Britain's Empire

Scramble for Africa dates

(1875-1912)

Second Boer War

(1899-1902): Boer preemptive invasion of Natal, a British colony. o First Boer War in 1880 had resulted in Boer victory and British recognition of the South African Republic and Orange Free State. Second Boer war resulted in British victory and annexation of South African Republic and Orange Free State. o Fueled Khaki election conservative landslide victory in 1900

Redefining the Commonwealth of Nations

Potential for it to be open to independent sovereign states. Diplomatic relations, cultural exchange, trade as a means of unifying.

"Little Englander"

o "Little Englander" was a term coined in 1895 in opposition to the big empire notions implicit in "Greater Britain". England described the entire UK. Term Little Englander was not necessarily anti-imperialist, but Little Englanders had non-interventionist tendencies. Used phrases like "Your Britain, Fight for it Now!" and romanticized the industrial, countryside, and non-imperial aspects of Britain. Many people, including Conservative PM Stanley Baldwin warned about the urban threat to the English character. o A 1948 poll asked British respondents to name one colony and only 49% could do so; war posters during WW2 had to inform people that colonial peoples were marching w/ English. After WW2, how would England deal w/ clearly shrinking empire?

Earl of Durham's Reporting on Affairs of British North America (1839)

o 1791 Division of Quebec into lower and upper Canada. Lower Canada = French and Upper Canada = English. In many ways undid the inclusivity of the 1774 Quebec Act. o Report recommended reuniting lower and upper Canada to give smaller Upper British part more power over French culture (eventually happened). o Encouraged systematic emigration from England to Canada o Wanted to grant Canada "responsible government". This would significantly reduce Governor General appointed by Westminster's powers as he was accountable to an executive council composed of members majority party in the legislature and thus responsible to what the legislative body wanted. Westminster still had ultimate say under responsible government, but, over time, autonomy of the colonial governments grew. o Nova Scotia first of Britain's colonies to be granted responsible government in 1848; then Canada in 1848; Australia and New Zealand in 1850s; South Africa in 1870s

1918 Chelmsford-Montague Reforms

o 1919 Government of India Act created a system of government for India called dyarchy. Under dyarchy, financial and revenue functions were handled by mostly European councilors. o Agriculture, education, and public works were handled by ministers responsible to provincial legislatures (many members of which were Indian). Financial stuff was handled by councilors nominated by provincial governors (mostly Brits but some Indians). These legislatures were largely Indian. Dyarchy was neither democracy nor home rule, but it was an important step in that direction o 1919 Rowlatt Act→ extended restrictions on civil liberty, press, allowed for arrests w/out warrant and imprisonment without trial. o April 13, 1919 Amristar Massacre→ Sikh holiday and thousands celebrating in streets; marshal law declared and officials concerned that rising was planned. Soldiers started shooting into crowed and hundreds died, event widely condemned. Cast shadow on Indian-British relations for decades.

JA Hobson

o A British social scientist and economist who authored Imperialism: A Study. To Hobson, imperialism meant the expansionist imperialism of the late 19th century within Africa. Was a member of liberal party and considered "New Liberal" o This is his "new imperialism" along with the scramble for Africa o Hobson believed that the British economy lost more from imperialism than it gained o Hobson argued that an imperial strategy was being pursued by domestic interests of the defense industry (makers, manufacturers, and especially financiers). Hobson is an early critic of the military-industrial complex. Calls these professions the "economic parasites" of imperialism. o Imperial minded manufacturers looked abroad for markets and wanted government to conquer more lands b/c they were capable of creating more products than they could sell in Britain. o He called this phenomenon the "maldistribution of consuming power" and lamented that the British poor could not afford to buy enough of these products. o Hobson suggested that the solution to overproduction was not imperialism but rather social reform. Hobson wanted to create a consuming populace that got rid of the necessity of expanding markets and eliminated need of expansive empire abroad. Opponent was Chamberlain

The "Last of England"

o An 1855 painting by Ford Madox Brown depicting emigrants leaving England for Australia. o Represents English emigration to the settler colonies, a part of the "settler revolution," (coined by James Belich) wherein people left the isles for North America, Australasia, or India o J.R. Seeley called the English exodus the greatest English event of the 18th and 19th centuries o Charles Dilke's 1868 "Greater Britain" explores ideas about British expansion and considers the US part of Greater Britain

Ireland

o Easter Rising (April of 1916)-Irish Republicans revolt in an attempt to throw off British rule o Irish Home Rule Bill (1914) passed by Commons and Lords but was never enforced b/c it was shelved due to WWI o 1919-1921: Irish war for independence, though many Irish would have preferred home rule over independence o 1921-Anglo-Irish Treaty; 1922: Irish Free State Constitution Act made Ireland a dominion.

