BSC 2085 Lecture Exam 2 - Chapters 3 and 4
What is an example of Hypertrophy?
A normal response of skeletal muscle cells when they are challenged to life excessive weight
Define Scurvy
A nutritional deficiency caused by lack of adequate vitamin C needed to synthesize collagen
What do each centriole consist of?
A pinwheel array of nine triplets of microtubules, each connected to the next by nontubulin proteins and arranged to form a hollow tube
Define Connective Tissue
A primary tissue / form and function vary extensively / functions include support, storage, and protection
Define Apoptosis
A process of controlled cellular suicide / eliminates cells that are unneeded, stressed, or aged
What is a secretory vesicle?
A protein coated membranous sac used in Exocytosis
What is a G-protein?
A protein that relays signals between extracellular first messengers and intracellular second messengers via an effector enzyme
What is a centrosome?
A region near the nucleus that contains paired organelles called centrioles / cell center
What is a triplet?
A sequence of three nucleotide bases
What are the two major means of active membrane transport (General)?
Active Transport / Vesicular Transport
What type of connective tissue is found supporting the epithelial tissue?
Areolar Connective Tissue
Which connective tissue has a soft weblike matrix capable of serving as a fluid reservoir?
Areolar Connective Tissue / its loose weblike nature is capable of serving as a fluid reservoir
Where are the other locations that fat accumulates?
Around kidneys / Behind the eyeballs / Genetically determined locations (Abdomen / Hips)
Where are the small deposits of fat located?
Around the Heart / Lymph Nodes / Some Muscles / Bone Marrow
How does the ratio of cell surface to cell volume affect cell division?
As a cell grows its volume increases more rapidly than its surface area
How does a G-protein act?
As a middleman or relay to (activate / inactive) a membrane bound or ion channel
What Organelles are included in the Endomembrane System?
Both Endoplasmic Reticulum / Golgi Apparatus / Secretory Vesicles / Lysosomes / The Nuclear Envelope / Plasma Membrane
Why do Cancer cells lead to weight loss and tissue wasting that eventually contribute to death?
Consume exceptional amount of the body's nutrients
What two major functions do Membrane Receptors perform?
Contact Signaling / Chemical Signaling
What are the 2 major lysosomal functions in the lysosomal membranes?
Contains H⁺ (proton) pumps / Provides sites where digestion can proceed Safely within a cell
Define Avascular
Contains no Blood vessels
What do Motor Proteins do?
Continually move and reposition the organelles along the microtubules
What are essentially all covering and lining membranes?
Continuous multicelllar sheets composed of at least two primary tissue types (epithelium bound to an underlying layer of connective tissue proper)
What is the Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum?
Continuous with the Rough ER / Consists of tubules arranged in a looping network / Its enzymes play no role in protein synthesis
The Na⁺-K⁺ pumps operate almost ______
Continuously
What is the function of Cardiac Muscle?
Contracts to propel blood into the circulation / Involuntary control
What is a nucleus?
Control center of a cell; contains genetic material / clusters of neuron cell bodies in the CNS / center of an atom; contains protons and neutrons
What are the two basic components of Multicellular Exocrine glands?
Epithelium derived duct / Acinus
What does the Transfer RNA (tRNA) do?
Ferry amino acids to the ribosomes / decode mRNA's message for amino acid sequence in the polypeptide to be built
What cell type is found in Connective Tissue Proper?
Fibroblasts / Fibrocytes
What are Dense Connective tissues also known as?
Fibrous Connective Tissues
Define Myofilament
Filament that constitutes myofibrils
What are the functions of the Cristae and the Matrix in the Mitochondria?
Filled with teams of enzymes / Breaks down intermediate products of food fuels to water and carbon dioxide
What happens in G₂ Phase?
Final phase of interphase / Enzymes and other proteins needed for division are synthesized and moved to their proper sites / centriole replication is complete / At the end: checkpoint when the cell ensures that all DNA is replicated and damaged DNA has been repaired
What is the ground substance of Cartilage?
Firm / Contains large amounts of the GAGs chondriotin sulfate and hyaluronic acid, and firmly bound collagen fibers (occasionally elastic fibers)
Where are integral proteins in the lipid bilayer?
Firmly inserted into the lipid bilayer
What happens to the substance in Exocytosis?
First enclosed in a secretory vesicle that fuses with the plasma membrane and then ruptures spilling the sac contents out of the cell
What are the three steps to study tissue structure?
Fixed / Sectioned / Stained
What is the purpose of fixing tissue for microscopic viewing?
Fixing tissue preserves it and prevents it from deteriorating
What do Fibroblasts look like?
Flat branching cells that appear spindle shaped (tapered at both ends) in profile
What are Aponeuroses?
Flat, sheetlike tendons that attach muscles to other muscles or to bones
What do squamos cells look like?
Flattened and scale like
Where are free ribosomes found?
Floating in the cytosol
What are the cavities of the cisterns filled with?
Fluid
What happens in Vesicular transport?
Fluids containing large particles and macromolecules are transported across cellular membranes inside bubble like, membranous sacs called vesicles
What are the characteristics of the inner shell of Mitochondria?
Folded inward / Forms Shelflike Cristae (Crests) that protrude into the matrix
Why are these ionic concentration differences in cells essential?
For excitable cells to function normally / all body cells to maintain their normal fluid volume
What do Transitional epithelium do?
Form the lining of hollow urinary organs that stretch as they fill with urine
What happens to Mucin when it is dissolved?
Forms Mucus
Many proto-oncogenes have ______ sites that break when exposed to carcinogens, converting them to ______
Fragile / Oncogenes
What are the two types of Ribosomal populations?
Free / Membrane Bound
What do Simple Epithelia resemble when perpendicularly cut to their free surface?
Fried Eggs seen from the side
What are nucleosomes?
Fundamental unit of chromatin; consists of a strand of DNA wound around a cluster of eight histone proteins / nuclear bodies
What do Glycocalyx consist of?
Fuzzy, sticky carbohydrate rich area at the cell surface created by the sugars of glycoproteins and glycolipids
***MAKE CONNECTIONS If a segment of one of the DNA strands being replicated consists of CGAATG, what will be the base sequence of the corresponding DNA strand?
GCTTAC
What are the three basic phases of Transcription?
Initiation / Elongation / Termination
Define Vacuum-Assisted Closure (VAC)
Innovative healing process for open skin wounds and skin ulcers / often induces healing when all other methods fail
What two types of membrane proteins are there?
Integral / Peripheal
What are the most stable Cytoskeleton elements?
Intermediate Filaments
What are the two major periods of the cell cycle?
Interphase / Cell Divsion
What are the two newest approaches to battling cancer?
Interrupting the signaling pathway / Cancer immunotherapy
What are the three components of Ground substance?
Interstital Fluid / Cell adhesion Proteins / Proteoglycans
What are 3 different types of Extracellular fluid?
Interstitial Fluid / Blood Plasma / Cerebrospinal Fluid
Where are microvilli primarily found?
Intestinal Cells / Kidney Tubule Cells
What are examples of Cellular Secretions?
Intestinal fluids / Gastric Fluids / Saliva / Mucus / Serous Fluids
Where does secondary transport often occur?
Into cells lining the small intestine
What two major fluid compartments does the Plasma Membrane separate?
Intracellular Fluid / Extracellular Fluid
What are Caspases?
Intracellular enzymes that unleash a torrent of digestive activity within the cell
What are second messengers?
Intracellular molecule generated by the binding of a chemical to a receptor or protein; mediates intracellular responses to the chemical messenger
What is Cyclic AMP?
Intracellular second messenger that mediates the effects of teh first messenger fromed from ATP bu a plasma membrane enzyme
What separates exons?
Introns
Define invagination
Inward growth
What is the difference between Dense Regular Connective Tissue and Dense Irregular Connective Tissue?
Irregular Dense Connective Tissue are much thicker and are arranged irregularly
How is actin different in the microvilli?
It acts as a mechanical stiffener that shapes the cell rather than as a contractile protein
What three roles do Autophagy serve?
It allows cells to dispose of clumps of unneeded proteins and even cytoplasmic organelles, such as mitochondria, when they are worn out / In times of stress, particularly starvation, it allows cells to cannibalize parts of themselves in order to survive / it helps restructure cells during development
Why do Oxidase convert the Free Radicals to Hydrogen Peroxide even though it is reactive and dangerous?
It catalyses quickly converting to water
What is the Cutaneous membrane consist of?
Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium + Thick Layer of Connective Tissue (Dermis)
What is the energy source for all types of diffusion?
Kinetic Energy
Where do the Osteocytes reside in the Bone / Osseous Tissue?
Lacunae
What are spliceosomes?
Large RNA protein complexes that snip out the introns and splice together the remaining exon-coded sections
What do lysosomes look like?
Large Spherical membranous organelles containing activated hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes
What do Keloids result in?
Large mass of scar tissue at the skin surface
What does the presence of multiple nucleus usually signify?
Larger than usual cytoplasmic mass must be regulated
When does cytokinesis begin?
Late anaphase
Define Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Long nucleotide strands that reflect the exact nucleotide sequences of the genetically active DNA and carry the DNA's message
What do Muscle Fibers / Skeletal Muscle cells look like?
Long, cylindrical cells that contain many peripherally located nuclei
What is a flagella?
Long, whiplike cellular extension containing microtubules; propels sperm and some single celled eukaryotes
What are the two subclasses of Connective Tissue Proper?
Loose connective tissue / Dense connective tissue
Define Lamina Propria
Loose connective tissue supporting an epithelium / part of a mucous membrane
What are the clinical signs of Marfan's syndrome?
Loose jointedness / long limbs and spiderlike fingers and toes / visual problems / weakened blood vessels (especially aorta)
What happens to cells in a hypertonic solution?
Lose water and shrivel / Crenate
What are Liver and Phagocytic Cells filled with?
Lysosomes
What attaches to the Microtubules?
Mitochondria / Lysosomes / Secretory Vesicles
What is the singular form of Mitochondria?
Mitochondrion
Do all cells respond the same way to the same ligand?
No
Does the same distortion in Goblet Cells occur in Mucous Cells?
No
Is it a requirement for Mucosae to secrete mucus?
No
Are introns wasteful?
No / They act as control elements and allow for making different proteins from one gene by omitting or including certain exons
What is the Basal Lamina?
Noncellular, adhesive supporting sheet consisting largely of glycoproteins secreted by epithelial tissue
Define Inton
Noncoding segment or portion of DNA that ranges from 60 to 100,000 nucleotides long
What are supporting cells?
Nonconducting cells that support, insulate, and protect the delicate neurons
What are Malignant Neoplasts?
Nonencapsulated masses that grow relentlessly
All other stratified squamos epithelia of the body are ____
Nonkeratinized
What is Blood Plasma?
Nonliving fluid matrix found in Blood
Define Extracellular Matrix
Nonliving material in connective tissue consisting of ground substance and fibers / separates the living cells
What are the four phases of Mitosis?
Prophase / Metaphase / Anaphase / Telophase
What is the most major role (but not the only) of Stratified Epithelia?
Protection
What are the 6 basic functions of epithelium?
Protection / Absorption / Filtration / Excretion / Secretion / Sensory Reception
What balances the Potassium Cations inside of the cell?
Protein anions
What two major ways does repair occur?
Regeneration / Fibrosis
What does the Nervous System do?
Regulates and controls body functions
What does the basement membrane do?
Reinforces the epithelial sheet / helps it resist stretching and tearing / defines the epithelial boundary
What must the pre-mRNA do before it can be used as a messenger?
Remove the introns through the use of spliceosomes
Define Regeneration
Replacement of destroyed tissue with the same kind of tissue
Before a cell can divide, its DNA must be ______ exactly
Replicated
Cells that continually wear away _____ themselves almost continuously
Reproduce
What do the branching cells of neurons and the cytoplasmic extensions or processes enable them to do?
Respond to Stimuli / Transmit electrical impulses over substantial distances within the body
What is the fourth sequence in DNA Replication?
Restoration / Ligase enzymes splice short segments of DNA together restoring the double helix structure
What is the G₁ checkpoint?
Restriction point
How do the lysosomal membranes provide safe sites for digestion?
