herzberg's two-factor theory
Figure 5.2 Hygiene factors found in job context and affect job dissatisfaction: * Organizational Policies * Quality of supervision * Working Conditions * Relationships with co-workers * Status and security * Base wages or salary Motivator factors found in job content and affect job satisfaction: * Achievement * Recognition * Work itself * Responsibility * Advancement * Growth High --- Job Dissatisfaction ---- LOW---- JOB SATISFACTION---- HIGH
Figure 5.4: How the management by objectives process works
Figure 5.4 Figure shows how an MBO process might utilize goal- setting principles. Team Leader: Team member: Jointly establish performance goals: Team member actively participates in developing performance goals to Individually Act: Team members performs tasks while team leader coaches and supports Jointly evaluates results and recycle process: Team members actively participates in performance review.
Figure 6.1: An integrated model of individual motivation to work.
Figure 6.1 The figure outlines an integrated model of motivation, one that ties together the basic relationship of effort, performance, and rewards regarding the basic effort → performance → rewards relationship. Note that the figure shows job performance and satisfaction as separate but potentially interdependent work results.
Figure 6.2:Performance management cycle
Figure 6.2 The foundation for any performance management system is performance measurement as shown in the figure.
Figure 6.3: A sample BARS for a customer service representative
Figure 6.3 A sample BARS for a customer service representative is shown in the figure. Note the specificity of the behaviors and the scale values for each. Similar behaviorally anchored scales would be developed for other dimensions of the job. Even though the BARS approach is detailed and complex, and requires time to develop, it can provide specific behavioral information useful for both evaluation and development purposes.
Figure 6.5: Job design considerations according to the job characteristics model
Figure 6.5 The shows how the Hackman and Oldham model informs the process of job design. The higher a job scores on each of these five core characteristics, the higher its motivational potential and the more it is considered to be enriched. Core Job Characteristics: * Skill Variety * Task Identity * Task Significance * Autonomy * Feedback Individual Moderator Variables: * Growth-need strength * knowledge and skill * Contact satisfaction Job Outcomes * Motivation * Job Satisfaction * Job Performance
Figure 7.2:Five Stages of Team Development
Figure 7.2 The figure describes the five stages of team development as forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. Forming: Getting to know each other Storming: Dealing with tensions and defining group tasks Norming: Building relationships and working together Performing: Maturing in relationships and task performance Adjourning: Disbanding and celebrating accomplishments
Figure 7.3 Ten criteria for measuring the maturity of a team
Figure 7.3 Criteria for measuring team maturity. 1. Feedback Mechanisms: * Immature Team: Poor * Mature Team: Excellent 2. Decision-making methods * Immature Team: dysfunctional * Mature Team: functional 3. Group loyalty/cohesion: * Immature Team: Low * Mature Team: high 4. Operating Procedures: * Immature Team: Inflexible * Mature Team: Flexible 5. Use of member resources: * Immature Team: Poor * Mature Team: Excellent 6. Communication: * Immature Team: Unclear * Mature Team: Clear 7. Goals: * Immature Team: Not Acceptable * Mature Team: Acceptable 8. Authority Relations: * Immature Team: Independent * Mature Team: Interdependent 9. Participation in Leadership: * Immature Team: Low * Mature Team: High 10. Acceptance of Minority View: * Immature Team: Low * Mature Team: High
Figure 7.4: Open Systems Model of Team Effectiveness
Figure 7.4 The open systems model presented in the figure shows team effectiveness being influenced by both inputs—"right players in the right seats," and by processes— "on the same bus, headed in the same direction.
Figure 7.5 Member Diversity, Stages of Team Development, and Team Performance
Figure 7.5 Team Performance increases with Team Development States/Time Forming-Storming-Norming-Performing Critical Zone: Ineffective Team Process Losses > Gains Effective Team Process Gains > Losses
Figure 8.4 Ways to increase and decrease team cohesiveness
Figure 8.4 Cohesiveness is high when teams members are similar in age, attitudes, needs and backgrounds.
Figure 9.3 Decision making viewed from the classical and behavioral perspectives
Figure 9.3 The classical decision model views people acting in a world of complete certainty, whereas the behavioral decision model accepts the notion of bounded rationality and suggests that people act only in terms of what they perceive about a given situation. Classical Decision Maker: * Clearly defined problem * Knowledge of all possible alternatives and their consequences * Choice of the "Optimum" Alternative * Managerial Action Cognitive Limitations Bounded Rationality Behavioral Decision-Maker: * Problem not clearly defined. * Knowledge is limited on possible alternatives and their consequences. * Satisfactory Alternative * Managerial Action
Figure 9.4 Vroom-Jago Decision -Making Model
Figure 9.4 Decision tree developed for managers by Vroom, Yetton, and Jago. It provides a framework that managers can refer to. Authority decisions: Variant 1 ¾ manager solves the problem or makes the decision alone, using information available at that time. Variant 2 ¾ manager obtains the necessary information from team members then decides on the problem's solution. The team members provide the necessary information from team members and then decides on the problem's solution. Team members provide the necessary information but do not generate or evaluate alternatives. Consultative decisions: Variant 1 ¾ manager shares the problem with team members individually, getting their ideas and suggestions without brining them all together. The manager then makes the final decision. Variant 2 ¾ manager shares the problem with team members, collectively obtaining their ideas and suggestions. The manager then makes a decisions. Team decisions: Classified as "G", (team or consensus decision) - manager shares the problem with team members as a total group and engages them in consensus seeking to arrive at a final decision.
What do situational contingency approaches tell us about leadership? 3
Findings from Situational Theories •Directive Leadership •Supportive Leadership •Achievement-Oriented Leadership •Participative Leadership •Fiedler's Leader-Match The leader cannot change his or her style and therefore needs to change the situation to match the leader style. NOTES The findings from situational theories approaches show, in general that certain situations favor certain leadership styles, and managers need to understand what these situations are and how to adjust their styles accordingly to be effective. Directive Leadership Directive leadership is needed when subordinates want guidance and direction in their jobs. It helps increases role clarity, self-efficacy, effort, and performance. When the task is clear, directive leadership will have a negative impact, as it will be see as overly domineering—a "micromanaging" style—by subordinates. Supportive Leadership Supportive leadership is needed when subordinates want emotional, not task, support. Supportive leadership is beneficial for highly repetitive or unpleasant tasks. It helps reduce stress by letting employees know the organization cares and will provide help. Achievement-Oriented Leadership Achievement-oriented leadership is needed for challenging tasks or when subordinates need to take initiative. It helps employees gain confidence and strive for higher standards. It increases expectations that effort will lead to desired performance. Participative Leadership Participative leadership is best when subordinates need limited direction and support. It allows employees to provide input. When tasks are repetitive, non-authoritarian subordinates appreciate being involved to help break up the monotony. Fiedler's Leader-Match One contingency theory that differs from the others in how it handles the issue of fit between leader style and the situation is Fiedler's LPC Model. Fiedler's LPC Model suggests that a manager's leadership style does not change: A manager has a certain style and that is the style he or she has to work with. Therefore, instead of modifying their style, there needs to be a leader match style.
What is job satisfaction trends and issues?
Five facets of job satisfaction: •The work itself •Quality of supervision •Relationships with co-workers •Promotion opportunities •Rewards Pay NOTES • The work itself — responsibility, interest, and growth • Quality of supervision — technical help and social support • Relationships with co-workers —social harmony and respect • Promotion opportunities — chances for further advancement • Pay — adequacy of pay and perceived equity vis-à-vis others
What are the motivational opportunities of alternative work assignments?
Flexible working hours •Gives individuals a daily choice in the timing of their work commitments. •Advantages: For workers: shorter commuting time, more leisure time, more job satisfaction, and greater sense of responsibility. For organizations: less absenteeism, tardiness, and turnover; more commitment, and higher performance. NOTES This flexible work schedule is increasingly popular and is a valuable alternative for structuring work to accommodate contemporary family situations - from baby boomers attending to needs of elderly relative to dual-career couples who are juggling children's schedules as well as their own.
What do situational contingency approaches tell us about leadership? 2
Follower Readiness •The amount experience or ability the follower has to do the job. Task Structure •Describes whether the task is highly defined (high structure) or the position of the leader. Leader Position Power •Describes the amount of formal authority associated with the position of the leader. NOTES Contingency theories try to predict leadership effectiveness. The most common effectiveness variables are subordinate job satisfaction and performance. As described in earlier chapters, job satisfaction is the positive feelings one has about the work and work setting. Performance is the quality and quantity of work produced. Performance can be measured at the individual level, as the performance of a particular subordinate, or at the group level, as the performance of a work unit. The central argument of contingency theories is that situational factors moderate the association between a manager's leadership style and his or her effectiveness. Situational factors are assessed in a variety of ways. They can be assessed as characteristics of the follower, such as follower readiness, or ability to do the task. They can be characteristics of the task, such as task structure (e.g., high or low task structure). Or they can be characteristics of the organizational structure, such as leader position power (e.g., formal or informal authority system).
What is followership?
Follower Role Orientation •Defined as the beliefs followers hold about the way they should engage and interact with leaders to meet the needs of the work unit. Power Distance Orientations •The extent to which one accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. Constructive Follower Orientations •Reflects the belief that followers should act in ways that are helpful, useful and productive to leadership outcomes. NOTES Follower Role Orientation The study of follower beliefs continued in research on follower role orientation. Follower role orientation represents the beliefs followers hold about the way they should engage and interact with leaders to meet the needs of the work unit. It reflects how followers define their role, how broadly they perceive the tasks associated with it, and how approach a follower role to be effective. Findings show that followers with hierarchical, power distance orientations believe leaders are in a better position than followers to make decisions and determine direction. These individuals have lower self-efficacy, meaning they have less confidence in their ability to execute on their own, and demonstrate higher obedience to leaders. They depend on leaders for structure and direction, which they follow without question. These followers report working in contexts of greater hierarchy of authority and lower job autonomy. This may be because these contexts are attractive to them, or it may be because those with more constructive follower orientations are less likely to remain in these environments. Individuals with constructive follower orientations approach their role from the standpoint of partnering with leaders to achieve goals. These individuals are higher in proactive personality and self-efficacy. They believe followers are important contributors to the leadership process and that a strong follower role (e.g., voice) is necessary for accomplishing the organizational mission. Constructive followers tend to work in environments that support and reinforce their followership beliefs, i.e., lower hierarchy of authority, greater autonomy, and higher supervisor support. These environments are important because constructive followers need support for their proactive and challenging styles. They need to trust leaders, and know that they will not be seen as overstepping their bounds.
What is followership? 6
Followership •The capacity or willingness to follow a leader. NOTES Followership is the capacity or willingness to follow a leader. It represents a process through which individuals choose how they will engage with leaders to co-produce leadership and its outcomes. These co-productions can take many forms. For example, it may be heavily leader-dominated, with passive followers who comply or go along. Or it may be a partnership, in which leaders and followers work collaboratively to produce leadership outcomes. Supportive leadership is predicted to increase the satisfaction of subordinates who work on highly repetitive tasks or on tasks considered to be unpleasant, stressful, or frustrating. In this situation the leader's supportive behavior helps compensate for adverse conditions.
How can we create high performance teams? 3
Formal retreat approach •Team building occurs during an offsite "retreat." Outdoor experience approach •Members engage in a variety of physically challenging situations that require teamwork. Continuous improvement approach •The manager, team leader, or group members take responsibility for ongoing team building. NOTES Team-building retreats offer opportunities for intense and concentrated efforts to examine group accomplishments and operations. Often a consultant is hired to assist with the team building process. By having to work together in the face of difficult obstacles, team members are supposed to experience increased self-confidence, more respect for others' capabilities, and a greater commitment to teamwork. Continuous improvement of teamwork is essential to the themes of total quality and total service management so important to organizations today.
What are the stages of team development?
Forming stage •Initial entry of members to a team. •Member challenges Getting to know each other Discovering what is considered acceptable behavior Determining the group's real task Defining group rules NOTES During this stage, individuals begin to identify with other group members and with the group itself. Their concerns may include "What can the group offer me?" "What will I be asked to contribute?" "Can my needs be met at the same time I contribute to the group?"