Cecil Rhodes

o Arrived in Africa in 1871 o Arrived just as large gold and diamond deposits were being discovered and became rich very quickly o Hundreds of diamond companies flooding the markets, but Rhodes sought to consolidate them and create the De Beers company along w/ Nathaniel de Rothschild. Rhodes got 17.5% of profits. o Won a seat in House of Assembly in 1880, bought local newspaper o African workers were essentially incarcerated in their worker compounds due to contracts they signed. Rhode's system laid the basis for apartheid (required curfews and passbooks) o Rhodes hoped entire African continent would come under British rule and believed in white supremacy. o Wanted a telegraph that would run all the way across Africa, connecting North and South. o Boers were Afrikaners (Calvinists who had been in Africa since 1700s and were primarily Dutch). After British took Cape Colony, Boers went northward into interior and established independent republics. First Boer War (1880-1881). o 1889→ British South Africa Company established by a charter. Rhodesia became a protectorate in 1889, something Rhodes made happen, parliament not as excited. Matable was kingdom that had been there but was forcibly removed after losing war to company. Maxim gun invention helped secure this.

Bernard Porter (2005)

o Asking questions of how can you reasonably go about expressing the significance or insignificance of empire, what would constitute sufficient proof on either side of the argument. Was culture/society completely linked to empire, not at all? o Word "pervasive" annoys Porter b/c he doesn't know how you measure it. o Empire discussed a lot in literature, but how much does that really tell us.

Anti-Immigrant Sentiment in Britain

o August of 1958, Notting Hill clash. Mixed neighborhood of West Indians and whites. White youths attacked white woman who had a Jamaican husband. White mob went on to attack West Indian homes, and in response, West Indian "militants" organized raids. Racial and anti-immigration tension was ramped up. o British Union of Fascists, w/ founder Oswald Mosley, gained prominence running on anti-immigrant and black platforms. o 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act restricted admission to those w/ "employment vochers". Race Relations Act of 1976 banned racial discrimination in employment. o Race Relations Act of 1965 (and later 1976) banned racial discrimination in public places (and later banned racial discrimination in employment, housing, education, and services). o Conservative MP Enoch Powell's "rivers of blood speech" in 1968. o National Front (founded in 1967) never won a seat but gave other parties a scare; led to British National party I 1982, which blamed immigrants of color for stealing jobs, opportunities, and resources. Norman Tebbitt's 1990 "Cricket Test". o Brixton 1981 riots against police over accusations of racism and concerns of mass-unemployment.

James Belich's Claims of an "Outsourced" Britain

o Belich claimed that English speakers grew from 12 mil. To 200 mil. From 1790 to 1930 (including Irish immigrants to America and African Americans). o Belich claims Britain outsourced its supply. In other words, the "settler revolution" helped carry out, extend, and bolster Britain's industrial revolution. • For example, 1800, Britain's main source of timber was from Baltic until 6 years later when Napoleon blocked Baltic Timber trade. By 1820, Canada supplied 74% of timber imports. Would bring wood to England and then migrants back to New World on empty ships. • Wool came from Australia, and by the 1830s over 90% of British grain imports came from Ireland. • This provided "ghost acreage"→ resources and acres drawn from outside their borders that allowed big imperial powers to expand

Rudyard Kipling

o Born in Bombay and spent time as a journalist in India. o Most of his life was spent in Britain but he would write a lot about India and imperial themes o Pro-Empire; Fuzzy Wuzzy

Mahdist War (1881-99)

o British colonial war fought against the Mahdist Sudanese. British won. o Charles Gourdon stuck in Sudan, William Gladstone sends troops to rescue him. Gourdon killed and made a Christian martyr.

Contemporary British Culture

o British culture is increasingly multicultural. Bond Skyfall movie shows the decline and contraction of the British Empire, as Bond has to return to the metropole and his boyhood home instead of traveling world. o Niall Ferguson has counterfactual that if Britain hadn't engaged in WW1, the Germans would have created empire in Europe that would have allowed Britain to retain its empire. Also saw WWII as end of British rule in Asia. Ferguson argues that can't blame Britain for having an empire, only for how conducted it. o 1995→ Queen Elizabeth gives royal assent to New Zealand Parliament and apologizes to Maori for land confiscation. o Foreign Secretary Robin Cook's Chicken Tikka Masala Speech celebrated Britain's cultural diversity

Role of U.S. in British Considerations

o British feared that the U.S. would be viewed as an inspiration for a breakaway colony o The US was also perceived as a rival and economic threat, as it was quickly approaching industrial dominance; also seen as a potential member of a future federation. o U.S. also could have been viewed as model for federation since emerged strongly from Civil War. o W.T. Stead (1890) thought Britain needed to Americanize the constitution to save the British Empire, idea of an imperial Senate.