Retains dangerous lysosomal enzymes while permitting the final products of digestion to escape so that they can be used by the cell or excreted
What are the three types of fibers found in connective tissue?
Reticular / Collagen / Elastic fibers are found in the various connective tissues
What are the fibroblasts in the reticular fibers known as?
Reticular cells
What is the RNA in ribosomes called?
Ribosomal RNAs
Other types of connective tissue have a _____ supply of blood vessels
Rich
What are lamins?
Rod-shaped proteins that assemble to form intermediate filaments
What are the two distinct varieties of Endoplasmic Reticulum?
Rough / Smooth
What is the Nuclear envelope directly connected to?
Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Where are membrane bound ribosomes found in the cell?
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Unlike phagocytosis, pinocytosis is a ____ activity of most cells
Routine
What is Elastin?
Rubberlike proteins
What are extracellular materials?
Substances contributing to body mass that are found outside the cells
How are Epithelial cells nourished?
Substances diffusing blood vessels in the underlying connective tissue
What happens in the Cisterns of the Rough ER?
Sugar Groups are attached to the Integral Proteins synthesized
Define Innervated
Supplied by nerve fibers
What does the supportive connective tissue do for the secretory unit?
Supplies it with blood vessels and nerve fibers to form a fibrous capsule
What is the function of Bone / Osseous Tissue?
Support and Protect Body Structures / Provide cavities for storing fat and synthesizing blood cells
What do the three general functions of the cytoskeleton do?
Support the cellular structures and provide the machinery to generate various cell movements
What are the 4 specific functions of areolar connective tissue?
Supporting and binding other tissues / Holding Body fluids / Defending against infection / Storing nutrients as fat in adipocytes
What surrounds the secretory unit?
Supportive connective tissue
How do you describe the role of connective tissue in one word?
Supports
What are the different types of cancer treatments?
Surgery / Chemotherapy / Irradiation (Cut / Burn / Poison)
What is a biopsy?
Surgically removing a tissue sample and examining it microscopically for malignant cells
What are examples of larger glands?
Sweat Glands / Mammary Glands
What is Edema?
Swelling due to the abnormal accumulation of fluid in their tissues
What is Tonicity?
The ability of a solution to change the shape (or plasma membrane tension) of cells by altering the cells internal water volume
Why is it named Goblet Cell?
The accumulating mucin distends the top of the cell making the cell look like a glass with a stem
How is the resting membrane potential maintained?
The active transport processes
What are the outcomes of a mutation?
The affected protein may remain unimpaired / May function abnormally or not at all leading to disease
What happens during the 2A Elongation phase of Translation?
The anticodon of an incoming tRNA binds with the complementary mRNA codon in the A site of the ribosome
What is lamina propia?
The areolar connective tissue that most epithelia rest on and is preset in all mucous membranes
What is hydrostatic pressure?
The back pressure exerted by water against the cell wall
Define Stoma
The basic internal structural framework of an organ
What is an isotonic solution?
The same concentration of nonpenetrating solutes
Define Healing by First intention
The simplest type of healing / occurs when the edges of the wound are brought together by sutures, staples, or other means used to close surgical incisions / only small amounts of granulation tissue need be formed
What does the Aminoacyl (A) site do?
The site for an incoming aminoacyl-tRNA
What is the role of the nucleoli?
The site of synthesis of ribosomal subunits
Where does elastic cartilage form?
The skeleton of the external ear / epiglottis
How does Size affect diffuse-ability in the Plasma Membrane?
The smaller the molecule the more readily it will diffuse across
What are the two results of an osmotic disturbance in animal cells?
The solute concentration is the same on both sides / the membrane stretches to its breaking point and lyses
What happens if equal volumes of aqueous solutions of different osmolarity are separated by a membrane that us permeable to ONLY THE SOLUTE?
The solute diffuses
Define Metastasis
The spread of cancer from one body part or organ into another not directly connected to it
Where is Smooth muscle located?
The walls of hollow organs (Digestive Tracts / Urinary Tracts / Uterus / Blood Vessels)
What do Simple Epithelia form in the lungs?
The walls of the air sacs across which gas exchange occurs
What does Simple Cuboidal Epithelium form?
The walls of the smallest ducts of glands and of many kidney tubules
What happens if equal volumes of aqueous solutions of different osmolarity are separated by a membrane that us permeable to ONLY WATER molecule?
The water diffuses
What does Stage 4 cancer mean?
The worst probability of cure
Define Healing by Second Intention
The wound edges remain separated / relatively large amount of granulation tissue bridge the gap / the manner in which unattended wounds heal / healing is slower than in wounds in which the edges are brought together / larger scars result
What is an important characteristic of cancerous epithelial cells?
Their failure to respect the basement membrane boundary, which they penetrate to invade the tissues beneath
What happens during the Termination phase of Transcription?
mRNA synthesis ends when the polymerase reaches a special nucleotide sequence called a termination signal / RNA polymerase and the complete mRNA transcript are released
What are pre-mRNA?
mRNA that is still littered with introns
What do the membranes do for the membranous organelles?
maintain an internal environment different from that of the surrounding cytosol
How do Bacteria and Infectious Agents use Contact Signaling?
To Identify "Preferred" target tissue
What are four functions of connective tissue?
To bind, support, protect, and insulate body organs / blood acts to transport substances throughout the body
Why is the specimen stained?
To enhance contrast between the structures
What roles do the phospholipids play in the Lipid Bilayer?
The hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails create a semipermeable membrane that dictates what molecules travel passively
What is resting membrane potential?
The voltage that exists across the plasma membrane during the resting state of an excitable cell
Are nucleoli membrane bound?
No
What is the Exrtacellular Matrix of Cartilage?
80% Water
What are the three types of Loose Connective Tissue?
Areolar / Adipose / Reticular
What three general functions does the cytoskeleton act as?
Bones / Muscles / Ligaments
What are Paracrines?
Chemicals that act locally and are rapidly destroyed
What is Semiconservative Replication?
A new molecule that consists of one old and one new nucleotide strand
What are Extended Chromatin?
Active Chromatin Segments
What is the anion that balances Sodium cations outside of the cell?
Chlorine (Cl⁻)
What is the typical range of a cell's resting membrane potential?
-50 to -90 millivolts (depending on the cell type)
The inside of the cell measures at _____mvolts
-70
At what Voltage is the Potassium concentration gradient exactly balanced by the electrical gradient?
-90mV
What does an immature cell name end in?
-blast
What does a mature cell name end in?
-cyte
How many Moles are in 1 osmol?
1
How frequent is Osteogenesis Imperfecta?
1 out of 20,000 births
What percentage of cartilage do chondrocytes account for?
1-10%
How many known oncogenes are there currently?
100+
The concentration of K inside the cell is ____X (higher / lower) than that outside
10X higher
The concentration of Na insidethe cell is ___X (higher/lower) than that outside
10X lower
What is the DNA-RNA hybrid?
16-18 base pairs of DNA are unwound and the most recently made RNA is still hydrogen bonded to the template DNA
Adipose tissue constitutes for ____ of an average person's body weight
18%
How many membranes does the MItochondria have?
2
The Na⁺-K⁺ pumps ____ K_____ of the cell.
2 / In
Our 20,000 genes are located on only about ___ of the nuclear DNA
2%
Ho many protein encoding genes do we have in the human body?
20,000
What are the Three repeating steps in Elongation phase of Translation?
2A / 2B / 2C
How many of the 64 Codons are stop signs?
3
The Na⁺-K⁺ pumps ____ Na _____ of the cell.
3 / Out
What is the lifespan of an Anucleate cell?
3-4 months
What are the three major components of Chromatin?
30% DNA / 60% Globular Histone Proteins / 10% RNA chains
How many cells are in the human body?
37 Trillion
How many sequences of events occur during DNA replication?
4
How many stages of cancer are there?
4 Stages
How many different types of tRNA are there?
45
Ho many steps are there during Apoptosis?
5
How many possible codons are there?
64
What is the Lipid Bilayer composed of?
80% Phospholipids / 20% Cholesterol
Adipocytes account for _____ of the Adipose Tissue's mass
90%
What are Membrane receptors?
A huge and diverse group of integral proteins that serve as binding sites
Define Reticular Lamina
A layer of extracellular material containing a fine network of collagen fibers / together with the basal lamina it is a major component of the basement membrane
What type of membrane consists of epithelium and connective tissue, and lines body cavities open to the exterior?
A mucous membrane consists of both connective tissue and epithelium / Lines body cavities open to the exterior
What is the final consequence of a Colorectal Adenoma?
A Colon Carcinoma
What is an anucleate cell?
A cell without a nucleus
Define Mutation
A change in DNA base sequence that may lead to incorporation of incorrect amino acids in particular positions in the resulting protein
Define Dysplasia
A change in cell size, shape, or arrangement due to chronic irritation or inflammation
Define Pus
A collection of tissue fluid, bacteria, dead and dying tissue cells, leukocytes, and macrophages in an inflamed area
What is Mucin?
A complex glycoprotein that dissolves in water then secreted
Define Ribosomal (rRNA)
A constituent of ribosomes that assists in protein synthesis
How does the cytoplasm divide?
A contractile ring made of actin filaments draws the plasma membrane inward to form a cleavage furrow over the center of the cell / the furrow deepns until it pinches teh cytoplasmic mass into two parts, yielding two daughter cells
What is Scar Tissue?
A fibrous type of connective tissue
What does Mesenchyme have?
A fluid ground substance containing fine sparse fibers and star shaped mesenchymal cells
What is a Colon Carcinoma?
A form of cancer that metastasizes quickly
Define Tissue
A group of similar cells and their intercellular substance specialized to perform a specific function
What is a hypertonic solution?
A higher concentration of nonpenetrating solutes than seen in the cell
What happens in a tight junction?
A series of integral protein molecules in the plasma membrane of adjacent cells fuse together like the zipper of a ziploc bag / impermeable function encircles the cell and separates one fluid filled compartment from another
Define ER Signal Sequence
A short peptide segment present in a protein being synthesized that causes the associated ribosome to attach to the membrane of rough ER
What do Endothelium provide?
A slick, friction reducing lining in lymphatic vessels and in all hollow organs of the cardiovascular system
What does Mucus do?
A slimy coating that protects and lubricates surfaces
What is a polyp?
A small benign growth consisting of apparently normal mucosa cells
What is a promoter?
A special DNA sequence that contains the start point of the gene to be transcribed / Specifies which DNA strand is going to serve as the template strand
What happens at the Restriction point?
A stop signal that can halt further growth
What is Histamine?
A substance that makes capillaries leaky
What is the Endomembrane System?
A system of Organelles that work together
Why do different cells respond differently to the same ligand?
A target cell's response depends on the internal machinery that the receptor is linked to, not the specific ligand that binds to it
What do Simple Epithelia resemble in the surface view?
A tiled floor
What is Keratin?
A tough protective protein
What are the complementary bases in DNA?
A-T / G-C
What are the complementary bases in RNA?
A-U / G-C
What cell type is found in Cartilage?
Chondroblasts / Chondrocytes
What do the H+ Pumps in the lysosomal membrane?
ATPases that gather hydrogen ions from the surrounding cytosol to maintain the organelle's acidic pH
What is ALWAYS the start codon?
AUG
Define Keloid
Abnormal proliferation of connective tissue during healing of skin wounds
Define Anaplasia
Abnormalities in cell structure and loss of differentiation
Where do small deposits occur in adults?
Above the collarbone / the neck / the abdomen / around the spine
What are Simple Columnar Epithelium mostly associated with?
Absorption / Secretion
What are mucous membranes adapted for?
Absorption / Secretion
What are the three primary concerns of Simple Epithelia?
Absorption / Secretion / Filtration
Why is Bone / Osseous Tissue rigid?
Abundant Collagen fibers / Presence of Inorganic Calcium Salts (Bone Salts)
What does Brown Fat store?
Abundant mitochondria that use the lipid fuels to generate heat
Define Hyperplasia
Accelerated cell division
How are the serosae named?
According to Location and Specific Organ Associations
What are Lysosomes also known in acidic conditions?
Acid Hydolases
Where do Lysosomes work best?