What is the nature of conflict in organizations? 3
Functional conflict •Results in constructive, positive benefits to individuals, the team, or the organization. Dysfunctional conflict •Destructive to an individual or team. NOTES There is no doubt that conflict in organizations can be upsetting both to the individuals directly involved and to others affected by its occurrence. It can be quite uncomfortable, for example, to work in an environment in which two co-workers are continually hostile toward each other or two teams are always battling for top management attention.
What are teams and how are they used in organizations? 6
Functional silos problem •Occurs when members of functional units stay focused on matters internal to their function and minimize their interactions with members dealing with other functions. NOTES Also called functional chimneys problem. The functional departments or work teams create artificial boundaries, or "silos," that discourage rather than encourage interaction with other units. The result is poor integration and poor coordination with other parts of the organization. The cross-functional team is a way to break down these barriers by creating a forum in which members from different functions work together as one team with a common purpose.
What is the link between motivation, performance, and rewards? 3
Gain sharing •Gives workers the opportunity to earn more by receiving shares of any productivity gains that they help to create. notes Gain sharing plans are supposed to create a greater sense of personal responsibility for organizational performance improvements and increase motivation to work hard. They are also supposed to encourage cooperation and teamwork to increase productivity.
Why are diversity and individual differences important?
Gender Women bring a different set of skills and styles to the workplace. "Leaking pipeline" #of women decreases the more senior the roles become. Notes: Women leaders are beneficial because they encourage more women in the pipeline and act as role models and mentors for younger women. Moreover, the presence of women leaders sends important signals that an organization has a broader and deeper talent pool, is an "employer of choice," and offers an inclusive workplace. Catalyst research finds that women consistently identify gender stereotypes as a significant barrier to advancement. They describe it as the "think-leader-think-male" mindset: the idea that men are largely seen as the leaders by default. Both men and women see women as better at stereotypically feminine "caretaking skills," such as supporting and encouraging others, and men as better at stereotypically masculine "take charge" skills, such as influencing superiors and problem solving—characteristics previously shown to be essential to leadership.
How do Goals and Goal Setting Influence Motivation?
Goal setting •The process of developing, negotiating, and formalizing the targets or objectives that a person is responsible for accomplishing. notes The basic precepts of goal-setting theory are an important source of advice for managing human behavior in the work setting.
How do Goals and Goal Setting Influence Motivation? 4
Goals are most likely to lead to higher performance when people have the abilities and the feelings of self-efficacy required to accomplish them. Goals are most likely to motivate people toward higher performance when they are accepted by the individual, and there is commitment to them. NOTES The individual must be able to accomplish the goals and feel confident in those abilities. Participating in the goal-setting process helps build acceptance and commitment. It creates a sense of "ownership".
What is the Nature of Communication in Organizational Contexts? 2
Grapevine •A network of friendships and acquaintances through which rumors and other unofficial information get passed from person to person. NOTES Grapevines have the advantage of being able to transmit information quickly and efficiently. Grapevines also help fulfill the needs of people involved in them. Being part of a grapevine can provide a sense of security that comes from "being in the know" when important things are going on.
Chapter 14 Leader Traits and Behavioral Styles
Great leaders know the way
What are the input foundations for teamwork? 9
Group or team dynamics •Forces operating in teams that affect the way members relate to and work with one another.
How can team decisions be improved? 10
Groupthink •The tendency of members in highly cohesive groups to lose their critical evaluative capabilities. NOTES Groupthink •The tendency of members in highly cohesive groups to lose their critical evaluative capabilities.
What are the common perceptual distortions? 5
Halo effects •Occur when one attribute of a person or situation is used to develop an overall impression of the individual or situation. NOTES Like stereotypes, distortions are more likely to occur in the organization stage of perception. Halo effects are common in our everyday lives. Also, halo effects are particularly important in the performance appraisal process because they can influence a manager's evaluations of subordinates' work performance.
Why are diversity and individual differences important?
Heredity: * Physical Characteristics * Gender TO: Personality Environment: * Cultural Factors * Social Factors * Situational Factors Notes: Are we the way we are because of heredity—that is, genetic endowment—or because of the environments in which we have been raised and live—cultural, social, situational?
What are the sources of power and influence? 4
Hierarchical Thinking •The problem of deferring responsibility and accountability upward in organizations. Reward Power •Comes from one's ability to administer positive rewards and remove or decrease negative rewards. Coercive power •The extent to which a manager can deny desired rewards and administer punishments to control other people. NOTES Because the mere possession of formal authority can generate power distance that isolates managers from employees, the overuse of legitimate power is often associated with hierarchical thinking in organizations. Hierarchical thinking is the problem of deferring responsibility and accountability upward in organizations. It can also be called the problem of subordination in organizations. It occurs when hierarchical systems create environments of superiority among managers (i.e., "superiors") and subordination among employees (i.e., "subordinates"). Reward power is power whose basis is the ability to administer outcomes that have positive valence (i.e., provide positive rewards) and remove or decrease outcomes that have negative valence (i.e., remove negative rewards). Examples of rewards include money, promotions, kudos, enriched jobs or not assigning unpleasant task duties or undesirable work schedules. As we learned in the chapters on motivation, rewards must be perceived as equitable, and problems may arise in the use of reward power if rewards do not match expectations. Coercive power is similar to reward power in that it involves the ability to administer outcomes, but differs in that its focus is on punishment rather than reward. The difference lies in the extent to which those receiving it perceive it as a sanction. For example, pay becomes a form of coercive power when a manager threatens to withhold a pay raise.
How do people respond to power and influence? 3
How Power Corrupts •Bathsheba Syndrome When men and women of otherwise strong personal integrity and intelligence engage in unethical and selfish behavior in the pinnacle or power because they mistakenly believe they are above the law. NOTES Attempts at implementing more empowerment can disrupt well-established patterns of position power and threaten middle- and lower-level managers. Organizational leaders must communicate precisely how empowerment will benefit the individuals involved.
What is leadership? 5
Implicit Leadership Theories •Our beliefs or understanding about the attributes associated with leaders and leadership. NOTES A key element affecting whether leadership claims will be granted lies in the "implicit theories" we hold about leadership. Implicit leadership theories are beliefs or understanding about the attributes associated with leaders and leadership. They can vary widely depending on our experiences and understandings of leadership. For example, some people believe leaders are charismatic, so they look for charismatic traits and behaviors in those vying for leadership status. Others believe leaders are directive and assertive, and grant leadership status to those who take charge. Still others believe leaders are confident and considerate, so they identify leaders as those who have innovative and interesting ideas and involve others in bringing the idea into fruition.
What is organizational behavior and why is it important?
Importance of Organizational Behavior * OB relevance test - fashion-forward titles like these: * Relationship champion, Logistic ringmaster, Innovation game-changer, Collaboration pioneer, Market trends virtuoso * Smart workforce - common foundations with similar behaviors drive job titles, such as networking, connecting, collaborating, helping, linking, supporting, seeking, and performing.
What is perception? 7
Impression Management •Systematic attempt to behave in ways that will create and maintain desired impressions in the eyes of others. When well done, impression management can help us to advance in jobs and careers, form relationships with people we admire, and even create pathways to group memberships. NOTES The fact is that we already practice a lot of impression management as a matter of routine in everyday life. Impression management is taking place when we dress, talk, act, and surround ourselves with things that reinforce a desirable self-image and help to convey that same image to other persons. One of the most powerful forces in impression management today might be the one least recognized—how we communicate our presence in the online world of social media.
What are the key decision-making traps and issues? 5
In choosing problems to address, try the following checklist: •What really matters? •Might the problem resolve itself? •Is this my or our problem? •Will time spent make a difference? NOTES Not only do decision makers have to be on guard against errors caused by heuristics and biases, but they also have to manage the decision-making process itself by making the right decisions in the right way at the right. One of the first issues is whether to actually address a decision situation. Most people are too busy and have too many valuable things to do with their time to personally make decisions on every problem or opportunity that comes their way. The effective manager and team leader knows when to delegate decisions to others, how to set priorities, and when to abstain from acting altogether. When faced with the dilemma of whether or not to deal with a specific problem, asking and answering the four questions can sometimes help.
How can conflict be managed? 8
Indirect strategies: Managed interdependence Decoupling, or taking action to eliminate or reduce the required contact between conflicting parties. •Buffering is another approach that can be used when the inputs of one team are the outputs of another. NOTES The conflicting units can then be separated from one another, and each can be provided separate access to valued resources. Although decoupling may reduce conflict, it may also result in duplication and a poor allocation of valued resources. The classic buffering technique is to build an inventory, or buffer, between the teams so that any output slowdown or excess is absorbed by the inventory and does not directly pressure the target group. Although it reduces conflict, this technique is increasingly out of favor because it increases inventory costs. This consequence is contrary to the elements of just-in time delivery, which is now valued in operations management.
Why are diversity and individual differences important?
Individual differences attempts to identify where behavioral tendencies are similar and where they are different. Capitalizing on differences requires an understanding of what they are and valuing the benefits they can offer. Self Awareness - being aware of one's own behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, personalities, and so on. Awareness of others - being aware of the behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, and personalities of others. Notes: The idea is that if we can figure out how to categorize behavioral tendencies and identify which tendencies people have, we will be able to more accurately predict how and why people behave as they do.
What are teams and how are they used in organizations? 3
Informal groups •Emerge and coexist as a shadow to the formal structure and without any assigned purpose or endorsement. •Types of informal groups Friendship groups Interest groups NOTES informal groups can be places where people join to complain, spread rumors, and disagree with what is happening in the organization, they can also be quite helpful. Informal networks can speed up workflows as people assist each other in ways that cut across the formal structures. They can also help satisfy unmet needs, for example, by providing companionship or a sense of personal importance that is otherwise missing in someone's formal team assignments.
Figure 2.2 Ways in which internal locus of control differs from external locus of control
Information Processing: Internals make more attempts to acquire information, are less satisfied with the amount of information they possess, and are better at utilizing information. Job Satisfaction: Internals are generallly more satisfied, less alienated, less rootless, and there is a strong job satisfaction/performance relationship for them. Performance: Internals perform better on learning and problem-solving tasks when performance leads to valued rewards. Self-Control, Risk, and Anxiety: Internals exhibit greater self-control, are more cautious, engage in less risky behavior, and are less anxious. Motivation, Expectancies, and Results: Internals display greater work motivation, see a stronger relationship between what they do and what happens to them, expect that working hard leads to good performance and feels more control over their time. Response to Others: Internals are more reliant on their own judgment, and less susceptible to the influence of others; they are more likely to accept information on its merit
What is personality?
Information gathering •Getting and organizing data for use. •Styles of information gathering range from sensation to intuitive. Notes: Information gathering involves getting and organizing data for use. Styles of information gathering vary from sensation to intuitive. Sensation-type individuals prefer routine and order and emphasize well-defined details in gathering information; they would rather work with known facts than look for possibilities. By contrast, intuitive-type individuals prefer the "big picture." They like solving new problems, dislike routine, and would rather look for possibilities than work with facts. Sensation-type individuals prefer routine and order and emphasize well-defined details in gathering information. Intuitive-type individuals like new problems and dislike routine. They are 'big picture' people.
Figure 1.5 Mintzberg's 10 roles of effective managers
Informational Roles: How a manager exchanges and processes information: * Monitor * Disseminator * Spokesperson Decisional Roles: How a manager uses information in decision-making: * Entrepreneur * Disturbance Handler * Negotiator Interpersonal Roles: How a manager interacts with other people: * Figurehead * Leader * Liaison Notes: Based on Henry Mintzberg's classic study on the ten key roles of effective managers.