Other Colonies independences

o Burma January 1948; Sri Lanka Feb. 1948 became dominion then independent republic in 1972 o Most colonies joined the Commonwealth o Dominion replaced with term "realm" to signify British monarch as head of state. Today, 16/53 Commonwealth members are realms. o Ghana in 1957; Uganda and Kenya in the 1960s. o Caribbean throughout the late 60s and early 80s, but universal suffrage and full self-government of internal affairs by mid to late '50s. o Federation of West Indies attempted (1958-62), but fell apart when Jamaica seceded and became Commonwealth realm (although might not be soon). o Malta independence in 1964.

Rule Within Colonies

o By 1865, Dominica had half-elected, half-appointed legislature, but by 1896, it was a crown colony with no more legislature. o Jamaica: the Jamaican legislatures had some members who were mixed race. An officer of the Baptist Missionary Society wrote a letter criticizing the conditions of Black Jamaicans. • In 1865, a black Jamaican man was arrested for trespassing, event sparked marches in Morant Bay and attack on police station, militia fired back. Marshal law was declared by Governor Eye (who had been Governor of several colonies) and 400 people were ultimately killed. George William Gordon, a mixed-race member of the assembly was transported to Morant Bay. He was found guilty and executed, and is now celebrated as a hero. • In response to this, Jamaica Committee (John Stuart Mill, Charles Darwin) and Eyre Defense Fund (Alfred Lord Tennyson, Charles Dickens) were founded, divided similarly with Civil War positions and believes on Second Reform Act (enfranchisement for working class).

Granting of Dominion Status

o Canada (1867) o Australia (1907) o Newfoundland (1907) (became crown colony again though until joined Canada) o South Africa (1910) o Ireland (1922); Home Rule in 1914 o India wanted dominion status o Statute of Westminster (1931): Established the legislative independence of the self-governing dominions of the British Empire from the UK and bound them all to seek each other's approval for changes to monarchical titles and common line of succession. Imperial Parliament could not legislate for Dominions except at their explicit request. South Africa and Ireland asked for statute as clarification, statute was crafted in hopes of giving dominions more autonomy so that they did not want complete independence. • Sovereign control over domestic and foreign affairs; no future act of parliament applied to them w/out their permission; laws that contradicted were allowed to stay in place o First Colonial Conference took place in 1887 wherein leaders of the soon to be dominions met in Westminster; name changed to Imperial Conference in 1907 o Dominions gradually pushed their power, exp: Canadian-American Halibut Treaty w/out British help. o Balfour Report on Inter Imperial Relations, Aurthur Balfour, the former Conservative PM, argued for Dominions as autonomous communities within Brit. Empire that were equal in every way and united by crown. Took a step toward independence without crossing a line. Hope that dominions would stay in union.

Federation

o Canada and Australia united to Dominion of Canada and Commonwealth of Australia, united all of their sub-territories. o Dominion: "autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status/in no way subordinate to one another in any respect of domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to Crown and association as members of British Commonwealth of Nations. o Canada (1867); Australia, New Zealand, Newfoundland (1907), and South Africa (1910).

Colonial Contributions to the First World War

o Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and India sent over 1 mil. Volunteers o More than 1/3 of Brit. Soldiers came from outside of UK. Massive pool of volunteers allowed Brits to have a volunteer army until 1916. o India paid for both British and native troops and its own sub-imperialism (troops in Afghanistan).

Home Rule Questions

o Canadian and Australian responsible government had inspired Irish citizens to consider home rule, which in turn inspired questions about Scottish, Welsh, and English home rule. "Home Rule All Around." o Two home rule bills were brought about regarding Ireland (First in 1886 and second in 1893). Both ultimately failed. o First Bill called for no more MPs in Westminster Parliament. Problem w/ taxation without representation. Second Bill proposed continued Irish representation within Parliament but disallowed British influence on Irish affairs. So basically the Irish could influence Britain but the British couldn't influence Ireland.