Acidic Conditions
What are the two types of stains?
Acidic Stains / Basic Stains
What term is interchangeable with Alveolar?
Acinar
What role do Saliva, Mucus, and Serous Fluids perform?
Act as Lubricants
What is the role of Integral Proteins?
Act as Transmembrane proteins that span the entire membrane and protrude on both sides
What is role of the Extracellular Matrix?
Act as a "Universal Cell Glue" that binds body cells together
What do Cadherins and Integrins (CAMs) do?
Act as an anchor *molecular velcro* in the extracellular space and to each other / Act as "Arms" that migrating cells use for mobility / Send SOS signals to rally Leukocytes / Act as mechanical sensors to transmit information about any changes in the extracelllular matrix to bring about Cell Migration, Proliferation, and Specialization
What are the two types of Myofilament?
Actin / Myosin
What are 3 examples of the microfilaments allowing for cell motility?
Actin forms that cleavage furrow that pinches one cell into two during cells division / microfilaments attached to cell adhesion molecules are responsible for the crawling movements or amoeboid motion, and for membrane changes that accompany endocytosis and exocytosis / in muscles cells, actin filaments interact with another protein, myosin to generate contractile forces in a cell
What do both Cyclic AMP and Ionic Calcium do?
Activate Protein Kinase Enzymes
Secretion is an _____ process
Active
What are Epiphyseal Plates?
Actively growing regions near the ends of long bones in children
What is the function of Interstitial fluid?
Acts as a rich, nutritious "soup" containing amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, regulatory substances, and wastes
What are the roles of basal lamina?
Acts as a selective filter that determines which molecules diffusing from the underlying connective tissue are allowed to enter the epithelium / Acts as scaffolding along which epithelial cells can migrate to repair a wound
What happens during Necrosis?
Acute injury causes the cells to swell and burst / induces inflammatory response that causes uncontrolled cell death
What are the four DNA nucleotide bases?
Adenine / Guanine / Cytosine / Thymine
What are the four RNA nucleotide bases?
Adenine / Guanine / Cytosine / Uracil
What is the malignant adenoma known as?
Adenocarcinoma
What do Cell junctions do?
Adhere cells together and allow for communication
What other cell types are found in connective tissue?
Adipocytes / Leukocytes / Mast Cells / Macrophages
What are adipocytes?
Adipose / Fat cells
What makes Areolar Connective Tissue different from Adipose Tissue?
Adipose has a greater nutrient storing ability
Where is the basal lamina located?
Adjacent to the Basal Surface
What is the multistep mitochondrial process known as? Why?
Aerobic Cellular Respiration / It requires oxygen
What does Pinocytosis allow cells to do?
Afford them a nonselective way of sampling the extracellular fluid / absorb nutrients
When does cytokinesis end?
After mitosis ends
What are the three binding sites for tRNA?
Aminoacyl (A)-site / Peptidyl (P)-site / Exit (E)-site
What are the role of Nucleoli?
Aggregations of all the components needed to synthesize and assemble ribosomal subunits
What is the Immune Theory?
Aging results from a progressive weakening of the immune system / the body loses its ability to fight off pathogens or to heal systemic inflammation / associates aging and risks for chronic disease
What role do the intestinal and gastric fluids perform?
Aid in digestion
What basic structure do all cellular membranes share?
All cellular membranes consist of a double layer of phospholipids in which proteins are embedded
What is Apical-basal polarity?
All epithelia have an apical end and a basal end / Like a magnet has a North and South pole
What makes Psuedostratified Columnar Epithelia "Psuedo"?
All the cells rest on the basement membrane but only the tallest reach the free surface of the epithelium giving the tissues a false impression that several cell layers are present
What does Selectively / Deferentially permeable mean?
Allow some substances to pass while excluding others
What does the elastin in the elastic fibers allow for the fiber to do?
Allows it to stretch and recoil like a rubber band
How do Channel Transmembrane proteins function?
Allows small, water soluble molecules or ions to move through bypassing the lipid bilayer
Where are ciliated cells located in the body?
Along the respiratory tract propel mucus laden with dust particles and bacteria upward away from the lungs
What does a tRNA bind to?
Amino Acid / mRNA codon
Define Exons
Amino acid-specifying informational sequences (separated by introns) in the genes of higher organisms
What happens during Elongation phase of Translation?
Amino acids are added one at a time to the growing peptide chain via a process that has three repeating steps
How do phagocytes move about?
Amoeboid Motion
What is a neoplasm?
An abnormal mass of proliferating cells
What develops when the polyp enlarges?
An adenoma
What is the Pump Protein in a Sodium - Potassium Pump?
An enzyme called Na⁺-K⁺ ATPase
What is Telomerase?
An enzyme found in certain specialized cells / immortality enzyme
What are Coated Pits?
An infolding membrane that have a protein coating on the cytoplasmic face that deforms the membrane to produce the vesicle
Define Osteogenesis Imperfecta
An inherited condition that causes defective collagen production resulting in weak bones that break easily
What is a basal body?
An organelle structurally identical to a centriole and forming the base of a cilium or flagellum
What is the nucleus of a cell?
An organelle that controls cellular activities that typically lies towards the center of the cell
What do desmosomes serve as?
Anchoring junctions
Why can major changes in hydrostatic and osmotic pressure NOT occur in Animal Cells?
Animal Cells lack rigid cell walls
What is Heparin?
Anticoagulant chemical that prevents blood clotting when free in the bloodstream
What are cisterns?
Any cavity or enclosed space serving as a reservoir
Define Lesions
Any injury, wound, or infection that affects tissue over an area of a definite size
Define Adenoma
Any neoplasm of glandular epithelium, benign or malignant
Where is Adipose Tissue abundant?
Anywhere areolar tissue is plentiful / accumulates in subcutaneous tissue
Stratified epithelia are named according to the shape of the cells in the _____ layer
Apical
What are the two surfaces of all Epithelia?
Apical Surface / Basal Surface
Which type of glands are not found in humans (arguably?)
Apocrine Glands
What are the transmembrane proteins that water can move freely through?
Aquaporins (AQPs)
What product do glands secrete?
Aqueous fluids that usually contains proteins known as Secretions / Occasionally lipid or steroid rich secretion
What is the third sequence of DNA replication?
Assembly / With the old (parental) strands acting as templates, the enzyme DNA polymerase positions complementary free nucleotides along the template strands, forming two new strands / The leading and lagging strands are synthesize in opposite directions / Two new daughter DNA molecules result from one parental DNA molecule / Each new molecule consists of one old and one new nucleotide strand
What is Facilitated Diffusion?
Assisted Diffusion
What are Muscle Cells filled with?
Atin / Myosin / Cytoplasm is filled with Microfilaments
What are the main job of Intermediate Filaments?
Attach to desmosomes and act as internal cables to resist pulling forces exerted on the cell
What is the importance of ubiquitin in the life of a cell?
Attache to misfolded, damaged, or unneeded proteins, tagging them for destruction by proteasomes
Where is the basal surface found?
Attached to the underlying connective tissue
What happens when a Lysosomes' membrane ruptures?
Autolysis
What happens during autophagy?
Autophagosomes sweeps up bits of cytoplasm and unneeded organelles that are then delivered to lysosomes for digestion of the contents, which the cell reuses
Cartilage is
Avascular (no blood vessels)
Epithelium is _______ and ______
Avascular / Innervated
What is the process that transmits electrical impulses over substantial distances within the body?
Axons
What are the symptoms of Scurvy?
Blood vessel disruption / Delay in wound healing / weakness of scar tissue / loosening of teeth
Skeletal muscles are attached to the _____ of the skeleton
Bones
What three types of mature tissue are not Connective Tissue Proper?
Bone / Cartilage / Blood
What are chromosomes?
Barlike bodies of tightly coiled chromatin; visible during cell division
What two layers does the basement layer consist of?
Basal Lamina / Reticular Lamina
What does the large amounts of extracellular matrix in the connective tissue allow for it to do?
Bear weight / withstand great tension / endure abuses (physical trauma and abrasion)
Why are electron microscope images in shades of gray?
Because color is a property of light, not of electron waves
A ____ Neoplasm is strictly a local affair
Benign
What are the two classifications of Neoplasms?
Benign / Malignant
What are Proto-oncogenes?
Benign forms of oncogenes in normal cells
What is the function of desmosomes?
Bind neighboring cells together into sheets and also contribute to a continuous internal network of strong fibers that act as "guy-wires"
How do Carrier Transmembrane proteins function?
Bind to a substance and then move it through the membrane
What are desmosomes?
Binding Bodies
What are the five main functions of Connective Tissue?
Binding and Supporting / Protecting / Insulating / Storing Reserve Fuel / Transporting Substances within the body
What are Ligaments?
Binds bones together at joints to contain more elastic fibers than tendons and are slightly more stretchy
What two ways will a molecule travel using Facilitated diffusion?
Binds to a carrier protein in the membrane and is ferried across / Moves through water filled channel proteins
How are microtubules and microfilaments related functionality?
Both are involved in organelle movements within the cell and/or movements of the cell as a whole
Epithelia forms ____ between different environments
Boundaries
What do cuboidal cells look like?
Boxlike, approximately as tall as they are wide
What makes up the Nervous System?
Brain / Spinal Cord / Nerves
Define Histology
Branch of anatomy dealing with the microscopic structure of tissues
Compound Multicellular Exocrine Glands have ____ duct
Branched
How do malignant cells tend to travel throughout the body?
Break away from the parent mass and travel via blood or lymph to other bod organs
What role do Peroxisomes play in energy metabolism?
Breaking down and synthesizing fatty acids
What do the elaborate networks of Actin and Myosin generally do?
Bring about movement or contraction in all cell types
What is Osteogenesis Imperfecta also known as?
Brittle Bone Disease
What do Apical surfaces with micovilli known as under the microscope?
Brush Border
What does the outer nuclear envelope do?
Connects continuously with the Rough ER
What accounts for 90% of human cancers?
Carcinomas
The electrochemical gradients maintained by the Na⁺-K⁺ pumps are crucial for:
Cardiac Function / Skeletal Function / Neuron Function
What are inclusions?
Chemical substances that may or may not be present depending on cell type
You are looking at muscle tissue through the microscope and you see striped branching cells that connect with one another. What type of muscle are you viewing?
Cardiac Muscle Cells / Have striations and branching cells
What tissue have virutally no functional capacity for regeneration?
Cardiac Muscle Tissue / Nervous Tissue in the brain and spinal cord
What two sticky glycoproteins are Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAMs)?
Cadherins / Integrins
What happens when cells fail to follow normal controls of cell division and multiply excessively?
Cancer / A Neoplasm
Where are telomerase commonly found?
Cancer Cells
Define Carcinoma
Cancer arising in an epithelium
Define Sarcoma
Cancer arising in the mesenchyme-derived tissues, that is, in connective tissues and muscle
Define Oncogenes
Cancer causing genes
What is an example of Anaplasia?
Cancer cells typically lose the appearance of the parent cells and come to resemble undifferentiated or embryonic cells
Why are Anucleate cells temporary?
Cannot Reproduce / Cannot produce mRNA to make proteins so cannot self recover
What changes a normal cell into a cancerous one?
Carcinogens / Radiation / Mechanical Trauma / Certain Viral Infections / Chronic Inflammation / Many Chemicals / Toxins (Tobacco Smoke)
What does Messenger RNA (mRNA) do?
Carries the coded information to the cytoplasm, where protein synthesis occurs
What happens to cartilage in later life?
Cartilage calcifies or even ossifies (becomes bone) causing the chondrocytes to be malnourished and die
Why does injured cartilage heal slowly?
Cartilage is avascular and aging cartilage cells lose their ability to divide
Define Elastic Cartilage
Cartilage with abundant elastic fibers / more flexible than hyaline cartilage
What do enzymes do on the Rough ER?
Catalyze lipid synthesis
There are 4 theories of __ ____
Cell Aging
What is Phagocytosis?
Cell Eating / The cell engulfs some relatively large or solid material once bound to the receptors on the cell's surface, psuedopods form and flow around the particle
What is the Genetic Theory?