Figure 1.2 Organizations as Open Systems Interacting With Their Environments
Initial Experience: * Personal experiences * Classroom as an organization * In-Class exercise, simulations * Group project assignments * Cases Reflection: * Personal thought * Class discussion * Informal discussion * Readings * Lectures * Written assignments Experimentation: * Trying new behaviors in work experiences, class experiences, and everyday experiences Theory Building: * Theories in readings * Theories from lectures. * Personal theories. * Theories from other sources. Notes: Organizations are open systems that create value while interacting with their environments. This cycle is called a value chain.
What are the alternative strategies for negotiation? 4
Integrative negotiation •"How can the resource best be used?" •Less confrontational than distributive negotiation. •Allows a broader range of alternative solutions to be considered. •A win-win solution is possible. NOTES At one extreme, integrative negotiation may involve selective avoidance, in which both parties realize that there are more important things on which to focus their time and attention The time, energy, and effort needed to negotiate may not be worth the rewards. Compromise can also play a role in the integrative approach, but it must have an enduring basis. This is most likely to occur when the compromise involves each party giving up something of perceived lesser personal value to gain something of greater value.
How can team processes be improved? 13
Inter-team dynamics •The relationships between groups cooperating and competing with one another. NOTES Organizations ideally operate as cooperative systems in which the various components support one another. In the real world, however, competition and intergroup problems often develop within an organization and have mixed consequences.
How do we learn about organizational behavior?
Internal Environment of Organizations • Organizational culture is a shared set of beliefs and values within an organization. • Organizational climate represents shared perceptions of members regarding what the organization is like in terms of management policies and practices. Notes: In some organizational climates, relations among managers and employees are relaxed and informal, with lots of free-flowing communication. In other climates, managers act distant from employees and emphasize formal work procedures and interactions, with more structured and restricted communication.
What are the barriers to effective communication? 7
Interpersonal barriers •Occur when individuals are not able to objectively listen to the sender due to things such as lack of trust, personality clashes, a bad reputation, or stereotypes/prejudices. Selective listening - Individuals block out information or only hear things that match preconceived notions. Filter - Convey only parts of the information (e.g., not to tell the "whole" truth). Avoidance - Occurs when individuals ignore or deny a problem rather than confront it. NOTES Receivers and senders may distort communication by evaluating and judging a message or failing to communicate it effectively. Interpersonal barriers may also occur due to ego problems or poor communication skills. Individuals with ego problems may twist what someone says to serve their own purpose, or may overly emphasize their own contributions while failing to acknowledge those of others. Poor communication skills involve failing to effectively listen, rambling on in meetings rather than presenting a concise and coherent message, or being unable to frame messages appropriate to the audience.
•Levels of Conflict in Organizations
Interpersonal: •Can be caused by rivalries; personality differences Intra-personal: •Pressure from incompatible (internal) goals or expectations Inter-group: •Causes are substantive (competition for resources) or emotional Inter-organizational •Competition for market share NOTES Interpersonal conflict occurs between two or more individuals who are in opposition to one another. It may be substantive, emotional, or both. Intrapersonal: •Approach-approach conflict occurs when a person must choose between two positive and equally attractive alternatives. •Avoidance-avoidance conflict occurs when a person must choose between two negative and equally unattractive alternatives. •Approach-avoidance conflict occurs when a person must decide to do something that has both positive and negative consequences. Intergroup - occurs between teams, perhaps ones competing for scarce resources or rewards, and perhaps ones whose members have emotional problems with one. Interorganizational - most commonly thought of in terms of the competition and rivalry that characterizes firms operating in the same markets.
What is perception? 5
Interpretation •Uncovering the reasons behind the ways stimuli are grouped. NOTES: Even if your attention is called to the same information and you organize it in the same way your friend does, you may still interpret it differently or make different assumptions about what you have perceived. As a team leader, for example, you might interpret compliments from a team member as due to his being an eager worker; your friend might interpret the behavior as insincere flattery.
What is the link between motivation, performance, and rewards?
Intrinsic rewards •Positively valued work outcomes that an individual receives directly as a result of task performance. Extrinsic rewards •Positively valued work outcomes that are given to an individual or group by some other person or source in the work setting. NOTES A feeling of achievement after completing a particularly challenging task with a good person-job fit is an example of an intrinsic reward. Examples might include things like sincere praise for a job well done or symbolic tokens of accomplishment such as "employee-of-the-month" awards. Importantly too, anything dealing with compensation, or the pay and benefits one receives at work, are positively valued work outcomes that the individual receives directly as a result of task performance; they do not require the participation of another person or source.
How do job designs influence motivation and performance? 5
Job characteristics model •Provides a data-based approach for creating job designs with good person-job fits that maximize the potential for motivation and performance. NOTES Components of Job Characteristics Model: Skill variety—the degree to which a job includes a variety of different activities and involves the use of a number of different skills and talents. Task identity—the degree to which the job requires completion of a "whole" and identifiable piece of work, one that involves doing a job from beginning to end with a visible outcome. Task significance—the degree to which the job is important and involves a meaningful contribution to the organization or society in general. Autonomy—the degree to which the job gives the employee substantial freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling the work and determining the procedures used in carrying it out. Job feedback—the degree to which carrying out the work activities provides direct and clear information to the employee regarding how well the job has been done.
How do job designs influence motivation and performance? 3
Job enlargement •Increases task variety by combining into one job two or more tasks that were previously assigned to separate workers. Job rotation •Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different tasks. NOTES Sometimes called horizontal loading, this approach increases job breadth by having the worker perform more and different tasks, but all at the same level of responsibility and challenge. Job rotation is also a form of horizontal-loading, the responsibility level of the tasks stays the same. The rotation can be arranged according to almost any time schedule, such as hourly, daily, or weekly schedules. An important benefit of job rotation is training.
How do job designs influence motivation and performance? 4
Job enrichment •The practice of enhancing job content by building high content jobs full of motivating factors such as responsibility, achievement, recognition, and personal growth. NOTES This job-design strategy is the practical application of Herzberg's motivator-hygiene (two-factors) theory of motivation. The content changes made possible by job enrichment involve what Herzberg calls vertical loading to increase job depth. This essentially means that planning and evaluating tasks normally performed by supervisors are pulled down into the job to make it bigger.
What are attitudes and how do they influence behavior ? 3
Job satisfaction •An attitude reflecting a person's positive and negative feelings toward a job, co-workers, and the work environment. Job Involvement •Extent to which an individual is dedicated to a job. NOTES Helping others realize job satisfaction is considered one hallmark of effective managers. They create work environments in which people achieve high performance and experience high job satisfaction. This concept of job satisfaction is very important in OB. Someone with high job involvement psychologically identifies with her or his job, and, for example, would be expected to work beyond expectations to complete a special project.
What are the motivational opportunities of alternative work assignments?
Job sharing •One full-time job is assigned to two or more persons who then divide the work according to agreed-upon hours. •Advantages: For workers: less burnout and higher energy level. For organizations: attracting talented people who would otherwise be unable to work. Often, each person works half a day, but job sharing can also be done on a weekly or monthly basis.
How do job designs influence motivation and performance? 2
Job simplification •A scientific management approach to job design that standardizes work procedures and employs people in clearly defined and highly specialized tasks. •Intent is to increase efficiency, but it may be decreased due to the motivational impact of unappealing jobs. NOTES Example: machine-paced auto assembly line. Increases operating efficiency by reducing the number of skills required to do a job, by being able to hire low-cost labor, by keeping the needs for job training to a minimum, and by emphasizing the accomplishment of repetitive tasks. Disadvantages: lower work quality, high rates of absenteeism and turnover, and demand for higher wages to compensate for unappealing jobs. Technological improvements, in some industries, has caused reduction of human labor.
How do job designs influence motivation and performance? 2
Job simplification •A scientific management approach to job design that standardizes work procedures and employs people in clearly defined and highly specialized tasks. •Intent is to increase efficiency, but it may be decreased due to the motivational impact of unappealing jobs. NOTES Example: machine-paced auto assembly line. Increases operating efficiency by reducing the number of skills required to do a job, by being able to hire low-cost labor, by keeping the needs for job training to a minimum, and by emphasizing the accomplishment of repetitive tasks. Disadvantages: lower work quality, high rates of absenteeism and turnover, and demand for higher wages to compensate for unappealing jobs. Technological improvements, in some industries, has caused reduction of human labor.
What are key decision-making traps and issues?
Judgmental heuristics •Simplifying strategies or shortcuts used to make decisions. •Make it easier to deal with uncertainty and limited information common to problem situations. NOTES Judgment, or the use of one's intellect, is important in all aspects of decision making. When we question the ethics of a decision, for example, we are questioning the judgment of the person making it. Research shows that people are prone to mistakes using biases that often interfere with the quality of decision making.
How can team processes be improved? 10
Key norms that can have positive or negative implications. •Performance norms. •Ethics norms. •Organizational and personal pride norms. •High-achievement norms. •Support and helpfulness norms. •Improvement and change norms. NOTES Groups also commonly have norms regarding how to deal with supervisors, colleagues, and customers, as well as norms establishing guidelines for honesty and ethical behaviors. Norms are often evident in the everyday conversations and actions of people at work.
What is involved in learning by reinforcement?
Law of effect •Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated while behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated. Extrinsic rewards •Positively valued work outcomes that are given to the individual by some other person. NOTES The implications of this law are rather straightforward. If you want more of a behavior, you must make the consequences for the individual positive. Extrinsic rewards become external reinforces or environmental consequences that can substantially influence a person's work behaviors through the law of effect
What do we know about leader-follower relationships? 2
Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory The study of manager-subordinate relationship quality. NOTES The underlying premise of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory is that leaders (i.e., managers) have differentiated relationships with followers (i.e., subordinates). With some subordinates managers have high quality LMX relationships, characterized by trust, respect, liking, and loyalty. With other subordinates managers have low quality LMX relationships, characterized by lack of trust, respect, liking and loyalty. Whereas the former (high LMX relationships) are more like partnerships between managers and subordinates in co-producing leadership, the latter (low LMX relationships) are more like traditional supervision, with managers supervising and monitoring and subordinates complying (or maybe resisting).
Figure 13.1 The role of "willing followership" in leadership.
Leader: * Personal Power * High Quality Relationship "Willing Followership": * Followers Intrinsically Motivated * Follow Because They "Want" To Results: * In Strong Effort Manager: * Position Power * Low Quality Relationships "Force": * Followers Extrinsically Motivated * Follow Because They "Have" To Results: * In Minimal Effort
How can team processes be improved? 11
Leaders Can Influence Norms: Positive Role Model Set Aside Time To Discuss Goals and Norms Select Members Who Can and Will Live Up To Desired Norms Reward and Positively Reinforce Desired Behaviors NOTES Team leaders can set the tone for group behaviors and expectations.
What is leadership?
Leadership •An influence process generated in and from combined acts of leading (influencing) and following (deferring) as social agents work together to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it. NOTES Leadership is commonly thought of as individuals (i.e., managers, leaders) influencing others (i.e., subordinates, followers) in a top-down manner. But this does not tell the full story. Leadership is not a one-way process. Rather, it is a social phenomenon created in combined acts of leading and following. In fact, following is as important, if not more important, than leading: Without followers, there are no leaders.
What do we know about leadership ethics?
Leadership / Ethical Leadership Theory •Leadership Ethics The Study of ethical problems and challenges distinctive to and inherent in the processes, practices, and outcome of leading and following. NOTES Ethics is at the heart of leadership—therefore, no discussion of leadership is complete without consideration of its moral and ethical dimensions. Ethical dilemmas arise in leadership for many reasons. The hierarchical nature of the leader role makes leaders and followers susceptible to the seductive forces of power and obedience. Individual characteristics such as narcissism and achievement-orientation can put individuals at risk when compelled by pressure for results, and ego-based environments. Moreover, societal factors such as prejudices and norms can create contexts that drive unethical behavior. To address these issues, scholars are focusing more seriously on leadership ethics. Leadership ethics is the study of ethical problems and challenges distinctive to and inherent in the processes, practices, and outcomes of leading and following. It is concerned with the ethical use of power and the morality of leadership outcomes (e.g., fairness, equality, liberty). Paralleling the study of ethics more generally, leadership ethics examines right, wrong, good, evil, virtue, duty, obligation, rights, justice, fairness, etc., as they apply to leadership relationships and leader and follower behaviors.