Politics and the Famine (including Corn Laws, repealed 1846)

o Classical liberalism = free market principles; liberals in both the Whig and Tory parties o Sir Robert Peel prime minister (1841-1846) wanted to give Ireland famine relief by giving them grain. However, Conservatives, his party, did not want to repeal it since many were supported by big landowners. Peel eventually forced to resign as PM b/c anger from large land owners. o Corn Laws (1815-1846) restricted the import of foreign grain/created tariffs so as to make domestic grain more appealing. Peel eventually supported classical liberalism with successful repeal of Corn Laws in 1846. This made grain cheaper and lowered price of bread for English and Irish. Peel helped with this, against wishes of own party. • Richard Cobden huge proponent of repeal (classical liberalism); also industrialists and workers wanted repeals o Big triumph for liberalism and free trade.

Indian Economics and Development

o Dadabhai Naoroji: • Cotton merchant who wanted more of an Indian role in gov. had been first Indian MP and founded and served in Indian National Congress. Still wanted to remain under British Empire though. • Creator of "Drain Theory", argued that the empire was structured to drain wealth away from Indian subcontinent. • Indian railway network posed economic threat to India and expedited transport of Brit. Manufactured goods to India. Allowed raw materials to be shipped out of India more easily and goods to shift around the continent more easily (Gandi cited railway and other industrialization as huge problem). • India suffered from monocrops and a division of labor; 30 mil deaths from famine in late 19th century around world. • Trains, telegraph, and mass circulation of newspapers shrank the size of India and British accidentally created national consciousness there (again Gandhi doesn't like these things even though interviewer remarks that they helped him come to power).

Reading Culture and Accessibility of Empire to Lower Classes

o Daily Mail ws first newspaper to reach half a million people in 1899 o By 1902, Daily Mail had one million in circulation. o New imperialism brought lots of wars, which created good news stories. Used adds to make money, which lowered paper costs and made them affordable to average people. Fostered era of literacy and thus increased awareness of empire. Many adds were imperial themed. o From 1904 onward, Empire Day was celebration of imperial history, another way in which lower classes/entire British society was connected to empire.

WWII and India

o Declaration of War in 1939, the Viceroy of India at war with Germany without consulting Indians, leading to tensions. o Gandhi supported the English cause o Jawaharlal Nehru (leader in Indian National Congress) wanted to get Indian self-determination after the war if Indians fought to defend the empire. Viceroy did not accept Nehru's offer, so members of Congress resigned ministerial offices. British govs put in charge of relevant provinces as result, but not in Muslim provinces. o This pleased Muhammad Ali Jinnah (head of Muslim League) b/c he believed British rule was only thing holding India together and wanted an independent muslim state (Pakistan) o 1942→ Churchill said that after the war, an elected body could frame a constitution. He did not promise dominion status, but said that there would be some transfer of responsibility from Brits to Indians.

Durbars and India

o Durbars were ceremonial gatherings during the Raj to demonstrate loyalty to the crown • Proclamation Durbar of 1877: celebrated Victoria becoming Empress of India after Royal Titles Act of 1876. o Coronation Durbar of 1903: celebrated Edward's ascension to the throne o Delhi Durbar of 1911: celebrated George and Queen Mary becoming Emperor and Empress of India as they ascended to the throne. Only one that took place in India. o Assertions of British imperial power involved complex ceremonies of status. When the Nawabs attended ceremonies, they often found themselves in a pecking order defined by their clothes, weapons, etc.

Race, Class, and Social Hierarchy

o Edward Said's 1978 "Orientalism" argued that racial thinking had permeated the entire imperial process. o Class could have also been one of the biggest governing lenses that 19th century leaders viewed the empire through o An imperial system of honors that would allow Britain to create an international system of status was created (1918 Order of the British Empire). More democratic, but less of an honor than knighthood. 1861 Star of India (Most Exalted Order of the Star of India)→ awards were about bringing foreign leaders into the fabric of the empire.

Home Rule:

o Essentially devolution and decentralization. Not independence though. o Gave holdings the ability to govern their own areas; Scots and Welsh have home rule (some tax powers, education agriculture, etc.; not foreign policy, defense, constitution, etc.) o 1800 Act of Union gave Ireland 100 MPs in the House of Commons; also given Viceroy who was executive of the country but always English and appointed to the king, not loyal to Irish. o Many Irishmen in the Bengal Army, especially with competitive exams for civil service. (1/4 new entries in 1860). Some have argued that struggle for home rule in Ireland linked to what saw while serving in army in India. o Rebellions of 1798→ carried out by sectarian United Irishmen and inspired by American and French revolutions for Republicanism. Rebelled against British rule. o Daniel O'Connel→ started Repeal Association to undo Union Act in 1830s, replaced with Young Irelander movement. o Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848, wanted national parliament w/ full legislative and executive powers, wanted independence; was made more extreme by the famine. • Replaced by Irish Republican Brotherhood in 1858, secret organization that advocated for Irish independence. o By late 1800s, home rule was being sought in Ireland (First and Second Home Rule Acts proposed then and both failed) o Ironically, English do not have home rule or devolved parliament; likely b/c English and British power and identity has been blurred so much over time.