Cell aging is "programmed" into our genes / With each cycle of DNA replication the telomeres get a bit shorter and eventually they become too short for cell survival
What is Pinocytosis?
Cell drinking / Fluid phase endocytosis / a bit of infolding plasma membrane surrounds a very small volume of extracellular fluid containing dissolved molecules
What happens in the G₁ Phase?
Cell is metabolically acive, synthesizing proteins rapidly and growing vigously / most variable phase in terms of lenght / lasts several minutes to hours days or years / Virtually no activities direclty related to cell division occur / At the end, the centrioles start to replicate in preparation for cell division
What are the general functions of the Microfilaments?
Cell motility / Changes in Cell Shape
What is a multinucleate cell?
Cell with more than one nucleus
What is the smallest unit of life?
Cells
Describe Smooth Muscle
Cells are spindle shaped with central nuclei / No striations / Cells are arranged closely to form sheets
What forms the bases of Cilia and Flagella?
Centrioles
How do Carrier proteins carry molecules through the barrier?
Changes shape to move the binding site from one face of the membrane to the other
What are the two major roles of Transmembrane Proteins?
Channels / Carriers
What are Leakage Channels?
Channels that are always open and simply allow ions or water to move according to concentration gradients
What are Gated Channels?
Channels that are controlled (opened or closed) usually by chemical or electrical signals
What are Hormones?
Chemical Messengers
Some Simple Columnar Epithelia display ____ on their free surfaces
Cilia
Epithelial cells fit ____ together to form continuous sheets
Closely
What do dense regular connective tissue contain?
Closely packed bundles of collagen fibers running in the same direction / parallel to the direction of pull
What results from severe or destructive infections?
Clot Formation / Scarring
What are stop sign codons?
Codons that call for termination of polypeptide synthesis
Which fiber found in the connective tissue is the strongest and most abundant?
Collagen Fibers
What three types of fibers are found in connective tissue matrix?
Collagen fibers / Elastic fibers / Reticular fibers
What is one of the best understood human cancers?
Colorectal cancer
Define Mesenchyme
Common embryonic tissue from which all connective tissues arise
What are gap junctions?
Communicating junctions between adjacent cells
Each nucleotide acts as a template for construction a _______ strand
Complementary
In cells, transcription transfers information from a DNA sequence to the _______ base sequence
Complementary
How can Benign Neoplasts kill a patient?
Compressing Vital Organs
What are the real world equivalents of a nucleus?
Computer + Design Department + Construction Boss + Board of Directors = All in One
What does Receptor Mediated Endocytosis allow cells to do?
Concentrate material that is present only in small amounts in the extracellular fluid
What three factors influence the rate of diffusion?
Concentration / Molecular Size / Temperature
What are Osteons?
Concentric rings of bony matrix surrounding central canals containing the blood vessels and nerves serving the bone
What do leukocytes do?
Concerned with tissue response to injury
The shape of the nucleus ____ to that of the cell
Conforms
What do Reticular fibers do?
Connect the coarser collagen fibers and branch extensively to form delicate networks that surround small blood vessels and support the soft tissue of organs
Where is elastic connective tissue found?
Connecting adjacent vertebrae / in the walls many of the larger arteries
All epithelial sheets rest upon and are supported by ____ tissue
Connective
In which type of tissue is there a majority of Extracellular Matrix?
Connective Tissue
What are the four main classes of Connective Tissue?
Connective Tissue Proper / Cartilage / Bone / Blood
Define Bone / Osseous Tissue
Connective tissue that forms the bony skeleton
How do you describe the role of nervous tissue in one word?
Controls
What are Tendons?
Cords that attach muscles to bones
What is the Microvilli Terminal Web?
Core of bundled actin filaments that extend into a mat of actin filaments near the surface of the cell
What is Secondary Active Transport also known as?
Cotransport
What are the two types of epithelium?
Covering and lining epithelium / Glandular epithelium
What does vacuum assisted closure involve?
Covering the wound with a special sponge, and then applying suction through the sponge
How do you describe the role of epithelial tissue in one word?
Covers
What are the three types of covering and lining membranes?
Cutaneous / Mucous / Serous
What are two important Second Messengers?
Cyclic AMP / Ionic Calcium
What two groups of proteins are crucial to a cell's ability to finish the S Phase and enter mitosis?
Cyclins / Cyclin-Dependent kinases (Cdks)
How are Cyclin-Dependent kinases (Cdks) activated or deactivated?
Cyclins that function in a regulatory role
What is the second step of Apoptosis?
Cytochrome C and other factors leak from the mitochondria into the cytosol, and these factors activate caspases
What is a psuedopod?
Cytoplasmic extensions / False-Foot
What are ribosomes?
Cytoplasmic organelles at which proteins are synthesized
What is the Mitochondria?
Cytoplasmic organelles responsible for ATP generation for cellular activities
What are the 3 major elements of the cytoplasm?
Cytosol / Organelles / Inclusions
What process establishes the resting membrane potential?
Diffusion of ions, mainly the diffusion of K⁺ from the cell through leakage channels, establishes the resting membrane potential
What is a phagosome?
Eaten Body / Vesicle that fuses with a lysosome to have its contents digested
How does the resting membrane potential come about?
Diffusion causes ionic imbalances that polarize the membrane
How does Cartilage receive its nutrients?
Diffusion from blood vessels located in the connective tissue layer (perichondrium) surrounding it
What are the two stages of Prophase?
Early Prophase / Late Prophase
What happens in S Phase?
DNA is replicated / New histones are made and assembled into chromatin / Ensures correct mitotic phase
During what phase of the cell cycle is DNA synthesized?
DNA is synthesized during the Synthetic (S) Phase
What is the role of DNA in transcription?
DNA provides the coded instructions for protein synthesis via the mRNA synthesized on it / Acts as the template
What fixes the damaged DNA replication?
DNA repair mechanism
What is transcription?
DNA's information is encoded in mRNA
Define Necrosis
Death of a cell or group of cells due to injury or disease
The Reticular lamina is ___ to the basal lamina
Deep
What is the process that responds to Stimuli in neurons?
Dendrites
What is scar tissue?
Dense Connective Tissue
What 2 distinct modifications make Simple Columnar Epithelia ideal for digestive tract lining?
Dense Microvilli on the Apical surface of absorptive cells / Tubular glands made primarily of cells that secrete mucus-containing intestinal juice
What are the three types of Dense Connective Tissue?
Dense Regular / Dense Irregular / Elastic
What type of connective tissue is damaged when you cut your index finger tendon?
Dense Regular Connective Tissue
What are Nucleoli?
Dense spherical bodies in the cell nucleus involved with ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis and ribosomal subunit assembly
The Nuclear Envelope process is energy ________ and guided by ________ transport proteins
Dependent / Soluble
Which two types of cell junctions would you expect to find between muscle cells of the heart?
Desmosomes / Gap Junctions
Where is Contact Signaling important?
Development / Immunity
What does structural variation mean?
Different organells come to predominate in different cells
What are the 3 types of Passive Transport?
Diffusion / Facilitated Diffusion / Osmosis
What are the three primary germ layers?
Ectoderm / Mesoderm / Endoderm
What are the 4 functions of the Lysosomes?
Digesting particles taken in by endocytosis, particularly ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins / Degrading stressed or dead cells and worn out or nonfunctional organelles through Autophagy / Performing metabolic functions / Breaking down bone to release calcium ions into the blood
What two major roles do cellular secretions perform?
Digestion / Lubrication
What is a hypotonic solution?
Dilute / Lower concentration of non-penetrating solutes
The energy is provided ____ in Primary Active Transport
Directly
Where does the energy come from in Primary Active Transport?
Directly from Hydolysis of ATP by transport proteins known as PUMPS
What does the nucleoplasm contain?
Dissolved Salts / Nutrients / Other Essential Solutes
What is the function of Extracellular Fluid (ECF)?
Dissolves and transports substances in the body
What do "guy-wires" do?
Distribute tension throughout a cellular sheet and reduce the chance of the sheet tearing when it is subjected to pulling forces
How do Vesicles in Exocytosis bind to the Plasma membrane?
Docking Process / Transmembrane proteins on the vesicle known as v-snares attach to t-snares and binding them together
Define the Pericardium
Double layered sac enclosing the hear and forming its superficial layer / has fibrous and serous layers
What are Autophagosomes?
Double-membrane vesicles used during the process of autophagy
Endocrine glands are also known as
Ductless glands
Define Endocrine Glands
Ductless glands that empty their hormonal products directly into the blood
When are Proteasome activity critical?
During starvation when the complexes degrade preexisting proteins to provide amino acids for synthesis of new and needed proteins
When does Mesenchyme arise?
During the early weeks of embryonic development and eventually differentiates into all other connective tissue cells
What is the function of the polyribosome?
Efficiently produces multiple copies of the same protein
What proteins are abundant in Elastic fibers?
Elastin
What is Voltage?
Electrical potential energy resulting from the separation of oppositely charged particles
Where are Gap Junctions commonly found?
Electrically excitable tissue / Heart and Smooth Muscle where ion passage from cell to cell helps synchronize their electrical activity and contraction
What 3 key roles do Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAMs) in the body?
Embryonic Development / Wound Repair / Immunity
Define Endoderm
Embryonic germ layer / forms the lining of the digestive tube and its associated structures
Define Ectoderm
Embyonic germ layer / forms the epidermis of the skin and its derivatives and nervous tissue
What two ways can a gland release their product?
Endocrine (Internally secreting) / Exocrine (externally secreting)
What is the vesicle involved in Pinocytosis?
Endosome
What are the two unique Squamous Epithelia?
Endothelium / Mesothelium
Where are key places that hyaline is found?
Ends of bones as articular cartilage / tip of the nose / connects ribs to the sternum / most of the respiratory system passage (trachea) / makes up most of the embryonic skeleton before bones form
Where does the energy come from in Secondary Active Transport?
Energy stored in concentration gradients of ions created by primary active transport pumps.
What substances are taken up in Receptor Mediated endocytosis?
Enzymes / Insulin / Some Hormones / Low density lipoproteins (such as cholesterol) / Iron
What are the other roles of Transmembrane proteins?
Enzymes / Receptors for Hormones
What happens to the cyclins at the end of mitosis?
Enzymes destroy the cyclins / the process begins again
What is the skeletal hyaline carrtilage called during childhood?
Epiphyseal Plates
What tissue are still highly mitotic in adults?
Epithelia / Blood forming Tissues
What are the 4 general types of tissue?
Epithelial / Connective / Muscle / Nervous
What tissue regenerate extremely well?
Epithelial Tissue / Bone or Osseous Tissue / Areolar Connective Tissue / Dense Irregular Connective Tissue / Blood Forming Tissue
Epithelial tissue is the only tissue type that has polarity, that is, an apical and a basal surface. Why is this important?
Epithelial tissue lines body cavities and covers the body's external surface / thus polarity with one free (apical) surface is a requirement
What is the point that Diffusion must reach to stop?
Equilibrium
What are the vast majority of blood cells?
Eryhtrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
Where are Aquaporin channels abundantly found?
Erythrocytes / Kidney Tubule cells
Cell Division is ______ for body growth and tissue repair
Essential
Where do the Sugar Groups produced in the Rough ER eventually located?
Eventually will face the extracellular environment
Define Autopsy
Examination of the body, ts organs, and its tissues after death to determine the cause of death
What do Capillaries consist of?
Exclusively of endothelium and its exceptional thinness encourages the efficient exchange of nutrients and wastes between the bloodstream and surrounding tissue cells
What separates the Cutaneous membrane from the other epithelial membranes?
Exposed to air / dry membrane
What does the Fibrous Capsule do in Multicellular Exocrine Glands?
Extends into teh gland and divides it into lobes
What are the 3 major classes of extracellular materials?
Extracellular Fluid (ECF) / Cellular Secretions / Extracellular Matrix
What two characteristics do connective tissue share that set them apart from other primary tissue?
Extracellular Matrix / Common Origin
Define Basement Membrane
Extracellular material consisting of a basal lamina secreted by epithelial cells and a reticular lamina secreted by underlying connective tissue cells
What are immune responses?
Extremely specific responses that take longer to swing into action
What is glandular epithelium?
Fashions glands of the body
What does the G in the G Phases stand for?