What is leadership? 3
Leadership as Identity Construction •Identity Construction Process This process involves individuals negotiating identities as leaders and followers. •Claiming refers to actions people take to assert their identity as a leader or follower. •Granting refers to actions people take to bestow an identity of a leader or follower onto another person. NOTES More recently we have come to understand leadership as an identity construction process in which individuals negotiate identities as leaders and followers. The process involves individuals "claiming" an identity (e.g., as a leader or follower) and others affirming or "granting" that identity (i.e., by going along with the claim). The leadership identity construction process involves individuals negotiating identities as leaders and followers. Claiming refers to actions people take to assert their identity as a leader or follower. Granting refers to actions people take to bestow an identity of a leader or follower onto another person.
What is leadership? 2
Leadership as Social Construction •Socially Constructed Leadership is constructed and produced in social and relational interactions among people acting in context. NOTES Understanding leadership as a process helps us see that leadership is socially constructed. It is generated in relational interactions among people and in context. Because of this, it cannot be meaningfully separated from context. Each leadership situation is unique, having its own particular dynamics, variables and players. There is no one-size-fits-all solution in leadership. We can learn fundamental principles about leadership, but beyond that it is up to the individual players to identify appropriate ways of acting and interacting relative to the context.
What do we know about leader-follower relationships?
Leadership categorization theory •Implicit leadership theories - preconceived notions about the attributes (e.g., traits and behaviors) associated with leaders. They reflect the structure and content of "cognitive categories" used to distinguish leaders from nonleaders. Attributes or leadership prototypes are mental images of the characteristics that make a "good" leader, that a "real" leader would possess. NOTES Implicit leadership theories reflect the structure and content of "cognitive categories" used to distinguish leaders from nonleaders.
Figure 8.2 Task and maintenance leadership in team dynamics
Leading By Task Contributions: * Offering Ideas * Clarifying Suggestions * Giving Information * Seeking Information * Summarizing Discussion How To Lead Groups & Teams Leading By Maintenance Contributions: * Encouraging Others * Reconciling Differences * Expressing Standards * Offering Agreement * Inviting Participation
What are the sources of power and influence? 3
Legitimate power •The extent to which a manager can use subordinates' internalized values or beliefs that the "boss" has a "right of command" to control their behavior. NOTES Legitimate power represents the unique power a manager has because subordinates believe it is legitimate for a person occupying the managerial position to have the right to command. If this legitimacy is lost, authority will not be accepted by subordinates.
What is personality?
Locus of control •The extent to which a person feels able to control his/her own life. •Concerned with a person's internal-external orientation. Notes: People have personal conceptions about whether events are controlled primarily by themselves, which indicates an internal orientation, or by outside forces, such as their social and physical environment, which indicates an external orientation. Externals: more extraverted in their interpersonal relationships and more oriented toward the world around them. Internals: more introverted and oriented towards their own feelings and ideas.
What do you see?
Look at the small illustration in the figure. What do you see, faces or a vase? It depends on which image is perceived as the background and which as the figure or object of our attention.
How can conflict be managed? 11
Lose-lose conflict •Nobody gets what he or she wants; underlying reasons for remain unresolved. Strategies include: Avoidance. Accommodation- playing down differences. Compromise- giving up something valued. NOTES The underlying reasons for the conflict remain unaffected, and a similar conflict is likely to occur in the future. Lose-lose outcomes are likely when the conflict management strategies involve little or no assertiveness.
What are Barriers to Effective Communication? 13
Low-context cultures •Members are very explicit in using the spoken and written word. High-context cultures •Use words to convey only a limited part of the message. •The rest must be inferred or interpreted from the context. NOTES In low context cultures, such as those of Australia, Canada, and the United States, the message is largely conveyed by the words someone uses, and not particularly by the "context" in which they are spoken. In high context cultures, context includes body language, the physical setting, and past relationships—all of which add meaning to what is being said. Many Asian and Middle Eastern cultures are considered high context, according to Hall, whereas most Western cultures are low context. International business experts advise that one of the best ways to gain understanding of cultural differences is to learn at least some of the language of the country that one is dealing with.
What are individual and cultural values? 3
Maglino's categories of workplace values •Achievement •Helping and concern for others •Honesty •Fairness NOTES These four values have been shown to be especially important in the workplace; thus, the framework should be particularly relevant for studying values in OB.
What are emotions and moods? 5
Major Emotions: Joy Love Sadness Surprise Anger Fear NOTES Moods tend to be more generalized positive or negative feelings. They are less intense than emotions and most often seem to lack a clear source; it's often hard to identify how or why we end up in a particular mood. But moods tend to be more long-lasting than emotions.
Chapter 12Power and Politics
Make connections, gain power and influence
How do Goals and Goal Setting Influence Motivation? 5
Management by Objectives (MBO) •Process of joint goal setting between a supervisor and a subordinate. NOTES MBO involves managers working with their team members to establish performance goals and make plans that are consistent with higher level work unit and organizational objectives. When done throughout an organization, MBO helps clarify the hierarchy of objectives as a series of well-defined means-end chains.
What is the context of organizational behavior?
Manager someone whose job it is to directly support the work efforts of others. Effective manager helps others achieve high levels of both performance and satisfactions. Notes: Being a manager is a unique challenge with responsibilities that link closely with the field of organizational behavior. At the heart of the matter managers help other people get important things done in timely, high-quality, and personally satisfying ways. In today's work environment, this is accomplished more through helping and supporting than through traditional notions of directing and controlling. The word manager is increasingly being replaced by in conversations by such terms as coordinator, coach or team leader. The definition of an effective manager focuses attention on two key outcomes, or dependent variables that are important to OB. They are task performance and job satisfaction.
How do job designs influence motivation and performance? 7
Managerial and global implications of enriching jobs •Not everyone's job should be enriched. •Job enrichment can apply to groups. NOTES Experts generally agree that the job characteristics model and its diagnostic approach are useful, although not perfect, guides to job design. One note of caution is raised by Gerald Salancik and Jeffrey Pfeffer, who question whether jobs have stable and objective characteristics to which individuals respond predictably and consistently. Instead, they view job design from the perspective of social information processing theory. This theory argues that individual needs, task perceptions, and reactions are a result of socially constructed realities.
What are the challenges of management in organizations?
Managerial skills and competencies *** Skill an ability to translate knowledge into action that results in a desired performance. Notes: Robert Katz divides the essential managerial skills into three categories: technical, human, and conceptual.The relative importance of these skills varies across the different levels of management.
How can conflict be managed? 4
Manifest conflict Expressed openly in behavior. Conflict aftermath Removing or correcting antecedents. Conflict suppression No change in antecedent conditions occurs even though the manifest conflict behaviors may be temporarily controlled. Notes Conflict suppression is a superficial and often temporary state that leaves the situation open to future conflicts over similar issues. Although it is perhaps useful in the short run, only true conflict resolution establishes conditions that eliminate an existing conflict and reduce the potential for it to recur in the future.
How do Human Needs Influence Motivation?
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory •Identifies five levels of individual needs. •Assumes that some needs are more important than others and must be satisfied before the other needs can serve as motivators. NOTES Needs range from self-actualization and esteem at the top, to social, safety, and physiological at the bottom. Physiological needs must be satisfied before safety needs are activated - safety needs must be satisfied before social needs are activated.
What are the essentials of performance management?
Measurement errors that can reduce the reliability or validity of a performance measure: •Halo error •Leniency error •Central tendency error •Recency error •Personal bias error
What are the different strategies involved in negotiation?
Mediation •A neutral third party tries to engage the parties in a negotiated solution through persuasion and rational argument. NOTES Mediation is a common approach in labor-management negotiations, where trained mediators acceptable to both sides are called in to help resolve bargaining impasses. Unlike an arbitrator, the mediator is not able to dictate a solution.
What is the link between motivation, performance, and rewards? 2
Merit pay •Compensation system that directly ties an individual's salary or wage increase to measures of performance accomplishments during a specific time period. •Seeks to create a belief among employees that the way to achieve high pay is to perform at high levels. •Bonus - extra pay for performance that meets certain benchmarks or is above expectations. notes A merit system should be based on realistic and accurate measures of individual work performance. The merit system should be able to clearly discriminate between high and low performers in the amount of pay increases awarded. Finally, it is also important that any "merit" aspects of a pay increase are not confused with across-the-board "cost-of-living" adjustments. A current challenges to the fair application of this system includes the prevalence of task interdependence in the workplace.
What is involved in the decision-making process? 5
Moral dilemma •Decision maker faces two or more ethically uncomfortable alternatives. •Either alternative is potentially beneficial and harmful. NOTES Because moral dilemmas can be difficult to resolve, ethical reasoning helps ensure that the decisions will be made with rigor and thoughtful consideration. Indeed, a willingness to pause to examine the ethics of a proposed decision may well result in a better decision, preservation of respect and reputation for one's self and the organization, and prevention of costly litigation and even jail.
What is Motivation?
Motivation •Forces within the individual forces that account for the direction, level, and persistence of a person's effort expended at work. Direction - an individual's choice when presented with a number of possible alternatives. Level - the amount of effort a person puts forth. Persistence - the length of time a person sticks with a given action.
What is leadership? 4
Motivation to Lead •The extent to which individual choose to assume leadership training, roles and responsibilities. NOTES This process has strong implications for those who are high in motivation to lead. While they may want to lead if others do not grant them a leadership identity, their efforts will not succeed. It also explains why "natural leaders" who may not be high in motivation to lead may end up doing so anyway: Leadership may be "bestowed" upon them by others who grant them leadership identities.
How does expectancy influence motivation? 3
Motivational implications of expectancy theory. •Motivation is sharply reduced when, expectancy, instrumentality, or valence approach zero or are negative. •Motivation is high when expectancy and instrumentality are high and valence is strongly positive. notes Expectancy logic argues that managers should always try to intervene actively in work situations to maximize work expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences that support organizational objectives. Even though the theory has received substantial support, some components, such as the multiplier effect, remain subject to some question.
What are teams and how are they used in organizations? 9
Multiskilling •Team members are expected to perform many different jobs - even all the of the team's jobs - as needed. NOTES The expected benefits of self-managing teams include productivity and quality improvements, production flexibility and faster response to technological change, reduced absenteeism and turnover, and improved work attitudes and quality of work life. But just as with all organizational changes, the shift from traditional work units to self-managing teams may have its difficulties. It may be hard for some team members to adjust to the "self-managing" responsibilities.
Figure 8.1:Steps in the team-building process
NOTES Figure 8.1 - When team members notice an obstacle to their team effectiveness (lack of skill, technology, resources, or the like), a plan is designed to uncover the root cause and address it. Various data gathering techniques are used including questionnaires, interviews, or group discussions. Team members collectively address questions that focus on the problem. For example, "How well are we doing in meeting our goal? What is standing in our way?" STEP 1: Problem or opportunity in team effectiveness Step 2: Data gathering and analysis Step 3: Planning for team improvements Step 4: Actions to improve team functioning Step 5: Evaluation Results.... All leads to Teamwork Participation By All Members.
Why are diversity and individual differences important?
Nature versus Nurture •Heredity (nature) consists of those factors that are determined at conception, including physical characteristics, gender, and personality factors. •Environment (nurture) consists of cultural, social, and situational factors. Notes: Heredity sets the limits on the extent to which our personality characteristics can be developed; environment determines development within these limits. For instance, a person could be born with a tendency toward authoritarianism, and that tendency could be reinforced in an authoritarian work environment. These limits appear to vary from one characteristic to the next, and across all characteristics there is about a 50-50 heredity-environment split.
What is involved in learning by reinforcement?
Negative reinforcement •Uses withdrawal of negative consequences to increase the likelihood of repeating the desirable behavior. Also known as avoidance learning. NOTE The term negative reinforcement comes from this withdrawal of the negative consequences. The strategy is also sometimes called avoidance because its intent is for the person to avoid the negative consequence by performing the desired behavior.