India's Partition

o First Earl Mountbatten, Viceroy of India (Feb. to August 1947); partition in August 1947 with 12 million people displaced, one million died. o Bangladesh had war of independence in 1971, creating People's Republic of Bangladesh. o Strong Indian central government, therefore partition. Jinnah would have demanded sharing power, therefore a weakened and divided government, so better to split up; also incorporated princely states into India or Pakistan. Mountbatten wanted India to become a dominion and keep the monarchy. o India and Pakistan both become independent republics but become Commonwealth members in 1949. Most states in the Commonwealth are republics today so queen not head of state.

General Influence of Indian and British Imperialism

o Founded in 1887, the Imperial Institute sought to promote research for development of British colonies and dominions o Colonial Indian Exhibition (1886) o Franco-British Exhibitions in 1908 featured two villages→ French was Senegalese and British was Irish. Testament to the significance of colony and imperialism during the time. o Many people working at these exhibitions in the early 20th century were Indian subjects, showing the networks/connections of the empire. Empire's height during these exhibitions.

Varieties of Decolonization

o France withdrew from Vietnam in 1954 o Algerian war late 50s and early 60s o By 1962, four-fifths of Africa decolonized, whereas nearly all of it had been colonized in 1914. o Second World War was impetus for decolonization. • Woodrow Wilson "Fourteen Points"; Paris Peace Conference; "national self-determination" o Labour Government with Clement Atlee as PM (1945-51); many in Labor gov. staunchly anti-Imperial

British Politics Regarding Africa

o General election of 1900 saw a conservative majority seat victory. Known as Khaki election, and many liberals opposed what they saw as a large war (Boer War). o Britain had tough time fighting Boers, as they used guerrilla tactics, and Brits used scorched earth policy in response. o Lord Kitchener hoarded Boer women and children into concentration camps, and over 20,000 died/massive human rights abuses. o Emily Hobhouse created distress fund for South African Women and Children founded in 1900; parliament had Millicent Fawcett go conduct own investigation to try and counter, but she actually confirmed Hobhouse's account. o In 1910, Union of South Africa came into being and received Dominion status. Cape Colony had had responsible gov. before. Britain essentially giving white population of South Africa self-governance. B/c South African federation had responsible government, it alone would decide the fate of its black majority.

Arthur de Gobineau, Darwin, and Race

o Gobineau authored "An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races" o The essay defined white, black, and yellow races in a three race dynamic o Gobineau acknowledged that there were technically more than three races, but believed this was result of inbreeding, which was a direct threat to white race o Race as we know it took its current form in latter half of 19th century. Darwinism led to creation of "scientific" and "biological racism" o 1853-55 and 1859 (Origins of Species) led to creation of pseudo scientific racism. Darwin was not racist and didn't even bring man into his book. In fact, argued for monogenesis/saying that we all came from same place. Social Darwinism used to justify competition within society and even laissez-faire policies. Descent of Man (1871). o Francis Galton (Darwin's cousin)→ 1883 Eugenics suggested that positive eugenics should encourage the fit to breed.

Leopold II of Belgium

o Had a personal, not Belgian, colony within the Congo River Basin o British activists publicized the widespread atrocities happening within Leopold II's colony; Congo Reform Association (1904) founded by William Cadbury. o 10 million deaths o People tried to convince Belgium to take colony away from Leopold, and nation absorbed it in 1908. o Ed Morel and Arthur Doyle both wrote works criticizing the crimes within the Congo. o Book Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad (1899) also focuses on Congo.

Indirect Rule

o Henry Lugard created ideological basis for→ Indirect Rule meant that Brits exercised military and tax authority over an area but meddled as little as possible over local authority and tradition. Empire "on the cheap". Problematic when decolonization began happening b/c weren't strong ties to England/metropole. o By 1877, several hundred people were in Order of the Star. Goal of the Honor was to knit the leaders into the fabric of the British Raj even as they maintained their nominal authority. o Maharajas and nawabs→ titles of the leaders of princely states (a third of subcontinent with over 500 principalities). All under the control of U.K. though (think Royal Titles Act), but form of indirect rule. Seen as "loyal Indian feudatories"

Indian National Congress (1885)

o Idea of Home Rule all around. o Founded to allow educated Indians to have greater opportunity for dialogue with British government. Became increasingly bent towards independence as time went on and British gov. opposed all recommendations. o Prominent member included Dadabhai Naoroji (first Indian MP) late 19th century.