Gap
What are Transcription factors?
Gene activating chemicals that stimulate histones at the gene transcription site to loosen
What does the abundant fat beneath the skin serve for the entire body?
General Nutrient needs
What is the centriole matrix best known for?
Generating microtubules and organizing the mitotic spindle in cell division
Define Marfan's Syndrome
Genetic disease resulting in abnormalities of connective tissues due to a defect in fibrillin
What are Proteasomes?
Giant "waste disposal" complexes composed of protein-digesting enzymes
Define Holocrine Glands
Glands that accumulate their secretions within their cells / secretions are discharged only upon rupture and death of the cell
Define Exocrine Glands
Glands that have ducts through which their secretions are carried to a particular site
Define merocrine glands
Glands that produce secretions intermittently / secretions do not accumulate in the gland
What happens when specific Cdk (Cyclin-dependent Kinases) and Cyclins join together?
Initiates enzymatic cascades needed for cell division
Which organelle has cis and trans faces?
Golgi Apparatus
What two components make up the extracellular matrix?
Ground Substance / Fibers
What are the three main components of Connective Tissues?
Ground substance / Fibers / Cells
What do oncogenes accelerate?
Growth
What types of chemical signals affect cell division?
Growth factors / Hormones
Define Hypertrophy
Growth of an organ or tissue due to an increase in the size of its cells
What phase are Cells that permanently stop dividing?
G₀ Phase
What are the 3 subphases of Interphase?
G₁ / S Phase / G₂
At what point does a damaged DNA replication stop?
G₂/M checkpoint
What type of mixture is the cytosol?
Has properties of both colloid and a true solution
What are tissues stained with in Transmission Electron Microscopy?
Heavy metal salts
What types of stains are used to stain tissues to be viewed with a transmission electron microscope?
Heavy metal salts are used
What are functions of the microfilament in nonmoving cells?
Help maintain cell shape and distribute tension throughout the cell
What is the role of Phagocytes in the body?
Help protect the body by ingesting and disposing of bacteria , foregin substances, dead tissue cells
What are the cell types found in blood?
Hemocytoblast / Hematopoietic stem cell
What 3 chemicals are found in the Mast cell's secretory granules
Heparin / Histamine / Proteases / Other enzymes
Epithelium has a ____ regenerative capacity
High
Where are stratified epithelia commonly found?
High abrasion areas where protection is important / Skin surface and the lining of the mouth
How does Temperature affect the Rate of Diffusion?
Higher temperatures increase the speed of molecular movement and means more rapid diffusion
What are Free Radicals?
Highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons that can scramble the structure of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
Define Neuron
Highly specialized nerve cells that generate and transmit electrical signals
What is the importance of the histone proteins present in the nucleus?
Histone proteins provide the means to pack DNA in a compact, orderly way, and they play a role in gene regulation
What are connexons?
Hollow cylinders composed of transmembrane proteins
What does the Golgi Apparatus look like?
Hollow dinner plates with swarms of membranous vesicles
Define Liposomes
Hollow microscopic sacs formed of phospholipids that can be filled with a variety of drugs
**APPLY While examining a multicellular exocrine gland under the microscope, you notice that there are many cells in metaphase. Is this gland a merocrine or holocrine gland? Explain.
Holocrine / Holocrine glands have the highest rate of cell division / The secretory cells rupture when they secrete so they must be continuously replaced
What are the three phases of Translation?
Initiation (Translation) / Elongation (Translation) / Termination (Translation)
What do Endocrine Glands secrete through exocytosis?
Hormones
What is the most noticeable difference in all connective tissue?
How richly they are supplied by blood vessels
What is the most abundant cartilage in the body?
Hyaline Cartilage
What are the 3 types of Cartilage?
Hyaline Cartilage / Elastic Cartilage / Fibrocartilage
What do Oxidases convert free radicals to?
Hydrogen Peroxide
What happens to proteins that are marked with Ubiquitins?
Hydrolyzed to small peptides by proteasomes
If a cell ejects or loses its nucleus, what is its fate and why?
If a cell loses its nucleus, it is doomed to die because it will be unable to make proteins, which include enzymes needed for all metabolic reactions
What do determines if an organelle is membranous or not?
If it has a membrane
What are the three steps of Tissue Repair?
Inflammation / Organization / Regeneration
What do the cells of Malignant Neoplasts resemble?
Immature cells that invade their surroundings
Define Macrophage
Immune cell type common in connective tissue, lymphoid tissue, and many body organs / phagocytizes tissue cells, bacteria, and other foreign debris / presents antigens to T cells in the immune response
Where is Transcytosis common? Why?
In Endothelial cells lining blood vessels / Provides a quick means to get substances from the blood to interstitial fluid
How do the two types of facilitated diffusion differ?
In channel mediated diffusion the diffusing substance moves through a channel protein / In carrier mediated diffusion the diffusing substance attaches to a carrier protein that moves it across the membrane
Where are cilia mainly located?
In large numbers, on the exposed surfaces of certain cells
What toxins often invade the cell using Receptor Mediated Endocytosis?
Influenza Virus / Diptheria / Cholera
What are three characteristics of Channel Proteins?
Inhibited by Certain Molecules / Show Saturation / Tend to be specific
Where are the "seeds" of cancer found?
In our own genes
Where is Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium found?
In the ducts of some of the larger glands
Where are tight junctions found?
In the epithelial cells that line the digestive tract
What are Condensed Chromatin?
Inactive Chromatin segments
What are the major role of Microvilli?
Increase the plasma membrane surface of absorptive cells
The energy is provided ____ in Secondary Active Transport
Indirectly
How do G protein-coupled receptors exert their effect?
Indirectly through a G protein
Define Goblet Cells
Individual cells that produce mucus
What does the Ubiquitin-proteasome pathway handle?
Individual proteins that are misfolded, damaged, or unneeded and must be disposed of
What is a common example of Dysplasia?
Infections
Why can Water pass through the Bilipid Membrane?
It is extremely small in size
Why is the Rough ER known as the Membrane Factory?
It is where integral proteins and phospholipids that form part of all cellular membranes are manufactured
What role does cholesterol play in the Lipid Bilayer?
It lays between the Phospholipid tails to stiffen the membrane
What does it mean that a benign neoplasm is a strictly local affair?
It remains compacted / Often encapsulated / Tend to grow slowly / Seldom kill their hosts if removed before they compress vital organs
Why is Telomerase referred as the Immortality enzyme?
Its ability to lengthen previously shortened telomeres
Why is Areolar Connective Tissue viscous?
Its high concentration of hyaluronic acid
Why is Adipose Tissue richly vascularized?
Its high metabolic activity
What are the 2 Major functions of the Rough ER?
Its ribosomes manufacture proteins secreted from cell / "Membrane Factory"
What is nucleoplasm?
Jellylike fluid located in the nuclear envelope in which other nuclear elements are suspended
Why is Passive Transport so important?
Keeps the cell from expending enormous amounts of ATP
The epidermis of the skin is _____
Keratinized
What are the two new strands known as during the third sequence of DNA replication?
Leading / Lagging
What are the two types of Channels?
Leakage / Gated
What cells in the body secrete hyaluronidase to liquefy the ground substance and ease their passage to get to disease causing microoganisms?
Leukocytes
What are the other types of Blood Cells?
Leukocytes / Platelets
Define Malignant
Life threatening / pertains to neoplasms that spread and lead to death / Cancer / Bad
How can we imagine Elongation phase in Translation?
Like a train track
How do Motor Proteins act?
Like train engines moving substances along on the microtubular "railroad tracks" / Move "hand over hand" somewhat like an orangutan - gripping releasing and then gripping again at a new site further along the microtubule
What does the inner nuclear envelope do?
Lined with the nuclear lamina that maintains the shape of the nucleus and acts as a scaffold to organize DNA in the nucleus
Where are Simple Columnar Epithelia found?
Lining the Digestive Tract from the stomach through the rectum
What two characteristics determine if a substance can cross the plasma membrane?
Lipid Solubility / Size
What is the Cytoskeleton?
Literally cell skeleton / An elaborate series of structural proteins running through the cytosol, supporting cellular structures and providing the machinery to generate various cell movements
What is a simpler way to say Organelles?
Little organs
What Organ produces the most Blood Proteins?
Liver
Exocrine Glands include:
Liver / Pancreas / Mucous Glands / Sweat Glands / Oil Glands / Salivary Glands
Where are Peroxisomes especially numerous?
Liver Cells / Kidney Cells
What do the small deposits of fat serve for the body?
Local nutrient needs of highly active organs
What makes RNA different from DNA?
Located in the cytoplasms vs nucleus / Uracil vs Thymine / Single Stand vs Double Helix
Mucosa refers to the ____ of the membrane NOT its cell _______
Location / Composition
Which organelle has major site of ATP synthesis?
Mitochondria
What two types of Cells are "Experts" at Phagocytosis?
Macrophages / Certain Leukocytes
What is Receptor Mediated Endocytosis?
Main mechanism for the specific endocytosis and transcytosis of most macromolecules by body cells
Where is brown fat found in babies? Why?
Mainly on the back / They lack the ability to produce body heat by shivering
What is the function of the Mature cytes cells?
Maintain the health of the matrix
What do free ribosomes do?
Make soluble proteins that function in the cytosol, the mitochondria, and other organelles
Cancers are ____ neoplasms
Malignant
What are among the largest cells in the body?
Mature Adipocytes
What type of cells are anucleate?
Mature Red Blood Cells
What happens if oncogenes "switch on" dormant genes?
May allow cells to become invasive and metastasize
What do histones provide?
Means for packing the very long DNA molecules in a compact, orderly way but they also play an important role in gene regulation
What do the motor proteins of the Peripheral proteins do?
Mechanical Functions / Changing cell shape during cell division / Muscle Cell contraction
Which cell division process produces sex cells?
Meiosis
What are Glycolipids?
Membrane carbohydrates attached to the lipids in the membrane
What are Glycoproteins?
Membrane carbohydrates attached to the proteins in the membrane
What is the fluid mosaic model?
Membrane structure that depicts the plasma membrane as an exceedingly thin structure composed of a double layer (bilayer) of lipid molecules with protein molecules "plugged into" or dispersed in it
Define Mucous membranes
Membranes that form the linings of body caivities oopen to the exterior (digestive tracts / respiratory tracts / urinary tracts / reproductive tracts)
What the Endoplasmic Reticulum?
Membranous network of tubular or saclike channels (cisterns) in the cytoplasm of a cell
What are Peroxisomes?
Membranous sacs in cytoplasm containing powerful oxidase enzymes that use molecular oxygen to detoxify harmful or toxic substances, such as free radicals
What is the Golgi Apparatus?
Membranous system close to the cell nucleus that packages protein secretions for export, packages enzymes into lysosomes for cellular use, and modifies proteins destined to become part of cellular membranes
What are the three modes of secretion of Multicellular Exocrine Glands?
Merocrine / Holocrine / Apocrine
What is the most common mode of secretion?
Merocrine glands
What is the common origin of all connective tissues?
Mesenchyme (Embryonic Tissue)
What are the three forms of RNA?
Messenger RNA (mRNA) / Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) / Transfer RNA (tRNA)
What would be more accurate names for Interphase?
Metabolic Phase / Growth Phase
What 5 roles do the enzymes play in the Smooth ER?
Metabolize, Synthesize cholesterol and phospholipids, synthesize the lipid components of lipoproteins (In Liver Cells) / Synthesize steroid-based hormones such as Sex Hormones / Detoxify drugs, certain pesticides, and cancer causing chemicals (in Liver and Kidneys) / Break down stored Glycogens to form free Glucose (In Liver Cells) / Store Calcium ions in most Cell types
What is the capability of malignant cells travelling to other parts of the body?
Metastasis
What are the 2 other types of RNA that do not synthesize proteins?
MicroRNAs / Small interfering RNAs
Which organelle moves organelles within cell using motor proteins?
Microtubule
How does the Centrosome act as?
Microtubule Organizing Center
What is a centriole?
Minute body found in pairs near the nucleus of the cell; active in cell division
What often happens when infants with osteogenesis imperfecta are taken to the ER?