What is the nature of negotiation in organizations?
Negotiation •The process of making joint decisions when the parties involved have different preferences. NOTES Negotiation has special significance in teams and work settings, where disagreements are likely to arise over such diverse matters as wage rates, task objectives, performance evaluations, job assignments, work schedules, work locations, and more.
How do individual navigate politics in organizations? 3
Networking •Social Capital The current or potential resources gained through one's network. •Human Capital The knowledge, skills and intellectual assets employees bring to the workplace. NOTES Earlier we stated that what you know is not enough. You need to also have connections in the form of social capital to help you get ahead. Social capital is the sum of the actual and potential resources embedded within, and available through, networks of relationships possessed by individuals and subunits. It is contrasted to human capital, which is knowledge, skills and intellectual assets employees bring to the workplace. Whereas human capital represents what you know, social capital represents who you know. The importance of social capital is in the understanding that being smart, or having great ideas and information, is not sufficient—it is only beneficial if you are able to get the ideas communicated and implemented. Social capital emphasizes the importance of connections with others in organizations.
How can team processes be improved?
New members may worry about: •Participation •Goals •Control •Relationships •Processes NOTES Special difficulties are likely to occur when members first get together in a new group or work team, or when new members join an existing one. Problems arise as new members try to understand what is expected of them while dealing with the anxiety and discomfort of a new social setting.
How can team decisions be improved? 13
Nominal group technique •Members are asked to respond individually and in writing to a "nominal" question. NOTES Everyone is encouraged to list as many alternatives or ideas as they can. Next, participants are asked to read aloud their responses to the nominal question in round-robin fashion. The recorder writes each response on large newsprint as it is offered. No criticism is allowed. The recorder asks for any questions that may clarify items on the newsprint.
How can team processes be improved? 9
Norms •Represent ideas or beliefs about how members are expected to behave. •Considered rules or standards of conduct that are supposed to guide members. •Help members to guide their own behavior and predict what others will do. NOTES Managers and leaders should help their groups adopt positive norms that support organizational goals. Norms help clarify the expectations associated with a person's membership in a group.
What is involved in learning by reinforcement? 2
Operant conditioning •The process of controlling behavior by manipulating its consequences. •Considered 'learning by reinforcement'. NOTE You may think of operant conditioning as learning by reinforcement. In a work setting the goal is to use reinforcement principles to systematically reinforce desirable behavior and discourage undesirable behavior.
What is job satisfaction trends and issues? 3
Organizational Citizenship • A willingness to "go beyond the call of duty" or " go the extra mile" in one's work. Interpersonal organizational citizenship behaviors have individuals doing extra things that help others. Organizational citizenship behaviors advance the performance of the organization as a whole. NOTES You might observe interpersonal OCBs in a service worker who is extraordinarily courteous while taking care of an upset customer, or a team member who takes on extra tasks when a co-worker is ill or absent. Examples of organizational OCBs are evident as co-workers who are always willing Volunteers for special committee or task force assignments, and those whose voices are always positive when commenting publicly on their employer. On the other hand, counterproductive workplace behaviors are associated with some form of job dissatisfaction, they purposely disrupt relationships, organizational culture, or performance in the workplace.
What are attitudes and how do the influence behavior ? 4
Organizational Commitment •Degree of loyalty an individual feels toward an organization. •Rational Commitment - Reflects feelings that job serves one's financial, developmental, and professional interests. •Emotional Commitment - Reflects feelings that what one does is important, valuable and of real benefit to others. •Employee Engagement - A positive feeling or strong sense of connection with the organization. NOTES Research shows that strong emotional commitments to the organization are much more powerful than rational commitments in positively influencing performance. Active employee engagement shows up as a willingness to help others, to always try to do something extra to improve performance, and to speak positively about the organization.
Figure 12.2 Building power bases
Organizational Political Climate flows into the below: Position Power (POWER BASE): * Legitimate * Coercive * Reward (BUILD POWER BASES BY: Establish Competence and Value Added) Personal Power (POWER BASE): * Referent * Export (BUILD POWER BASES BY: Establish Competence and Value Added) Informational Power (POWER BASES): * Formal Access * Informal Access (BUILD POWER BASES BY: Build Strong Relationships and Networks) Connection Power (POWER BASES): * Internal Network * External Network * Network Centrality * Broker (BUILD POWER BASES BY: Build Strong Relationships and Networks)
How are personality and stress related? 5
Outcomes of Stress •Constructive stress (or eustress) Occurs at moderate stress levels by prompting increased work effort, stimulating creativity, and encouraging greater diligence. •Destructive stress (or distress) Dysfunctional levels of stress negatively impact both the individual and the organization. NOTES An outcome of extended distress is job burnout, which manifests as loss of interest in and satisfaction with a job due to stressful working conditions. A person who is "burned out" feels exhausted, emotionally and physically, and is less able to deal positively with work responsibilities and opportunities. More extreme reactions sometimes appear in news reports in the form of personal attacks and crimes at work known as "desk rage" and "workplace rage. Too much stress can overload and break down a person's physical and mental systems, resulting in absenteeism, turnover, errors, accidents, dissatisfaction, reduced performance, unethical behavior, and even illness.
Figure 8.5 Interaction patterns and communication networks found in teams
PATTERN: * Interacting Team ** Decentralized Communication Network DIAGRAM CHARACTERISTICS: * High inter-dependency around a common tasks. * Best at complex tasks. PATTERN: * Co-Acting Team ** Centralized Communication Network DIAGRAM (X) CHARACTERISTICS: * Independent individual efforts on behalf of the common task * Best at simple tasks. PATTERN: * Counteracting Team ** Restricted Communication Network DIAGRAM (TRIANGLE & LINE) CHARACTERISTICS: * Subgroups in disagreement with one another. * Slow task accomplishment.
What is personality? 3
People with a high Machiavellian personality: •Approach situations logically and thoughtfully. •Are capable of lying to achieve personal goals. •Are rarely swayed by loyalty, friendships, past promises, or others' opinions. •Are skilled at influencing others.
What is personality? 4
People with a low-Machiavellian personality: •Accept direction imposed by others in loosely structured situations. •Work hard to do well in highly structured situations. Notes Where the situation permits, a high Mach might be expected to do or say whatever it takes to get his or her way. In contrast, a low Mach will tend to be much more strongly guided by ethical considerations and will be less likely to lie or cheat or to get away with lying or cheating.
How can conflict be managed? 3
Perceived conflict •When the antecedents become the basis for substantive or emotional differences between people or groups. Felt conflict •Conflict experienced as tension that motivates the person to take action to reduce feelings of discomfort.
How does Perceived Equity Influence Motivation? 2
Perceived inequity occurs when someone believes that the rewards received for their work contributions compare unfavorably to the rewards other people appear to have received for their work. Individual Outcomes divided by: Individual Efforts = Other's Outcomes divided by: Other's Efforts
What is perception?
Perception •Process by which people select, organize, interpret, retrieve, and respond to information from the world around them. NOTES Perception serves as a screen or filter through which information passes before it has an effect on people. Because perceptions are influenced by many factors, different people may perceive the same situation quite differently. And since people behave according to their perceptions, the consequences of these differences can be great in terms of what happens next.
What are the essentials of performance management?
Performance Measurement •Output measures *** Assess actual work results. •Activity measures ***Assess work inputs in respect to activities tried and efforts expended.+ notes Output measure example: A software developer might be measured on the number of lines of code written a day or on the number of lines written that require no corrections upon testing. Activity measure example: The use of number of customer visits made per day by a salesperson, instead of or in addition to counting the number of actual sales made.
What are the essentials of performance management?
Performance management involves two purposes: •It serves an evaluation purpose when it lets people know where their actual performance stands relative to objectives and standards. •It serves a developmental purpose when it provides insights into individual strengths and weaknesses. notes If performance measurement is to be done well, managers must have good answers to both the "Why?" and the "What?" questions. Evaluation purpose answers the "Why" questions. Developmental purpose answers the "What" questions. The foundation for any performance management system is performance measurement, which must be measured in ways that are understood and respected by those involved.
What are the stages of team development? 4
Performing stage •Marks the emergence of a mature, organized, and well-functioning team motivated by group goals. •Member challenges Continuing efforts to improve relationships and performance. NOTES Sometime called total integration. Team members should be able to adapt successfully as opportunities and demands change over time.
What is perception? 4
Person schemas •Refer to the way individuals sort others into categories such as types of groups in terms of similar perceived features. Person-in-situation schema •Combines schemas built around persons and events. NOTES Person schema - The terms "prototype" and "stereotype" are often used in this regard. They are abstract sets of features commonly associated with members of a category, such as a "good teammate" being intelligent, dependable, and hard-working. Once formed, they are stored in long-term memory and retrieved only when needed for a comparison of how well a person matches the schema's features. Person-in-situation schemas combine schemas built around persons (self and person schemas) and events (script schemas).
What is personality?
Personal conception traits •The way individuals tend to think about their social and physical settings, as well as their major beliefs and their personal orientation concerning a range of issues. Notes: Key traits are Locus of control, Proactive personality, Authoritarianism/Dogmatism, Machiavellianism and Self-monitoring.
What are the sources of power and influence? 5
Personal power •Expert Power - The power a person has because of special skills and abilities that others need but do not possess themselves. •Referent Power - The ability to alter another's behavior because of the individual's desire to identify with the power source. NOTE Personal power lies with an individual, and is generated in relationships. It comes from personal qualities distinct from position power, such as a person's reputation, charm, charisma, perceived worth and right to respect from others. Because it comes from the person and not the position, it is available to anyone in the organization, not just those in formal or managerial roles. Sources of personal power include expert power and referent power.
What is personality?
Personality •Combination of characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person as that person reacts to and interacts with others. Notes Personality combines a set of physical and mental characteristics that reflect how a person looks, thinks, acts, and feels. Attempts are made to measure personality with questionnaires and special tests. Frequently, personality can be inferred from behavior alone. Either way, personality is an important individual characteristic to understand. It helps us identify predictable interplays between people's individual differences and their tendencies to behave in certain ways.
Figure 1.4 The management process
Planning: Choosing goals and means to achieve them Organizing: Creating structures and work systems Leading: Inspiring people to work hard. Controlling: Measuring performance and ensuring results Managers and Team Leaders complete these tasks.
What is organizational politics? 3
Political Climates •Organizational Political Climate The shared perceptions about the political nature of the organization. •Workarounds Working around the system to accomplish a task or goal when the normal process or method isn't producing the desired result. NOTES The nature of the political environment can be described as an organization's political climate. As you recall from Chapter 1, climate is a shared perception individuals hold about the norms and practices of a group. An organizational political climate, therefore, is the shared perception regarding the political nature of the organization—whether people in organizations work "within" or "around" formal policies and procedures in getting their work done. If they work around formal policies and procedures the climate is perceived as more political. This is in contrast to less political environments in which activities are more direct and straightforward (more "rational") and where there is less need to interpret and watch out for the behaviors happening behind the scenes. Political climates involve people building and using power bases in the service of decision-making, resource allocation and achievement of goals. Consistent with the idea that politics manifest in and through informal systems, organizational political climates are seen in the extent to which people engage in workarounds: working around the system to accomplish a task or goal when the normal process or method isn't producing the desired result. Workarounds most often are accomplished by seeking assistance from influential people in one's network, exploiting loopholes in a system, or using one's connections to access potentially useful information or influence decisions.
What is the nature of conflict in organizations? 5
Potential outcomes of dysfunctional conflict •Diverts energies. •Hurts group cohesion; •Promotes interpersonal hostilities. •Creates a negative environment. •Can decrease performance and job satisfaction. •Can contribute to absenteeism and job turnover. NOTES Managers and team leaders should be alert to destructive conflicts and be quick to take action to prevent or eliminate them—or at least minimize their disadvantages.
What is power and why is it important?