Imperial Federation (Hobson)

o Imperial Federation threatened by imperialism (weakens bond between U.K. and settler colonies). o Question of whether or not to allow settler colonies their own subimperial expansion (Australia did this with Papua). Hobson says no.

Architecture

o Indo-Saracenic architecture became popular style for British architects working in India; examples can be seen in memorials to Victoria, Madras High Court, and Mysore Palace. Other example is Sezincote House in Gloucestershire.

Dominion status did not equal independence, but rather a partnership

o Ireland: dominion in 1922; adopted new constitution in 1937; and officially independent Republic of Ireland in 1948 o South Africa: 1961 became a republic and quit the Commonwealth of nations. Rejoins in 1994. o Canada, Australia, and New Zealand aren't dominions and still have the Queen as their head of state.

Irish Famine

o Irish famine lasted until 1849. 1 million died; 1.5 million emigrated. 300,000 to Britain; 700,000 to Greater Britain. o Charles Edward Tevelyan was Assistant Secretary to Treasury and believed famine was a way to get rid of excess population.

Ireland Home Rule late 1800s

o Isaac Butt founds Home Rule League that becomes Irish Parliamentary Party/Home Rule Party with Charles Stewart Parnell as leader. Wins every Irish seat in 1885. o In 1886, William Gladstone introduces Home Rule Act for Ireland, states that a future Irish assembly would not relate on defense, foreign relations, or anything that relates to the crown. Argued that wasn't doing this b/c particularly liked Ireland, but b/c colonial governing was becoming revolutionized. Gov. had admitted that some colonies wanting own laws was reasonable, and now that was coming back to them; periphery→ metropole. o First Home Rule Bill (1886) rejected; Second (1893) rejected; third (1913-1914) passed. All three introduced by Liberal party.

England and the End of Empire

o It is possible that empire became more visible to English people after its fall. o Large exodus from Britain's former colonies to England occurred post-WW2, so the empire was still alive within the streets. By 2011, 40% of London was non-white and most of these people were from former British colonies. o 1948 British Nationality Act: citizenship of any commonwealth country qualifies one for citizenship in any other, including Britain. Unemployment within Britain was generally low, so immigrants quickly found work. London Transport recruited in Barbados, Trinidad, and Jamaica in the 1950s and 1960s. o There were an increasing number of mixed race individuals in England as well. o Several Indian MPs were elected in late 19th and early 20th century, but with resurgence of racial tensions, there weren't more Indian MPs until 1980s.

Sub-Imperialism

o Just like England had "Greater Britain," India had "Greater India" o People from all over the empire diffused as well→ Barbadians in Trinidad, Sikhs in Hong Kong and Singapore, Gurkhas in Singapore, Indian soldiers in Egypt and South Africa for Boer War. o Several ethnographies showed that India comprised of numerous diverse ethnic groups. o Malaya was comprised of several colonies; many Indians ended up in Malaya a workers and still live there today. Singapore as well. Fiji is 37.5% South Asian. Indian convicts sent to Mauritius, Singapore, and Andaman Islands. Indians in Uganda (although eventually forced out). o Other colonies also had sub-imperialism: Queensland annexed Papua in 1883. New Zealand had Western Samoa in 1914; Australia in 1914 captured Nauru

Joseph Chamberlain

o Liberal mayor of Birmingham, reformed education, housing, slum clearance, etc. An example of "New Liberalism" (as opposed to classical liberalism). Then took a seat as MP in House of Commons and became leader of Liberal Unionist Party. o Believed in social imperialism: meant that only empire could support true social reform. In complete opposition to JA Hobson on the relationship between imperialism and social reform. Chamberlain assumed it would cost much more for Britain to get its resources without the colonies; lack of empire would leave manufacturers jobless.

Lord Irwin, Viceroy from 1926 to 1931

o Lord Irwin wanted to reform Indo-British relations; worked toward Indian Dominion status. Set up round table talks that the Indian princes accepted. Indian National Congress boycotted talks. On January 1, 1930, INC president raised the tricolor flag in Lagore.

George Goldie

o Made money in palm oil o Helped consolidate companies in Niger to Royal Niger Company in 1886, became a protectorate in 1900.

Suez Crisis

o Nasser comes to power in Egypt, nationalizes Suez Canal in 1956. In October, British and French troops go to fight and by November withdraw with strong condemnation from Eisenhower. Proved that Britain didn't have the great power it once did in international crises. Kept in check.