Misdiagnosed and treated as Battered babies
Which organelle contains its own DNA?
Mitochondria
What two distinct events are a part of the Mitotic Phase?
Mitosis / Cytokinesis
What is the Golgi Apparatus major function?
Modify, concentrate, and package the proteins and lipids made at the rough ER and destined for export from the cell
What do tight junctions help prevent?
Molecules from passing through the extracellular space between adjacent cells and restrict the movements of membrane proteins
The higher the Glycosaminoglycan content, the (more or less) viscous the ground substance
More
Bigger Cells require (more or less?) nutrients which must pas through proportionally (more or less?) surface area as the cell grows.
More / Less
Why does a deep injury to the skin result in abundant scar tissue?
More severe injuries damage and destroy more tissue, requiring greater replacement with scar tissue
Define Fibrocartilage
Most resistant to compression and stretch / forms vertebral discs and knee joint cartilage
What is the concentration gradient?
Movement from an area of high concentration down or along to an area of low concentration
How do you describe the role of muscle tissue in one word?
Moves
Secondary Active Transport ALWAYS:
Moves more than one substance at a time using a Cotransport Protein
What is Vesicular trafficking?
Moving substances from one area (or membranous organelle) in the cell to another
What is Transcytosis?
Moving substances into across and then out of the cell
What do all Unicellular Glands universally produce in human cells?
Mucin
What are the two most important Unicellular glands?
Mucous Cells / Goblet Cells
What do ciliated Psuedostratified Columnar Epithelia in the lungs contain?
Mucus-secreting Goblet cells
What 2 types of excitable cells need the ionic concentration differences?
Muscle / Nerve
What are Skeletal muscle cells also called?
Muscle Fibers
Define Skeletal Muscle
Muscle composed of cylindrical multinucleate cell with obvious striations / the muscle(s) attached to the body's skeleton / voluntary muscle
Define Involuntary Muscle
Muscle that cannot ordinarily be controlled voluntarily
What do the Harmful factors do to normal cells that can turn them into Cancer cells?
Mutations- Changes in DNA that alter the expression of certain genes
What are examples of Ligands?
Neurotransmitters / Hormones / Paracrines
What are Oxidases most important function?
Neutralize free radicals
Are extended chromatin visible under a light microscope?
No
Simple diffusion and osmosis occurring directly through the plasma membrane are ____ specific or saturable processes.
NOT
The inside of the cell is slightly ___
Negative
What are acidic stains full of?
Negatively charged molecules
What is an Adenoma?
Neoplasm of glandular epithelium
Apoptosis is particularly common in the developing ___ system
Nervous
What is the main component of the nervous system?
Nervous Tissue
What cells never reproduce once they are fully mature?
Nervous Tissue / Skeletal Muscle / Heart Muscle
What do Peripheral Proteins include?
Network of filaments / Enzymes / Motor Proteins / Links the cells together
What diseases are related to problems with Autophagy?
Neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's / Parkinsons)
What are intermediate filaments known as in Nerve Cells? Epithelial Cells?
Neurofilaments / Keratin Filaments
What are the two major cell types of Nervous Tissue?
Neuron / Supporting Cells
Where are reticular tissue particularly abundant?
Next to other tissue types / Basement membrane of epithelial tissue / around capillaries
How does the availability of space affect cell division?
Normal cells stop proliferating when they reach contact inhibition
Define Benign
Not Harmful / Not Malignant / Kindly
Where is the apical surface found?
Not attached to surrounding tissue / Exposed either the outside of the body or the cavity of an internal organ / borders open space
What are the three recognizable regions or structures of the nucleus?
Nuclear Envelope / Nucleoli / Chromatin
What is the nuclear envelope punctured with?
Nuclear Pores
What are the three events occurring in prophase that are undone in telophase?
Nuclear envelope breaks up / spindle forms / nucleoli disappear / the chromosomes coil and condense
What is the largest organelle in the cell?
Nucleus
What does White Fat store?
Nutrients for other cells
What happens during the Initiation phase of Translation?
Occurs when 4 components combine at the P-site
Why is Protection not a concern for Simple Epithelia?
Often very thin
Polymerases only work in ____ direction
One
The ribosome has ____ binding site(s) for mRNA and _____ binding site(s) for tRNA
One / Three
How many layers do simple epithelia have?
One Layer
What is a gene?
One of the biological units of heredity located in DNA; transmits hereditary information
What are Microfilaments?
One of three types of cytoskeletal elements; thin strands of the protein actin
What are Microtubules?
One of three types of cytosketal elements; hollow tubes made of the spherical protein tubulin
What is Interphase?
One of two major periods in the cell life cycle includes the period from cell formation to cell division
Define Mitotic Phase
One of two major periods in the cell life cycle; involves the division of the nucleus and the division of the cytoplasm
What does Unicellular mean?
One-cell
Why are synovial membranes not considered a part of the covering and lining membranes?
Only consist of Connective Tissue
Where do exocrine glands secrete?
Onto body surfaces / into body cavities
Define Gland
Organ specialized to secrete substances for further use in the body or excrete substances for elimination
What are Lysosomes?
Organelles that originate from the golgi apparatus and contain strong digestive enzymes
What are small interfering RNAs?
Originate outside the cell / interfere with viral replication
Why is blood classified as connective tissue?
Originates from Mesenchyme / Consists of Blood Cells and a Nonliving fluid matrix
Where does the DNA Molecule begin?
Origins of Replication
What do microtubules look like with their attachments?
Ornaments hanging from Tree Branches
What is bone tissue also known as?
Osseous Tissue
What produces the organic portion of the Extracellular matrix in Bone / Osseous Tissue?
Osteoblasts
What are the cells found in Bone / Osseous Tissue?
Osteoblasts / Osteocytes
What cell type is found in Bone?
Osteoblasts / Osteocytes
What do Mast Cells do?
Oval cells detect foreign microorganisms and initiate local inflammatory responses against them
What are the two most important enzymes found in Peroxisomes?
Oxidase / Catalases
What types of molecules can pass through the Bilipid Membrane using Simple Diffusion?
Oxygen / Carbon Dioxide / Steroid Hormones / Fatty Acids / Small Nonpolar molecules
***MAKE CONNECTIONS It has been observed that aging cartilage tends to calcify o ossify and its cells die. What survival needs are not being met in these cells and why is this so?
Oxygen and nutrient needs are not being met because the calcified cartilage matrix is too hard to allow them to reach the cells by diffusion. Remember, cartilage is avascular
What uses Merocrine glands?
Pancreas / Most Sweat Glands / Salivary Glands
What do Simple Epithelia form in the Kidneys?
Part of the Filtration membrane that filters blood to make urine
What are the two types of ways substances move through the plasma membrane?
Passively / Actively
What is an example of severely damaged cell that has a failed plasma membrane?
Patients with severe burns
Define epithelium
Pertaining to a primary tissue that covers the body surfaces, lines its internal cavities, and forms glands
What are cells that use phagocytosis also known as?
Phagocytes
Where are Lysosomes abundant?
Phagocytes
Phagocytosis cells gather in the lungs, particularly in the lungs of smokers. What is the connection?
Phagocytic cells engulf debris and a smoker's lungs would be laden with carbon particles and other debris from smoke inhalation
What are the three types of Endocytosis?
Phagocytosis / Pinocytosis / Receptor Mediated
Where are Stratified Columnar Epithelium?
Pharynx / Male Urethra / Lining some glandular ducts / transition areas or junctions
What is the function of smooth muscle?
Propels substances or objects along internals passageways / involuntary control
What is the Mitochondrial Theory?
Places the blame on damage caused by free radicals, resulting in diminished energy production by damaged mitochondria
What are the 3 major components that all human cells have at one point?
Plasma Membrane / Cytoplasm / Nucleus
What type of membrane lines the thoracic walls and covers the lungs? What is is called?
Pleurae line the thorax walls and cover the lungs
The plasma membrane is ______ due to ions
Polar
Water is (Polar / Nonpolar)
Polar
Why are the blood vessels weakened in Marfan's syndrome?
Poor connective tissue reinforcement
Dense connective tissue is
Poorly vascularized
Why are Channels selective?
Pore Size / The Charges of Amino Acids lining the pores
The outside of the cell is slightly ____
Positive
What are basic stains full of?
Positively charged molecules
What is autopsy also known as?
Postmortem Examination / Necropsy
What ion mainly determines the resting membrane potential?
Potassium (K⁺)
What two ways does the cilia move?
Power Stroke / Recovery Stroke
What are Artifacts?
Preserved tissue under the microscope that has been exposed to many procedures that alter its original condition and introduce minor distortions
What are the Two types of Active Transport (Specific)?
Primary Active Transport / Secondary Active Transport
Define Mesoderm
Primary germ layer that forms the skeleton and muscles of the body
What is the Golgi Apparatus known as?
Principal "Traffic Director" for cellular proteins
Define Mitosis
Process during which the chromosomes are redistributed to two daughter nuclei; nuclear division
What is Autolysis?
Process of autodigestion (self digestion) of cells, especially dead or degenerate cells
What do Chondroblasts do?
Produce new matrix until the skeleton stops growing at the end of adolescence
What are the 2 major functions of the Endomembrane System?
Produce, Degrade, Store, and Export biological molecules / Degrade potentially harmful substances
What is another way to say Apoptosis?
Programmed Cell Death
Define Fibosis
Proliferation of fibrous connective tissue called scar tissue
What are Proteoglycans?
Protein cores to which large polysaccharides called glycosaminoglycans are attached / The strandlike glycosaminoglycans stick out from protein core like the fibers of a bottle brush / they tend to form huge aggregates in which the glycosaminoglycans intertwine and trap water, forming a substance that varies from a fluid to a viscous gel
What are Proteases?
Protein-degrading enzymes
What is the Extracellular matrix composed of?
Proteins / Polysaccharides
What solutes are found in the cytosol?
Proteins / Salts / Sugars
What are Ubiquitins?
Proteins that attach to other proteins to mark them for destruction
What are cell adhesion proteins?
Proteins that serve mainly as a connective tissue glue that allows connective tissue cells to attach to the extracellular matrix
What allows Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) to function?
Proteins working with it form functional ribosomes which are the sites of protein synthesis
What is the role of Hyaline Cartilage in the body?
Provides firm support with some pliability
What do the Glycocalyx do?
Provides identity molecules - specific biological markers by which approaching cells recognize each other
What type of Epithelia is similar in function to the Simple Columnar Epithelia?
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelia
Some epithelia are psuedostratified. What does this mean?
Psuedostratified epithelia appear to be stratified because their cells' nuclei lie at different distances from the basement membrane. However, all cell rest on the basement membrane
What happens during the Initiation phase of Transcription?
RNA polymerase binds to the promoter, pries apart the two DNA strands and initiates mRNA synthesis at the start point within the promoter region
What happens during the Elongation phase of Transcription?
RNA polymerase moves along the template strand, joining together RNA nucleotides complementary to the DNA. It elongates the mRNA transcript one nucleotide at a time, unwinding the DNA double helix in front and rewinding it behind
Where are most Microtubules located?
Radiate from a small region of cytoplasm near teh nucleus called the centrosome or cell center
What is an Erythrocyte?
Red Blood Cell
Define Atrophy
Reduction in size or wasting away of an organ or cell resulting from disease or lack of use
How are Multicellular Exocrine glands classified?
Structure / Mode of Secretion
What is the Elaborate Smooth ER that is found in Skeletal and Cardiac muscle known as?
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
Any transport process that depends on a transport protein (such as carrier or channel) will be __________.
Saturable
How are Glucose carriers described when they are "engaged"?
Saturated
What are used to repair damaged Nervous Tissue / Skeletal Muscle / Heart Muscle?
Scar Tissue
Where are unicellular glands found?
Scattered within epithelial sheets
Define Pathology
Scientific study of changes in organs and tissues produced by disease
What are the only true examples of Holocrine glands?
Sebacious (Oil) Glands
At which sequence in DNA replication is the Replication Fork found?
Second Sequence
Define Metaphase
Second stage of mitosis / The chromosomes align in the center between the two poles of the cell
What is the function of the Immature blast cell?