Power •The ability to get someone to do something you want done. •The ability to make things happen in the way you want. Social Power •A term used to recognize that power comes from the ability to influence another in a social relation. Force •Power made operative against another's will. NOTES Power is defined as the ability of a person or group to influence or control some aspect of another person or group. In organizations power is often associated with control over resources others need, including money, information, decisions, work assignments, etc. Power is the ability of a person or group to influence or control some aspect of another person or group. We typically assume that power comes from hierarchical positions—that because managers have positions with authority embedded in them, they have all the power. But that is not always true. Have you ever had a manager who was not very effective because no one listened to him? Or a teacher who had no control over a classroom? This is because others did not recognize their authority and took it away by not complying. When others do not comply with a leader's power or authority, the person doesn't really have power. In other words, power in organizations is not an absolute: It has to be given by others who are willing to be influenced. For this reason, most of the power we study in organizations is social power. Social power is a term used to recognize that power comes from the ability to influence another in a social relation. It differs from force, which is power made operative against another's will. Social power is earned through our relationships with others and, if not used properly, can be taken away. For example, teenagers take their parents' power away when they don't listen or do as they are told. Employees remove a manager's power by not acting respectfully toward the manager or getting their peers to badmouth a manager to others in the organization.
What is power and why is it important? 4
Power as an Expanding Pie •Empowerment - involves sharing power, information, and rewards with employees to make decisions and solve problems in their work. •Zero Sum Game - one person's gain in equal to another person's loss ("I win, you lose"). NOTES Most people seek a balance between what they put into an organization (contributions) and what they get from an organization in return (inducements). This psychological contract influences employees to do many things in and for the organization because they think they should. Outside of the psychological contract's boundaries, however, things become much less clear. Directives falling within the zone are obeyed routinely. Requests or orders falling outside the zone of indifference are not considered legitimate under terms of the psychological contract. Such "extraordinary" directives may or may not be obeyed.
What is personality?
Proactive Personality - Disposition that identifies whether or not individuals act to influence their environment. •Show initiative •Take action •Persevere until meaningful change occurs Notes: In the ever more demanding world of work, many companies are seeking individuals with more proactive qualities—individuals who take initiative and engage in proactive problem solving. Research supports this, showing that proactive personality is positively related to job performance, creativity, leadership, and career success. Other studies have shown that proactive personality is related to team effectiveness and entrepreneurship. Moreover, when organizations try to make positive and innovative change, these changes have more positive effects for proactive individuals—they are more involved and more receptive to change. This research is showing that proactive personality is an important and desirable element in today's work environment.
What are charismatic and transformational theories? 7
Problems of "Heroic" Leadership Views •Heroic Leadership Views See Leadership as the result of acts of great leaders who inspire and motivate others to accomplish extraordinary things. NOTES Charismatic and transformational approaches were instrumental in revitalizing leadership studies in the latter part of the last century. However, they gave rise to what are often referred to as heroic leadership views. Heroic create visions of leaders as white knights, swooping in to save the day. In these views followers are passive subordinates who rely on leaders for direction, trust and hope. Heroic views leave out process and context, overlooking the critical impact of timing and history in leadership, and largely ignore the role of followers.
How does Perceived Equity Influence Motivation? 6
Procedural justice - degree to which the rules and procedures specified by policies are properly followed. Distributive justice - degree to which all people are treated the same under a policy, regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, age or any other demographic characteristic. Interactional justice - degree to which the people affected by a decision are treated with dignity and respect. Commutative Justice - degree to which exchanges and transactions among parties is considered free and fair.
What is the link between motivation, performance, and rewards? 4
Profit-sharing plans •Reward employees for increased organizational profits. Criticism: organizational profit increases and decreases are not always a direct result of employees' efforts. notes Profit-sharing plans reward employees based on overall organizational profits: the more profits made, the more money that is available for distribution to the employees through profit sharing. Poor organizational profits in a time period may, for example, reflect things such as general economic conditions, over which employees have no control.
What is involved in the decision-making process? 8
Programmed decisions •Made as standardized responses to recurring situations and routine problems. Nonprogrammed decisions •Specifically crafted or tailored to fit a unique situation. Crisis decision - unexpected problem threatens major harm and disaster if not resolved quickly and appropriately. NOTES Programmed decisions implement alternatives that are known to be appropriate for situations that occur somewhat frequently. Examples might include teams that review compensation or human resource policies for equity and justice, or those that manage recurring projects. Higher-level management teams generally spend a greater proportion of their decision-making time on nonroutine problems, but teams at all levels face them as well. An example is a marketing team that has to respond to the introduction of a new product by a foreign competitor. Although past experience may help deal with this competitive threat, the immediate decision requires a creative solution based on the unique characteristics of the present market situation.
What are the commonperceptual distortions? 7
Projection •The assignment of one's personal attributes to other individuals. NOTES Likely to occur in the interpretation stage of perception. A classic projection error is illustrated by team leaders who assume that the needs of team members are the same as their own. Projection can be controlled through a high degree of self-awareness and empathy—the ability to view a situation as others see it.
What is involved in learning by reinforcement? 3
Punishment •The administration of negative consequences or the withdrawal of positive consequences to reduce the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. NOTE There is evidence that punishment administered for poor performance can lead to better performance without a significant effect on satisfaction. But punishment seen by workers as arbitrary and capricious leads to low satisfaction as well as low performance.
What are the sources of power and influence? 9
Reciprocal Alliances •Represents the power arising from alliances with others developed through reciprocity (the trade of power or favors for mutual gain in organizational transactions). NOTES Because relationships are built through social exchange, reciprocity plays a key role in social power. Reciprocal alliances describe a form of power arising from alliances with others developed through reciprocity. Reciprocity is based on the concept that if one person does something for another it will invoke an obligation to return the favor, creating a bond of reciprocity. So if your friend goes out of his way to give you a ride, you respond with "I owe you one," recognizing that you are now indebted to that friend until you can pay him back in some way. These bonds of indebtedness link individuals together in networks of relationships.
What is involved in learning by reinforcement?
Reinforcement •The administration of a consequence as a result of a behavior. • Proper management of reinforcement can change the direction, level, and persistence of an individual's behavior.
What can we learn from trait and behavioral approaches? 3
Relations-oriented •Also known as consideration, involves concern for relationship and socioemotional support. • Task-oriented behavior •Also known as initiating structure, involves providing direction and enforcing performance standards needed to drive production. NOTES Much of the early work on behavioral approaches was centered at two universities and became known as the Ohio State and Michigan studies. These studies discovered that the majority of a manager's leadership behaviors could be divided into two meta-categories: relations-oriented and task-oriented behavior. Relations-oriented behavior, also known as consideration, involves concern for relationships and interpersonal support. It comprises a focus on employee-centered, or socioemotional, concerns. Task-oriented behavior, also known as initiating structure, involves directive behavior focused on providing clarity and task focus. It comprises a focus on the production-centered, or task structuring, concerns of management.
What is job satisfaction trends and issues? 2
Relationship between job satisfaction and job performance - three theories: •Satisfaction causes performance. •Performance causes satisfaction. •Rewards cause satisfaction and performance. NOTES Three different positions have been advanced in the satisfaction-performance relationship. The first is that job satisfaction causes performance; in other words, a happy worker is a productive worker. The second is that performance causes job satisfaction. The third is that job satisfaction and performance influence one another, and are mutually affected by other factors such as the availability of rewards.
What is the Nature of Communication in Relational Contexts? 5
Relationships are a particular type of connection between people who have dealings with one another. Relationship Development •Relational Testing the process through which individuals make disclosures and form opinions or attributions about the other based on the disclosures. •Disclosure an opening up or revelation to another of something about oneself. NOTES Relationships develop through a relational testing process. This begin when one person makes a disclosure - an opening up or revelation about oneself - to another. For example, a simple disclosure is sharing one's likes and dislikes with another.
Figure 10.2 Structural differentiation as a potential source of conflict among functional teams
Research and Development: Emphasizes: ** Product Quality ** Long-Time Horizon Manufacturing Team: Emphasizes: ** Cost Efficiency ** Short-Time Horizon Marketing Team: Emphasizes: ** Customer Needs ** Short-Time Horizon
How can conflict be managed? 7
Resource scarcity •When resources are scarce, working relationships are likely to suffer. Power or value asymmetries •Occur when interdependent people or teams differ substantially from one another in status and influence or in values. NOTES Conflict resulting from asymmetry can occur when a low-power person needs the help of a high-power person who does not respond, when people who hold dramatically different values are forced to work together on a task, or when a high-status person is required to interact with and perhaps be dependent on someone of lower status. Resource scarcity is especially true in organizations that are experiencing downsizing or financial difficulties. As cutbacks occur, various individuals or teams try to position themselves to gain or retain maximum shares of the shrinking resource pool. They are also likely to resist resource redistribution or to employ countermeasures to defend their resources from redistribution to others. Conflict resulting from asymmetry is prone to occur, for example, when a low-power person needs the help of a high-power person who does not respond, when people who hold dramatically different values are forced to work together on a task, or when a high-status person is required to interact with and perhaps be dependent on someone of lower status.
How do people respond to power and influence?
Responses to Power and Influence Conformity - • Compliance - occurs when individual accept another's influence because of the positive or negative outcomes tied to it. • Identification - occurs when individuals accept an influence attempt because they want to maintain a positive relationship with the person or group making the influence request. • Internalization - occurs when an individual accepts influence because the induced behavior is congruent with their value system. NOTES As we mentioned earlier, power is relational: Whether an individual has power depends on how others respond to their influence attempts. If individuals do not defer to another's influence attempt, the influencing agent has no power. Therefore, to understand power, we need to also understand how individuals respond to power. Conformity. In the earliest formal research into power and influence, Herbert Kelman identified three levels of conformity one can make to another's influence attempt: compliance, identification, and internalization.
What is perception? 6
Retrieval •Attention and selection, organization, and interpretation are part of memory. •Information stored in memory must be retrieved in order to be used. NOTES All of us, at times, have trouble retrieving information stored in our memories. And memory decays, so that only some of the information is retrieved. Schemas can make it difficult for people to remember things not included in them.
What is involved in the decision-making process? 13
Risk Management •Involves anticipating risks and factoring them into decision making. notes The recent financial crisis has shown once again the fact that many decisions are made in risk and uncertain environments. It has also prompted renewed interest in risk management, something often associated with insurance and finance. We use the term in general management as well, focusing on anticipating risk in situations and factoring risk alternatives into the decision-making process.
How can team processes be improved? 4
Role •Set of expectations associated with a job or position on a team. Role ambiguity •Occurs when a person is uncertain about his or her role and what is expected. NOTES When team members are unclear about their roles or experience conflicting role demands, performance problems can occur. Although this is a common problem, it can be managed through awareness of role dynamics and their causes.
How can conflict be managed? 6
Role ambiguity conflicts •Occur when the communication of task expectations is unclear or upsetting in some way. Task and workflow interdependencies •Occur when people or units are required to cooperate to meet challenging goals. Domain ambiguities •Occur when individuals or teams lack adequate task direction or goals and misunderstand such things as customer jurisdiction or scope authority. NOTES Conflict is likely when individuals or teams are placed in ambiguous situations where it is difficult for them to understand just who is responsible for what, and why.
How can team processes be improved? 7
Role conflict •Occurs when a person is unable to respond to role expectations that conflict with one another. •Forms of role conflict Intrasender, Intersender, Person-role, Inter-role. Notes The individual understands what needs to be done but for some reason cannot comply. The resulting tension can reduce satisfaction and affect both an individual's performance and relationships with other group members.
How can team processes be improved? 6
Role conflict •Occurs when a person is unable to respond to role expectations that conflict with one another. •Forms of role conflict Intrasender, Intersender, Person-role, Inter-role. NOTES The individual understands what needs to be done but for some reason cannot comply. The resulting tension can reduce satisfaction and affect both an individual's performance and relationships with other group members.
How can team processes be improved? 8
Role negotiation •Process for discussing and agreeing upon what team members expect of one another. •Team members meet to discuss, clarify, and agree on their individual role expectations each holds for the other. NOTES Role negotiation can be used as a team building activity for managing role dynamics.