Nativist Politics

o New Zealand: 1881 Chinese Immigration Act: Head tax of $50 per immigrant o Canada (1885) Chinese Immigration Act same tax o Canada 1923 Chinese Immigration Act banned all Chinese immigration with some exceptions o "White Australia" → 1850s restrictions on Chinese immigration; Australia combatted the British anti-racism legal push by requiring impossible "dictation tests"; Pacific Island Laborers Act deported 7500 Pacific Islanders. o British Alien Act (1905) allowed Brits to refuse immigrants they thought were undesirable but guaranteed acceptance of those escaping religious or political persecution. o British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act of 1914→ Nativists were resisting the demographic cross-polination that came with empire, essentially resisting the future o 1905 book Decline and Fall of the British Empire by Mills blamed the increase of urban life, theater, music halls, luxury, and spectator sports rather than participatory sports. Boyscout movement was an attempt to make boys out of city dwellers and rebuild original sense of manhood. o Fear that Russia was getting India; Germany getting South Africa; and Sultan getting Suez Canal (although Disraeli got it back by purchasing in 1875).

David Livingstone

o Part of London Missionary Society; helped bring African continent into center stage of British awareness o Arrived in Cape Town in 1841 speaking many languages as a missionary. Did not convert many and was a bad missionary. Believed Africa could be Christianized but that also had to be transformed in other ways first. o Believed commerce and Christianity were two pioneers of civilization and shouldn't be separated. Believed commerce in Africa could destroy slavery by giving African merchants an alternative to slave trade. Under this model, merchants could easily defeat slavery even if only goal was commercial profit. Thus, merchants were important for missionaries. o Became household name in 1840s as newspapers were becoming increasingly cheaper and a culture of national readership was emerging.

Cost of Empire

o Patrick O'Brien's "The Cost and Benefits of British Imperialism" argues O'Brien is assuming that British imperial history before 1846, before repeal of the Corn Laws, would have included some "phased withdrawal" from empire in the wake of the repeal. Would have required granting India political and economic independence, cutting budget ties between Britain and settler colonies and British taxpayers footing the bill for independent armies for these settler colonies. Would have required Richard Cobden to gain upper hand in repealing the Corn Laws. Argues that the public expenditure of empire was a drag on the British economy. O'Brien wondered whether Britain could have still been an industrial powerhouse without empire. o However, critics of O'Brien's argue that even if formal empire was contracted, defense costs would still be huge b/c Britain would have had to protect trade. o Places like Falkland Islands (formal holdings) allowed for informal empire in places like Argentina and Hong Kong with China. o Cost of maintaining colonial armies: Canada, Australia, and New Zealand armies were subsidized by the UK. But even if they were independent, they would still likely have been targets of British investment. o From 1900-1914, 5% of UK pop. Leaves, so many Dominion soldiers in the first World War were actually British born. Demographic losses.

Berlin Conference (1884)

o Regulated the colonization and trade within Africa during the age of New Imperialism o Helped initiate a European land grab; when dust settled, all of Africa except for Liberia and Ethiopia were European possessions (33% of which were British)

Finance

o Ronald Hyam's "The Myth of Gentlemanly Capitalism" was published in 2010. Calls "the city" the financial center. Argues people in financial sector all came from same elite background as each other. Like those who worked in Whitehall. Genteel Banker vs. merchant vs. manufacturer. Finance was gentler and cleaner form of capitalism. See primary sources!

Anglo-Prone Outsourcing

o Rose with the settler revolution. Produce of Irish farms was increasingly brought to England, and this Anglo-prone outsourcing benefited both English and Irish economies, though English saw most benefit. o New and increased level of grain exportation from Ireland was due to adoption of potato as main foodcrop as opposed to traditional oats and barley. Irish ate almost exclusively potatoes, population boomed, but potato crop vulnerable to fungus due to lack of genetic diversity.

African Extract Products

o Rubber, copper, cotton, palm oil, tea, tin o European powers were largely extractive and took gems, minerals, and metals, which were largely not renewable o B/c of extractive nature of colonization, potential for abuse was far greater.

India Pathway to Free Institutions

o Singapore Mutiny (1915): the mutiny began when there were orders for the unit to go to Hong Kong. A rumor spread that they were going to Europe and might have to fight against fellow Muslim Ottoman forces. Did not want to fight religious brothers. o 1909 Indian Councils Act: far cry from self government, but Act allowed for election of Indians to legislative councils in India o 1910→ 135 Indians elected to provincial councils, certain seats set aside for Muslim candidates, attempting to avoid a tyranny of the majority. o 1916 Lucknow Pact: agreement between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League; after this, they could work together. o Indian Secretary Edwin Montague argued in 1918 for the gradual development of free institutions in India w/ ultimate view toward self government.