Secrete the ground substance and the fiber characteristic of their particular matrix
How do Merocrine Glands secrete?
Secrete their products by exocytosis sas they are produced
What are the 2 important functions of Simple Cuboidal Epithelium?
Secretion / Absorption
What is the function of Psuedostratified Columnar Epithelia?
Secretions / Absorption
Where is the Rough ER abundant and well developed?
Secretory Cells / Antibody Producing Immune Cells / Liver Cells
What is a Alveolar secretory unit?
Secretory cells that form small, flatlike sacs
What is a tubular secretory unit?
Secretory cells that form tubes
What is a Tubuloalveolar unit?
Secretory cells that have both Tubular and Alveolar characteristics
What do mast cells contain in the cytoplasm?
Secretory granules with chemicals that mediate inflammation (especially in sever allergies)
What is the acinus?
Secretory unit consisting of secretory cells
The nuclear envelope is _____ _____
Selectively Permeable
Define Autophagy
Self Eating
What is the second sequence of DNA replication?
Seperation / The two DNA strands separate as the hydrogen bonds between base pairs are broken
What is the Cell Cycle?
Series of changes a cell goes through from the time it is formed until it has reproduced itself
What is the lubricating fluid between the parietal and visceral layers?
Serous Fluid
Define the Peritoneum
Serous membrane lining the interior of the abdominal cavity and covering the surfaces of abdominal organs
What are the roles of Liposomes?
Serve as multipurpose vehicles for drugs, genetic material, and cosmetics
What is the primary role of reticular fibers?
Serve as the internal framework that supports many free blood cells in lymph nodes, the spleen , and bone marrow
What is the general role of Areolar Connective Tissue?
Serves as universal packing material between other tissues / binds body parts together while allowing them to move freely over one another
It takes _____ genetic changes to transform a normal cell into a cancerous cell
Several
What does Adipose Tissue act as?
Shock Absorber / Insulation / Energy Storage Site
Define Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Short chain RNA molecules that transfer amino acids to the ribosome
What is the most important example of Primary Active Transport System?
Sodium - Potassium Pump
What do histone proteins do in nondividing cells?
Shut down the nearby DNA
What guides the signal sequence to the appropriate receptor sites?
Signal Recognition Particle (SRP)
What is a Ligand?
Signaling chemicals that bind specifically to membrane receptors
What do you call signaling chemicals that bind to membrane receptors? Which type of membrane receptor is most important in directing intracellular events by promoting formation of second messengers?
Signaling chemicals that bind to membrane receptors are called ligands. G protein-coupled receptors direct intracellular events by promoting formation of second messengers
What is Extracellular Matrix of Bone / Osseous Tissue?
Similar to Cartilage but is harder and more rigid
What are the two structural classifications of Multicellular Exocrine Glands?
Simple / Compound
What tissue combination makes up Serosa Membrane?
Simple Squamos Epithelium Tissue + A thin layer of areolar connective tissue
Stratified epithelia are "built" for protection or to resist abrasion. What are the simple epithelia better at?
Simple epithelia are "built" to provide for efficient absorption and filtration across their thin epithelial barriers
Define Endothelium
Single layer of simple squamos cells that line the walls of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels
What does the Exit (E)-site do?
Site for outgoing tRNA
What are the three kinds of muscle tissue?
Skeletal / Cardiac / Smooth
What cells are commonly multinucleate?
Skeletal Muscle Cells / Bone Destruction Cells / Liver Cells
What tissue have a weak capacity for regeneration?
Skeletal Muscle Tissue / Cartilage Tissue
Which muscle type(s) is voluntary? Which is injured when you pull a muscle while exercising?
Skeletal Muscle tissue is voluntary and injured when you "pull a muscle" while exercising
Where do the mot common cancers originate?
Skin / Colon / Lung / Breast / Prostate
Where are desmosomes common?
Skin and Heart Muscle
What are three mechanical defenses of tissue to the body's external boundaries?
Skin and Mucosae / Cilia of Epithelial Cells lining the respiratory tract / Strong Acid produced by stomach glands
What is the tissue response to Vacuum assisted closure?
Skin stretches leading to fibroblasts in the wound form more collagen tissue and new blood vessels proliferate, bringing more blood into the injured area, which also promotes healing
Injured cartilage heals ___
Slowly
What types of molecules pass through the nuclear envelope?
Small Molecules / Protein Molecules imported from the cytoplasm / RNA molecules exported from the nucleus
What are MicroRNAs?
Small RNAs that can interfere with and suppress mRNAs made by certain exons, effectively silencing them
What does "Areolar" mean in Latin?
Small open space
What are Organelles?
Small structures that perform specific cell functions
What are organelles?
Small subcellular structures that perform specific functions for the cell as a whole
What do centrioles look like?
Small, barrel shaped organelles oriented at right angles to each other
Each daughter cell is ___ and has (more/less) cytoplasm than the parent cell and it genetically ____
Smaller / Less / Identical
How does Molecular Size affect the Rate of Diffusion?
Smaller molecules diffuse more rapidly
What are the characteristics of the outer shell of Mitochondria?
Smooth / Featureless
Which organelle has a site of steroid hormone synthesis?
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Which organelle has cisterns?
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum / Golgi Apparatus / Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
What are the two types of Involuntary muscle?
Smooth Muscle / Cardiac Muscle
What tissue have a moderate capacity for regeneration?
Smooth Muscle Tissue / Dense Regular Connective Tissue
What are the two surfaces that Apical surfaces can have?
Smooth and Slick / Fuzzy with Microvilli or Cilia
Why must the DNA be replicated exactly?
So that identical copies of the cell's genes can be passed to each of the two resulting daughter cells
What is the Cation that is predominant outisde of the cell?
Sodium (Na⁺)
What are the "fibers" found in blood?
Soluble protein molecules that precipitate, forming visible fiberlike structures during blood clotting
What 2 factors affect Tonacity?
Solute Concentration / Solute Permeability of the Plasma Membrane
What two ways do peroxisomes form?
Some by pinching in half / Most by budding off of the Endoplasmic Reticulum via a special ER machinery that differs from that used for vesicles destined for modification in the Golgi Apparatus
What types of molecules can travel across the membrane using Active Transport?
Some sugars / amino acids / many ions
Define Intercalated discs
Specialized connections between myocardinal cells containing gap junction and desmosomes
Each membrane pump or cotransporter transports only ______ substances
Specific
What are two important characteristics of any transport process?
Specificity / Saturability
What is the only flagellated human cell?
Sperm
What do Peroxisomes look like?
Spherical Membranous sacs containing a variety of powerful enzymes
What is the function of Cartilage?
Stands up to both tension and compression / tough but flexible / provides resilient rigidity to the structures it supports
What is the significance of AUG?
Start codon
Define Hormones
Steroidal or amino acid based molecules released to the blood that act as chemical messengers to regulate specific body functions
What happens when a tissue is penetrated and injured?
Stimulation of inflammatory and immune responses which wage their battles largely in the connective tissue of the body
What do adipocytes do?
Store energy as fat
What are examples of inclusions?
Stored nutrients (Glycogen granules in liver and muscle cells) / Lipid droplets in fat cells / Pigment (Melanin) granules in certain skin and hair cells
What does the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum do?
Stores Calcium and releases it as a trigger for contraction
What are Chromatin?
Strands of DNA (genes) and associated proteins; forms chromosomes when condensed (tightly coiled)
What is the most widespread of the stratified epithelia?
Stratified Squamos Epithelia
Most mucosae membrane contain what types of epithelial tissue?
Stratified Squamos Epithelia / Simple Columnar Epithelia
Cell specialization leads to ___ variation
Structural
**APPLY Consider a plasma membrane glycoprotein. Describe the protein's path through the cell to the plasma membrane starting with its synthesis on the ribosome
Synthesized by a ribosome attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Carbohydrates are attached to the protein in the cisterns of the rough ER, making it a glycoprotein. The glycoprotein is incorporated into a vesicle that migrates from the ER to the golgi apparatus. Its carbohydrate may be modified or added to within the Golgi. It then exits from the trans face of the Golgi as part of a vesicle that migrates to and fuses with the plasma membrane. This membrane fusion results in the carbohydrate of the glycoprotein facing the outer surface of the plasma membrane
What does the S in S Phase stand for?
Synthetic
Over half of all cancers involve malfunction or loss of _____
TP53
What is a flagella commonly called?
Tail
Which vesicular transport process allows a cell to take in cholesterol from the extracellular fluid?
Taken in by receptor mediated endocytosis
What do columnar cells look like?
Tall and column shaped
What three structures do Dense Regular Connective Tissue form?
Tendons / Aponeuroses / Ligaments
What does Tono- mean?
Tension
How do the A, P, and E ribosomal sites differ functionally during protein synthesis?
The A site is the entry site for tRNA at the ribosome / The P site is where the tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide is located / the E site is the tRNA exit site from the ribosome
What do lysosomes function make their nickname?
The Demolition Crew
Where are the Enzymes found on the Rough ER?
The External (Cystolic) face of the ER membrane (where the needed substrates are readily available)
What is the most abundant extracellular material?
The Extracellular Matrix
Why is the Plasma membrane a Physical barrier to diffusion?
The Hydrophobic Core
What does the extent to which the solutes decrease water concentration depend on?
The NUMBER of solute particles
As a cell grows, its plasma membrane expands. Does this membrane expansion involve endocytosis or exocystosis?
The Plasma membrane expands as a result of exocytosis
What is the Mitochondia known as?
The Power house of the cell
What the Cutaneous membrane?
The Skin
What does the extent to which the solute decrease water concentration NOT depend on?
The TYPE of solute particles
Where is Cardiac Muscle located?
The Walls of the Heart
Why is the way that Cilium moves wavelike?
The bending of one cilium is quickly followed by the bending of the next and then the next creating a current at the cell surface
What does having Stage 1 cancer mean?
The best probability of cure
What happens when an immature blast cell synthesize a particular matrix?
The blast cells matures to a cyte cell
How does hyperplasia cause Anemia?
The bone marrow produces red blood cells at a faster rate
What is the third step of Apoptosis?
The caspases unleash a torrent of digestive activity within the cell / initiates apoptosis
What happens in all 3 Subphases?
The cell grows by producing proteins and organelles
What are the 3 concepts of Cell Theory?
The cell is smallest unit of life / All organisms are made of one or more cells / Cells only arise from other cells
What is the difference in movement of a cell and a flagella?
The cell propels other substances across a cell's surface / flagellum propels the cell itself
What is the fifth step of Apoptosis?
The cell then sprouts "eat me" signals, releases chemical that attracts macrophages and is phagocytized
What makes the cells in blood different from the other cells
The cells are not located in "its" tissue and does not make the fluid matrix of that tissue
What is the cytoplasm?
The cellular material surrounding the nucleus and enclosed by the plasma membrane
What happens when a cell is about to form cilia?
The centrioles multiply and line up beneath the plasma membrane at the cell's (free/exposed) surface / Microtubules then sprout from each centriole forming the ciliary projections by exerting pressure on the plasma membrane
What makes the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum "rough"?
The external surface is studded with ribosomes
Why is adipose tissue so important in the body?
The fat stores allow humans to survive a few days without eating
What four events happen during the Organization step of Tissue Repair?
The clot is replaced by the ingrowth of fragile capillaries that are characteristic of granulation tissue. This restores the vascular supply / Fibroblasts multiply and produce growth factors and collagen fibers that bridge the ap. When healing is complete, these fibroblasts revert to the redting stage or undergo apoptosis (cell suicide) / Macrophages phagocytize dead and dying cells and other debris / surface epithelial cells multiply and begin to migrate over the granulation tissue
What is the electrochemical gradient?
The combined difference in concentration and charge; influences the distribution and direction of diffusion of ions
What is an example of an antiport system?
The cotransporter uses the Na concentration gradient to pump H ions out of the cell to regulate the intracellular pH
What is the Wear and Tear Theory?
The cumulative effect of assaults, such as environmental toxins, leads to accelerated rates of cell death throughout the body
Define Cell Differentiation
The development of specific and distinctive features in cells, from a single cell (the fertilized egg) to all the specialized cells of adulthood
How does the Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function apply to cells?