What is followership? 7
Romance of Leadership •Refers to the tendency to attribute organizational outcomes (both good and bad) to the acts and doing of leaders. NOTES This infatuation with leaders at the expense of followers is called the romance of leadership, the tendency to attribute all organizational outcomes—good or bad—to the acts and doings of leaders. Romance of leadership reflects our needs and biases for strong leaders, who we glorify or demonize in myths and stories of great and heroic leaders. We see it in our religious teachings, our children's fairy tales, our everyday lives in news stories reporting about political and business leaders.
What are individual and cultural values? 6
Sample country clusters on Hofstede's Five Dimensions of Natural Values NOTES One framework for understanding how value difference across national cultures was developed by the cross-cultural psychologist Hofstede. His framework is shown in Figure 2.4 and includes these five dimensions of national culture: Power Distance, is a cultures acceptance of the status and power differences among its members. Uncertainty Avoidance, is the cultural tendency to be uncomfortable with uncertainly and risk in everyday life. Individualism-collectivism, is the tendency of members of a culture to emphasize individual self-interests or group relationships. Masculinity-femininity, is the degree in which a society values assertiveness or relationships. Long-term / short-term orientation is the degree in which a culture emphasizes long term or short term thinking.
Chapter 5
Satisfy Need to Acquire: Differentiate high and low performers, and make rewards performance contingent Satisfy Need to Bond: Create a collaborative organizational and team culture that offers friendship and positive identity Satisfy Need to Comprehend: Design jobs that give job holders meaning, a sense of importance, and opportunities to learn Satisfy Need to Defend: Provide information transparency and fair decisions that build confidence and trust.
What is perception? 2
Schemas •Cognitive frameworks that represent organized knowledge developed through experience about a given concept or stimulus. NOTES Even though selective screening takes place in the attention stage, it's still necessary for us to organize information efficiently. This is done to some extent through schemas. These are cognitive frameworks that represent organized knowledge developed through experience about a given concept or stimulus. We commonly use script schemas, person schemas, and person-in-situation schemas.
How do job designs influence motivation and performance?
Scientific management •Sought to create management and organizational practices that would increase people's efficiency at work. NOTES Taylor's approach was to study a job carefully, break it into its smallest components, establish exact time and motion requirements for each task to be done, and then train workers to do these tasks in the same way over and over again. Taylor's principles of scientific management can be summarized as follows: 1. Develop a "science" for each job that covers rules of motion, standard work tools, and supportive work conditions. 2. Hire workers with the right abilities for the job. 3. Train and motivate workers to do their jobs according to the science. 4. Support workers by planning and assisting their work using the job science.
What is perception? 3
Script schemas •A knowledge of framework that describes the appropriate sequence of event in a given situation. Self schema •Contains information about a person's own appearance, behavior, and personality. NOTES Script schema - For example, an experienced manager would use a script schema to think about the appropriate steps involved in running a meeting. Self schema - For instance, people with decisiveness schemas tend to perceive themselves in terms of that aspect, especially in circumstances calling for leadership. Person schema - The terms "prototype" and "stereotype" are often used in this regard. They are abstract sets of features commonly associated with members of a category, such as a "good teammate" being intelligent, dependable, and hard-working. Once formed, they are stored in long-term memory and retrieved only when needed for a comparison of how well a person matches the schema's features.
What are the common perceptual distortions? 6
Selective perception •The tendency to single out those of a situation, person, or object that for attention those aspects of a situation, person, or object that are consistent with one's needs, values, or attitudes. NOTES Strongest impact occurs in the attention stage of the perceptual process. This perceptual distortion was identified in a classic research study involving executives in a manufacturing company.
What are emotions and moods? 3
Self-conscious emotions •Arise from internal sources (shame, guilt, embarrassment, pride) and helps individuals regulate their relationships with others. Social emotions •Arise from external sources (pity, envy, jealousy) and information.
What are the common perceptual distortions?
Self-fulfilling prophecy •The tendency to create or find in another situation or individual that which one expected to find in the first place. NOTES Also called the "Pygmalion effect." Managers will find that self-fulfilling prophecies can have both positive and negative outcomes. In effect, they may create in work situations that which we expect to find.
What are teams and how are they used in organizations? 8
Self-managing teams •Teams are empowered to make the decisions needed to manage themselves on a day-to-day basis. •Duties often replace those that were traditionally performed by the manager. NOTES Most self-managing teams include between 5 and 15 members. They need to be large enough to provide a good mix of skills and resources but small enough to function efficiently.
What is personality? 5
Self-monitoring •A person's ability to adjust his/her behavior to external, situational (environmental) factors. Notes: High self-monitors are sensitive to external cues and tend to behave differently in different situations. Like high Machs, high self-monitors can present a very different appearance from their true self. In contrast, low self-monitors, like their low-Mach counterparts, are not able to disguise their behaviors—"what you see is what you get." There is also evidence that high self-monitors are closely attuned to the behavior of others and conform more readily than do low self-monitors. Thus, they appear flexible and may be especially good at responding to the kinds of situational contingencies emphasized throughout this book. For example, high self-monitors should be especially good at changing their leadership behavior to fit subordinates with more or less experience, tasks with more or less structure, and so on.
What are the barriers to effective communication? 9
Semantic barriers •Involves a poor choice or use of words and mixed messages. •Use the KISS principle of communication. "Keep it short and simple." NOTES When in doubt regarding the clarity of your written or spoken messages, the popular KISS principle of communication is always worth remembering: "Keep it short and simple."
What is communication? 2
Sender •A person or group trying to communicate with someone else. Encoding •The process of translating an idea or though into a message consisting of verbal, written, or nonverbal symbols or some combination of them. Communication Channels •The pathways through which messages are communicated. Receiver •Decodes the message into a perceived meaning. NOTE Elements of communication process.
What do we know about leadership ethics? 3
Servant Leadership View in which servant leaders selflessly serve others first. NOTE Servant leadership, developed by Robert K. Greenleaf, is based on the notion that the primary purpose of business should be to create a positive impact on the organization's employees as well as the community. In an essay he wrote about servant leadership in 1970, Greenleaf said: "The servant-leader is servant first. . . . It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead." The core characteristic of servant leadership as described by Greenleaf is "going beyond one's self interest." Compared to other leadership styles, such as transformational leadership where the primary allegiance is the organization, the servant leader emphasizes how the organization can create opportunities for followers to grow. It is a person-oriented approach focused on building safe and strong relationships in organizations. Leaders use power not for self-interest but for the growth of employees, survival of the organization, and responsibility to the community.
Why are diversity and individual differences important?
Sexual Orientation •Attitudes toward gays and lesbians have steadily improved. •Many states now have executive orders protecting the rights of gay and lesbian workers. Notes: A 2010 Harris poll shows that 78 percent of heterosexual adults in the United States agree that how an employee performs at his or her job should be the standard for judging an employee, not one's sexual orientation, and 62 percent agree that all employees are entitled to equal benefits on the job, such as health insurance for partners or spouses. Many businesses are paying attention because statistics show that the gay market segment is one of the fastest growing segments in the United States. The buying power of the gay/lesbian market is set to exceed $835 billion by 2011.
What is involved in learning by reinforcement?
Shaping •Creation of a new behavior by the positive reinforcement of successive approximations to it. NOTE Managers can shape behavior by systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response. When used appropriately, this can be a powerful management tool to increase positive organizational outcomes.
What do we mean by leadership as a collective process? 4
Shared Leadership •Dynamic, interactive influence process among team members working to achieve goals. NOTES According to shared leadership approaches, leadership is a dynamic, interactive influence process among individuals in groups for which the objective is to lead one another to the achievement of group or organizational goals, or both. This influence process occurs both laterally—among team members—and vertically, with the team leader. Vertical leadership is formal leadership; shared leadership is distributed leadership that emerges from within team dynamics. The main objective of shared leadership approaches is to understand and find alternate sources of leadership that will impact positively on organizational performance.
What do we know about leadership ethics? 2
Shared Value View •Profit Motive Based on Milton Friedman's view that the sole purpose of business is to make money. •Shared Value States that organizations should create economic value in a way that also creates value for society. NOTES In organizations, perhaps the greatest challenge to leadership ethics comes from the way we socialize individuals into the purpose of business. Nearly all businesspeople are indoctrinated in Milton Friedman's dictum that the "social responsibility of business is to increase its profits." This is known as the profit motive, and it drives the belief that the sole purpose of business is to make money. The profit motive is being seriously questioned in today's environment. Individuals such as John Mackey, the CEO of Whole Foods, and Michael Porter of Harvard University, are offering alternative views based on Conscious Capitalism and Creating Shared Value. These views, developed from purpose-driven mindsets, argue that the problem is not profit, but profit at what cost? More recent discussions of the issue argue for a shared value view, stating that organizations should create economic value in a way that also creates value for society by addressing its need and challenges. In a shared value view, the focus is on both profit and societal gain.
What is the link between motivation, performance, and rewards? 7
Skill-based pay •Rewards people for acquiring and developing job relevant skills. notes Pay systems of this sort pays people for the mix and depth of skills they possess, not for the particular job assignment they hold. Some advantages of skill-based pay are employee cross-training — workers learn to do one another's jobs; fewer supervisors—workers can provide more of these functions themselves; and more individual control compensation—workers know in advance what is required to receive a pay raise.
What do we know about leader-follower relationships? 3
Social Exchange Theory •Describes how relationships initiate and develop through processes of exchange and reciprocity. •Norm of reciprocity Says that when one party does something for another, that party is not indebted to the other until the obligation is repaid. NOTES Social exchange theory helps us understand the social dynamics behind relationship building. According to social exchange theory, relationships develop through exchanges—actions contingent upon rewarding reactions. We engage in exchanges every day when we say something or do something for another, and those actions are either rewarded or not rewarded. Relationships develop when exchanges are mutually rewarding and reinforcing. When exchanges are one-sided or not satisfactory, relationships will not develop effectively (e.g., relationships deteriorate or extinguish). At the core of social exchange is the norm of reciprocity—the idea that when one party does something for another an obligation is generated, and that party is now indebted to the other until the obligation is repaid. We see this all the time when someone does us a favor and then, depending on how close we are to them, we feel indebted to pay them back. If the relationship is close (e.g., family) we don't worry about paying back right away because we know it will be repaid in some way in the future. If the exchange is with someone we don't know as well (e.g., a classmate we just met), we are more anxious to repay so that the other knows we are "good" for it.
Why are diversity and individual differences important?
Social Identity Theory •Developed to understand the psychological basis of discrimination. •Categorizing yourself as a member of a social group leads to 'in-group' identification. In-group membership Out-group membership Notes: Organizations may not intend to create discriminatory environments, but having only a few members of a group may evoke a strong out-group identity. This may make them feel uncomfortable and less a part of the organization. A feeling of in-group membership exists when individuals sense they are part of a group and experience favorable status and a sense of belonging. [mgl]A feeling of out-group membership exists when someone senses they are not part of a group and experience discomfort and low belongingness.
When is a team effective? 7
Social facilitation theory •Tendency for one's behavior to be influenced by the presence of others in a group or social setting. Positive result is extra effort when individual is proficient with the task at hand. Negative result when the task is unfamiliar or a person lacks the necessary skills.
When is a team effective? 5
Social loafing •The tendency of people to work less hard in a group than they would individually. •Reasons for social loafing Individual contributions are less noticeable in the group context. Some prefer to see others carry the workload.
What are teams and how are they used in organizations? 4
Social network analysis - identifies the informal groups and networks of relationships that are active in an organization. NOTES The analysis typically asks people to identify co-workers who most often help them, who communicate with them regularly, and who energize and deenergize them. When results are analyzed, social networks are drawn with lines running from person to person according to frequency and type of relationship maintained.
What is personality?