19th Century Slavery Policy

o Slave trade abolished 1807 and slavery abolished 1833, partnerships with other states that had abolished slavery through early to late 19th century to blockade/intercept slave trade. (like off West African Coast and coast of Brazil) Britain goes from being leading slave trader in world to being biggest anti-slave trading police force. Continued evangelical commitment to defeat slave trade in Africa was important. o Europeans generally hesitant to settle in Africa b/c of Malaria, but French chemists isolated Quinine powder in 1800s allowing Brit. Settlers to fight malaria successfully by 1840s.

Kenya

o State of emergency declared, 80,000 Kikuyu insurgents detained, but potentially 1.5 million affected or killed by Brits.

Dominions in WWII

o Statute of Westminster had allowed dominions independence in foreign policy. Australia declared war quickly after Britain. New Zealand PM consulted w/ cabinet and declared war. Canada declared war but emphasized that its parliament would determine extent of participation. South Africa declared war. o Japan seized Malaya and Singapore in 1942, and Britain was at risk of losing its Asian empire. o There were African volunteers and over 2 million Indians participating. o Ireland didn't participate but sent lots of volunteers. o Atlantic Charter issued in 1941 by US and UK affirmed rights of people to live under the kind of government that they wanted. Gandhi wrote FDR saying this proposal was pretty hollow in light of British imperialism.

Gandhi

o Studied law; wrote "Indian Self Rule" in 1909. o Wanted to get rid of newspapers, railroads, western medicine, and all symbols of imperial rule o March 1930→ Gandhi's massive march to sea to protest salt tax. Led crowd to gather salt themselves and disregard revenue collectors. Soon, British cloth and goods boycotted. o March 1931→ Gandhi and Lord Irwin come to an agreement. Gandhi agreed to attend round table talks in England in return for release of non-violent prisoners and allowing coastal collection of salt o April 1931→ Lord Irwin replaced by Willingdon, who refused to engage and cooperate. Introduced censorship, identity cards, curbs on assembly, Gandhi caps. o 1935 Government of India Act→ Burma separated from India, self-rule for India's provinces (provincial governors could still overrule though), British in charge of army, foreign relations, and finances.

Conflict over Free trade vs. Tariffs

o Tariffs that countries were slapping on each other made risk of losing colonies for trade higher. Expressing liberal belief of the benefits of trade but within the context of empire.

Neo-Britains

o Term coined by James Belich o Population explosions happened all over Nero-Britain: • Australia from 400,000 to 5,000,000 from 1800s to early 1900s • England population quadrupled in 19th century and Scottish pop. Tripled • Pop of London goes from 1 to 6.5 million in 100 years up to 1901 o Booming population sometimes needed to go out to the colonies for opportunity. o "Anglosphere"→ similar cultural and linguistic heritage, term coined by Neal Stephenson

Jingoism

o Term coined during Russo-Turkish War (1877-78); part of a song sung at a music hall. Blustering demonstration of a willingness to fight. Term jingoism was formed to express self-confidence in military might, inverted patriotism where love of one's own nation is turned into hatred of another nation.

Imperial Advancements

o The Penny Post (postal system to deliver mail for a cent) was established in 1835 and Imperial Penny Post established in 1898. Joined by Cape Colony, Australia, and New Zealand in 1907 and U.S. in 1908. Tons of mail sent from metropole to colonies and vice versa. U.S. and Germany began to rival British advancements as 20th century progressed.

Imperial Federation (Charles Waddie, Greater Britain book, 1895)

o Throughout the debates, there were many proposals regarding home rule. For example, Wadding proposed the idea of a separate imperial federation with four home rule parliaments and an imperial parliament. Waddie warned that without an imperial federation of some sort, there would be imperial drift. Argued that imperial federation would create most powerful state ever. Way to avoid repeating fall of Rome b/c no longer be an omnipotent center. Also way to address concerns of colonies when parliament often overrun with local affairs/considerations. o Wanted it to be a free association/voluntary joining. Argued that Rome fell b/c crushed the smaller peoples and imposed will too much on them. o Also became easier to travel through British Empire, making a federation seem more feasible. England to Australia only 44 days in 1869 thanks to Suez Canal. Telegraphs only took 15 hours to travel across empire. o Also made distinction between self-governing states (dominions) and dependencies in this new system. But even dependencies represented in Imperial parliament (maybe one rep per crown colony?).