Social traits •Surface-level traits that reflect the way a person appears to others when interacting in various social settings. • Problem-solving style •Reflect the way a person gathers and evaluates information when solving problems and making decisions. Notes: An important social trait is problem-solving style. The problem-solving style, based on the work of Carl Jung, a noted psychologist, is one measure representing social traits. It reflects the way a person goes about gathering and evaluating information in solving problems and making decisions. Problem-solving styles are most frequently measured by the typically 100-item Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), which asks individuals how they usually act or feel in specific situations. Firms such as Apple, AT&T, and Exxon, as well as hospitals, educational institutions, and military organizations, have used the Myers-Briggs for various aspects of management development.
How are personality and stress related? 3
Source of stress •Stressors The wide variety of things that cause stress for individuals. •Types of stressors Work stressors Life stressors
How do we learn about organizational behavior?
Stakeholders •People, groups, and institutions that are affected by and thus have an interest or "stake" in an organization's performance. Notes: It is common in OB to recognize customers, owners, employees, suppliers, regulators, local communities, and future generation among the key stakeholders of organizations.
What is involved in the decision-making process? 2
Steps in Decision Making •Recognize and define the problem •Identify and analyze alternative courses of action. •Choose a preferred course of action •Implement the preferred course of action Lack-of-participation error - occurs when important people are excluded from the decision-making process. •Evaluate the results and follow-up as necessary. NOTES Rational decision model
What are the common perceptual distortions?
Stereotypes •Occur when we identify someone with a group or category, and then use the attributes perceived to be associated with the group or category to describe the individual. Individual differences are obscured. Managers may not accurately understand the needs, preferences, and abilities of others in the workplace. NOTES Although this makes things easier for us by reducing the need to deal with unique individual characteristics, it is an oversimplification. Because stereotypes obscure individual differences, we can easily end up missing the real individual.
What are the common perceptual distortions? 2
Stereotypes •Occur when we identify someone with a group or category, and then use the attributes perceived to be associated with the group or category to describe the individual. Individual differences are obscured. Managers may not accurately understand the needs, preferences, and abilities of others in the workplace. NOTES Although this makes things easier for us by reducing the need to deal with unique individual characteristics, it is an oversimplification. Because stereotypes obscure individual differences, we can easily end up missing the real individual.
What is the link between motivation, performance, and rewards? 5
Stock Options •Provide employees with an opportunity to buy shares of stock at a future date at a fixed price. notes The expectation is that employees with stock options will be highly motivated to do their best so that the firm performs well, because they gain financially as the stock price increases. However, as the recent economic downturn reminded us, the value of the options an employee holds can decline or even zero out when the stock price falls.
What are the stages of group development? 2
Storming stage •A period of high emotionality and tension among group members. •Member challenges Hostility and infighting Formation of coalitions and cliques Clarification of members' expectations
How are personality and stress related? 2
Stress •A state of tension experienced by individuals facing extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities. Notes Stress can be both positive and negative and is an important fact of life in our present work environment. Individual needs, capabilities, and personality strongly impact how constructively we deal with stress. Stress can reach a destructive state more quickly, for example, when experienced by highly emotional people or by those with low self-esteem. People who perceive a good fit between job requirements and personal skills seem to have a higher tolerance for stress than do those who feel less competent as a result of a person-job mismatch. This is a reason to be careful about making sure you are a good fit with your organization.
How do individual navigate politics in organizations? 4
Structural Holes Theory •Brokers Serve as links between structural holes in a network, providing greater access to resources, information and opportunities. •Structural Holes The absence of a link between two contract who are both linked to an actor. NOTES One way individuals can provide an advantage to themselves and to organizations by being a broker. Brokers bridge structural holes in networks, which are gaps between individuals and groups in a social network. These gaps occur because there is no connection. What brokers do is develop relationships that link these formerly unconnected actors, in essence building a bridge that provides greater access to information, resources, and opportunities. Bridging ties also provide access to a diverse set of opinions, which is important for creativity.
What is the nature of negotiation in organizations? 2
Substance goals •Outcomes that relate to "content" issues under negotiation. Relationship goals •Outcomes that relate to how well people involved in the negotiation and any constituencies they may represent are able to work with one another once the process is concluded.
What is the Nature of Communication in Relational Contexts? 2
Supportive communication principles •Set of tools focused on joint problem solving. Defensiveness occurs when individuals feel they are being attacked and need to protect themselves. Dis-confirmation occurs when an individual feels his or her self-wroth is being questioned. NOTES Supportive communication principles focus on joint problem solving. They are especially effective in dealing with relational breakdowns or in addressing problematic behaviors before they escalate into relational violations. Defensiveness occurs when individuals feel they are being attacked and they need to protect themselves. If you are communicating with someone who begins to get angry and becomes aggressive, that person is likely feeling defensive.
Figure 3.3 Simplified model of social learning
Symbolic Processes: Verbal/Mental Images help guide behavior TO BEHAVIOR TO MODELING BEHAVIOR ACQUIRED BY OBSERVING AND INITIATING OTHERS TO ENVIRONMENT TO Self-Control: Self-efficacy controls behavior NOTE Figure 3.3 Simplified model of social learning
When is a team effective? 2
Synergy •The creation of a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. •Individual can accomplish more through teamwork than by working alone. NOTES The performance advantages of teams over individuals are most evident in three situations. First, when there is no clear "expert" for a particular task or problem, teams tend to make better judgments than does the average individual alone. Second, teams are typically more successful than individuals when problems are complex and require a division of labor and the sharing of information. Third, because they tend to make riskier decisions, teams can be more creative and innovative than individuals.
Chapter 7The Nature of Teams
Synergy drives a great team
What are the sources of power and influence? 2
TYPES OF POSITION POWER Legitimate Reward Coercive Process Information Representative NOTES One important source of power available to a manager stems solely from his or her position in the organization.
Distributed Leadership
Task Contributions •Offering ideas •Clarifying suggestions •Giving information •Seeking information •Summarizing discussion Maintenance Contributions •Encouraging others •Reconciling differences •Expressing standards •Offering agreement •Inviting participation NOTES Distributed leadership is the sharing of responsibility for meeting group task and maintenance needs. Task activities directly contribute to the performance of important group tasks. While maintenance activities deal with social and interpersonal relationships among team members.
How do Goals and Goal Setting Influence Motivation? 3
Task feedback is likely to motivate people toward higher performance by encouraging the setting of higher performance goals. NOTES Feedback lets people know where they stand and whether they are on course or off course in their efforts.
What is the context of organizational behavior?
Task performance quality and quantity of the work produced or the services provided by an individual, team, or work unit, or organization as a whole. Job satisfaction indicates how people feel about their work and the work setting. Notes: Managers should be held accountable for both results. Task performance speaks for itself. Taking care of job satisfaction today can be considered an investment in tomorrow's performance potential.
What are teams and how are they used in organizations?
Team •Group of people brought together to use complementary skills to achieve a common purpose for which they are collectively accountable. Teamwork •Occurs when team members accept and live up to their collective accountability by actively working together so that all their respective skills are best used to achieve team goals. NOTES Teams are important in work settings as well. And whether or not a team lives up to expectations can have a major impact on how well its customers and clients are served Real teamwork occurs when team members accept and live up to their collective accountability by actively working together so that all their respective skills are best used to achieve team goals.
How can we create high performance teams? 2
Team Building •Collaborative way to gather and analyze data about the team's work. The goal is improved teamwork and increased team effectiveness. NOTES Should constitute an essential activity of any team.
What can be done to stimulate creativity in decision-making? 3
Team creativity drivers •Decision techniques •Creative membership •External support NOTES Some of the other techniques used when teams are trying to become more creative in decision making include: • Associative play—making up and telling stories, engaging in art projects, and building toy models that come to mind when dealing with a problem. • Cross pollination—switching members among teams to gain insights from diverse interests, backgrounds, and experiences when working on problems. • Analogies and metaphors—using analogies and metaphors to describe a problem and open pathways to creative thinking.
What are the key decision-making traps and issues? 8
Team decisions •Group members work together to make the final choice. NOTES True group decisions can be made by both consulting with others and allowing them to help make the final choice.
What are the input foundations for teamwork? 2
Team effectiveness is affected by the nature of the task Different tasks place different demands on teams. Well defined tasks contribute to effectiveness. Team effectiveness is harder to achieve with complex tasks. interaction. Success at complex tasks is a source of high satisfaction for team.
What are the input foundations for teamwork? 4
Team size •Can have an impact on a team's effectiveness. •As team size increases, performance and member satisfaction increase up to a point. •Team composition The mix of abilities, skills, personalities, and experiences that the members bring to the team. NOTES As a team becomes larger, more people are available to divide up the work and accomplish needed tasks. This can boost performance and member satisfaction, but only up to a point. At some point, communication and coordination problems set in due to the sheer number of linkages that must be maintained. Satisfaction may dip, and turnover, absenteeism, and social loafing may increase. Even logistical matters, such as finding time and locations for meetings, become more difficult for larger teams. The basic rule of thumb for team composition is to choose members whose talents and interests fit well with the tasks to be accomplished, and whose personal characteristics increase the likelihood of being able to work well with others.
What are the alternative decision-making models? 3
Teams engage in two cognitive processes: Systematic •Problem approach utilizing a rational, analytic thinking. Intuitive •Problem approach that is flexible and spontaneous. •A key element of decision-making under risky and uncertainty conditions. NOTES We expect teams engaged in systematic thinking to make a plan before taking action, and to search for information and proceed with problem solving in a fact-based and step-by-step fashion. We think of intuition as the ability to know or recognize quickly and readily the possibilities of a given situation. Its presence adds personality and spontaneity to decision making and, as a result, also offers the potential for creativity and innovation. Especially in conditions of risk and uncertainty, decisions in organizations rely on impressions; people involved in them are more likely to synthesize than to analyze data as they search for the "big picture" in order to redefine problems and link problems with a variety of solutions. Things have to be done fast, a variety of things have to be done, and the people doing all this are frequently interrupted. When there isn't a lot of time to think, plan, or make decisions systematically, we should be confident in tapping our own or a team's intuitive skills.
How can team decisions be improved? 7
Teams make decisions by choosing from alternative actions. •Decision by lack of response One idea after another is suggested without any discussion-taking place. •Decision by authority rule The chairperson, manager, or leader makes a decision for the team. •Decision by minority rule Two or three people are able to dominate or "railroad" the group into making a decision to which they agree. NOTES The quality and timeliness of decisions made and the processes through which they are arrived at can have an important impact on group effectiveness.
What are the challenges of management in organizations?
Technical skill •Ability to perform specialized tasks. Human skill •Ability to work well with other people. Notes: Technical skill is an ability to perform specialized tasks using knowledge or expertise gained from education or experience. Human skills are central to all aspects of managerial work and team leadership. A person with good human skills have a high degree of self-awareness and a capacity for understanding or empathizing with the feelings of others. People with this skill are able to interact well with others, engage in persuasive communications and deal successfully with disagreements and conflicts. In addition to technical and human skills managers should be able to view the organization or situation as a whole so that problems are always solved for the benefit of everyone concerned. Conceptual skills involve the ability to see and understand how systems work and how their parts are interrelated, including human dynamics. Conceptual skill is used to identify problems and opportunities, gather and interpret relevant information and make good problem-solving decisions.
What are the motivational opportunities of alternative work assignments? 2
Telecommuting - Work done at home or in a remote location via the use of computers and advanced telecommunication linkages with a central office or other employment location. Advantages: •For workers: flexibility, comforts of home, and choice of work locations consistent with one's lifestyle. Disadvantages: •For workers: isolation from co-workers, decreased identification with work team, family distractions.
What is organizational politics? 2
The Role of Self-Interest •Self-interested Politics Occur when individuals or groups work to shift otherwise ambiguous outcomes to their personal advantage without consideration of the organization or coworkers. NOTES Although there is no one singular definition of organizational politics, and many disagree as to whether politics are good or bad in organizations, we can say that, like power, organizational politics are neutral: Whether they are good or bad depends on how they are used. They are positive when they advance the interests of the organization and do not intentionally harm individuals. They are negative when they involve self-interested behaviors of individuals and groups who work to benefit themselves in ways that disadvantage others and the organization.