The different cell types vary greatly in shape and size and dictate their functions
What is Osmosis?
The diffusion of a solvent (Usually water) through a membrane
Define Cytokinesis
The division of cytoplasm that occurs after the cell nucleus has divided
What is the Nuclear Envelope?
The double membrane barrier of a cell nucleus
What is the fourth step of Apoptosis?
The dying cell shrinks into a ball without leaking its contents into the surrounding tissue
What happens during the 2C Elongation phase of Translation?
The entire ribosome translocates, shifting its position one codon along the mRNA
Where are unicellular glands located?
The epithelial linings of the intestinal and respiratory tracts
Define Mesothelium
The epithelium found in serous membranes lining the ventral body cavity and covering its organs
What three events happen during the Regeneration step of Tissue Repair?
The fibrosed area matures and contracts, pulling the margins of the wound together / as it regenerates, the epithelium thickens under the scab, which detaches / a fully regenerated epithelium with an underlying area of scar tissue results. The scar may be visible as a white line depending on the severity of the wound
What constructs Collagen fibers?
The fibrous protein Collagen
Define Telephase
The final phase of mitosis / Begins when migration of chromosomes to the poles of the cell has been completed and end with the formation of two daughter nuclei
Define Prophase
The first stage of mitosis / The chromosomes become visible, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and a spindle forms
What is the epiglottis?
The flap that covers the opening to the respiratory passageway when swallowing
What is the Interstitial Fluid?
The fluid in the tissue that bathes all of our cells
What is blood?
The fluid within blood vessels / most atypical connective tissue
What is the matrix of the mitochondria?
The gel-like substance within the mitochondrion
What happens by the second month of embryonic development?
The general (primary) tissues have appeared / all major organs are in place
What does the nucleus contain?
The genetic instructions needed to build nearly all the body's proteins / dictates the kinds and amounts of proteins to be synthesized at one time in response to signals acting on the cell
How does Concentration affect the rate of Diffusion?
The greater the difference in concentration of the diffusing molecule or ions between the two areas, the more collisions occur and the faster the particles diffuse
What happens during the 2B Elongation phase of Translation?
The growing polypeptide bound to the tRNA at the P site is transferred to the amino acid carried by the tRNA in the A site / A new peptide bond is formed
What is the Replication Point?
The point at which the strands unzip
Define Translation
The information carried by mRNA is decoded and used to assemble polypeptides
What is translation?
The information carried by mRNA is decoded and used to assemble polypeptides
What is the Cytoplasm?
The intracellular fluid packed with organelles
What is the driving force for diffusion?
The intrinsic kinetic energy of the molecules
What happens in Translation?
The language of nucleic acids is translated into the language of proteins / The base sequence becomes the amino acid sequence
What is interstitial fluid?
The large amounts of fluid that functions as a molecular sieve through which nutrients and other dissolved substances can diffuse between the blood capillaries and the cells
What are three major protections against carcinogens?
The liver inactivates many carcinogens / cells have intrinsic DA repaid mechanisms to help undo mutations / Some immune system cells continuously scan our body cells and eliminate any cancerous cells they find
***APPLY Three patients are in intensive care because of damage and widespread cell death in three different organs. One patient has brain damage from a stroke, another has had a heart attack, and third has a damaged liver (a gland) due to a car accident. All of these patients WILL survive, but only one will regain full function through tissue regeneration in the damaged organ. Which one and why?
The liver is a gland that is derived from epithelial tissue. Epithelial tissue regenerates well. Nervous tissue in the brain and cardiac muscle exhibit virtually no functional regeneration
What is the most obvious structural feature of Areolar connective tissue?
The loose arrangement of fibers
Compare the function of lysosomes and peroxisomes?
The lysosomal enzymes digest foreign substances engulfed by the cell, nonuseful or deteriorating organelles, or even the cell itself to prevent the buildup of cellular debris. The enzymes in peroxisomes detoxify harmful chemicals and neutralize free radicals
The major function of cilia is to move substances across the free cell surface. What is the major role of microvilli?
The major function of the microvilli is to increase the cell's surface area for absorption of substances
What happens if the Cyte Cell matrix is damaged?
The mature cytes cell reverts back the blast form to repair and regenerate the matrix
What happens to the Plasma membrane when the cell is severely damaged?
The membrane becomes permeable to everything
What happens when a v-snare and t-snare bind together?
The membranes corkscrew together and fuse rearranging the lipid monolayers without mixing them
What is the first step of Apoptosis?
The mitochondrial membranes become permeable in response to internal or external signals
What is Lipid Solubility?
The more lipid soluble the more readily it will diffuse across
Define Areolar Connective Tissue
The most widely distributed connective tissue in the body
What is diffusion?
The movement of molecules or ions from an area where they are in higher concentration to an area where they are in a lower concentration
What is a polyribosome?
The multiple ribosome-mRNA complex
What keeps the cell from losing ALL of its Potassium through the leakage channels?
The negative charge of the Protein anions keep the Potassium attracted to stay inside the cell
What happens if equal volumes of aqueous solutions of different osmolarity are separated by a membrane that us permeable to ALL molecules?
The net diffusion of both solute and water occurs
PREDICT** Usually Na and Cl cannot cross the plasma membrane of cells. What would happen to a cell if it suddenly became permeable to both Na and Cl?
The non-penetrating solutes inside the cell would no longer be balanced by non-penetrating solutes outside the cell / The cell would swell and possibly lyse / Na Cl and Water would all rush into the cell
What distinguishes reticular tissue from areolar connective tissue?
The only fiber in the reticular tissue matrix are reticular fibers
What is a Plasma Membrane?
The outer boundary of the cell, which acts as a selectively permeable barrier
What are Covering and lining epithelium?
The outer layer of the skin / dips into and lines the open cavities of the urogenital, digestive, and respiratory systems / covers the walls and organs of the closed ventral body cavity
What do Microtubules determine?
The overall shape of the cell, as well as the distribution of cellular organelles
Define S Phase
The part of the interphase period of the cell cycle in which DNA replicates itself, ensuring that the two future cells will receive identical copies of genetic material
Define Secretion
The passage of material formed by a cell to its exterior / cell product that is transported to the exterior of a cell
What happens at Gap Junctions?
The plasma membranes are very close and the cells are connected by hollow cylinders (connexons) composed of transmembrane proteins
What is Chemical Signaling?
The process in which a LIGAND binds a specific receptor and initiates a response
What is apoptosis and what is its importance in the body?
The process of programmed cell death which rids the body of cells that are stressed, damaged, old, or no longer needed
What happens if the protein from TP53 cannot repair the damage?
The protein triggers apoptosis
What is granulation tissue name from?
The protude nublike capillaries from its surface giving a granular appearance
What are the 3 factors that control cell division?
The ratio of cell surface to cell volume / chemical signals / The availability of space
Define Genetic Code
The rules by which the base sequence of a DNA gene is translated into protein structures
What are cells?
The structural units of all living things
What does Keratinized mean?
The surface cells contain keratin
What is osmotic pressure?
The tendency of water to move into the cell by osmosis
Define anticodon
The three base sequence complementary to the messenger RNA (mRNA) codon
Define Codon
The three base sequence on a messenger RNA molecule that provides the genetic information used in protein synthesis / codes for a given amino acid
What is Osmolarity?
The total concentration of all solute particles in a solution
What is phosphorylation?
The transfer of a phosphate group from ATP
Define Transcription
The transfer of genetic code information from a DNA base sequence to the complementary base sequence of an mRNA molecule
What is the function of Blood?
The transport vehicle for the cardiovascular system, carrying nutrients, wastes, respiratory gases, and many other substances throughout the body
How do substances move in an Antiport system?
The transported substances "wave to each other" as they cross the membrane in opposite directions
What is Simple Diffusion?
The unassisted diffusion of lipid soluble or very small particles
What is the coding strand?
The uncoiled DNA not used as a template
What is the Ground Substance?
The unstructured material that fills the space between the cells and contains the fiber
**APPLY Your classmate Jennifer is confused by all the different types of membranes. To help her understand, explain the key differences between the serous and mucous membranes, the plasma membrane and the basement membrane.
These membranes differ from each other in their size, composition, and location. Plasma membranes surround cells and are tiny, made of two layers of phospholipid molecules with embedded proteins. The basement membrane is larger than the plasma membrane and is a layer of extracellular material that lies just outside the basal surface of epithelial cells. Serous and mucous membranes are much larger still. They consist of many cells and because they consist of two types of tissues they are considered organs
Why are all the Organelles a part of the Endomembrane System?
They are all the membranous elements that are either structurally connected or arise via forming or fusing transport vesicles
How do Peripheral Proteins differ from Integral Proteins?
They are not embedded in the lipid bilayer / attached loosely to integral proteins or have hydrophobic regions that anchor them into the membrane
What happens when the three primary germ layers specialize?
They become the four general(primary) tissues (Epithelium / Nervous / Muscle / Connective)
What makes Mitochondria complex organelles?
They contain their own DNA, RNA, and Ribosomes / They reproduce
What does it mean when Dense Irregular Connective tissue is arranged irregularly?
They run in all directions
What is a cilia?
Tiny, hairlike projections of a cell; may move in a wavelike manner to propel substances across the exposed cell surface
Define Sections of Tissues
Thin slice of tissue prepared for microscopic study
Define Anaphase
Third stage of mitosis / Chromosomes move toward each pole of a cell
What do Mitochondria typically look like?
Threadlike / Lozenge shaped
What does scanning electron microscopy provide?
Three dimensional pictures of an unsectioned tissue surface
How are multicellular glands formed?
Through Invagination of an epithelial sheet into the underlying connective tissue
What are the 3 major types of Cell junctions?
Tight Junctions / Desmosomes / Gap Junctions
What are Motor Proteins in Microtubules?
Tiny Protein Machines
What are microvilli?
Tiny projections on the free surfaces of some epithelial cells; increase surface area for absorption
How are Osmolarity and Tonacity different?
Tonacity is based on how the solution affects cell volume / Osmolarity is based solely on its total solute concentration
What three instances would Active Transport be required?
Too Large to Pass through the Channels / Incapable of dissolving in the Lipid Bilayer / Moving against its concentration gradient
What are Intermediate Filaments?
Tough, insoluble protein fibers that resemble woven ropes
What is the first major step in polypeptide synthesis?
Transcription
What are the two major steps of Polypeptide synthesis?
Transcription / Translation
What do Protein Kinase Enzymes do?
Transfer phosphate groups from ATP to other proteins, activating a whole series of enzymes that bring about the desired cellular activity
What is the second major step in polypeptide synthesis?
Translation
What are Carriers?
Transmembrane proteins that re specific for transporting certain polar molecules or classes of molecules that are too large to pass through membrane channels
What are Channels?
Transmembrane proteins that transport substances usually ions or water through the aqueous channels from one side of the membrane to the other
What does Active Transport require?
Transport proteins that combine specifically and reversibly with the transported substance
What is Endocytosis?
Transporting substances into the cell
What is exocytosis?
Transporting substances out of the cell
What four events happen during the Inflammation Step of Tissue Repair?
Trauma cause injured tissue cells, mast cells, and others to release inflammatory chemicals / inflammatory chemicals make local blood vessels leaky, allowing white blood cells, fluid, clotting proteins, and other plasma proteins to seep into the injured area / clotting seals off the injured area and prevents bacteria, toxins, and other harmful substances from spreading / the surface of the clot exposed to air dries and forms a scab
What do Osteons look like?
Tree Rings
What are ducts?
Tubelike connections to the epithelial sheets
What are the 3 classification of Secretion Units in Multicellular Exocrine Glands?
Tubular / Alveolar / Tubuloalveolar
What group of genes act as the brakes for cell growth?
Tumor Suppressor Genes
What are Intermediate Filaments made of?
Twisted units of Tetramer (4) fibrils that have a diameter between those of microfilaments and microtubules
All epithelium have ___ names
Two
How many daughter strands result from One Parent strand?
Two Daughter Strands
How many layers do larger glands typically have?
Two layers of cuboidal cells
Define The Pleurae
Two layers of serous membrane that line the thoracic cavity and cover the external surface of the lung
How many layers do stratified epithelia have?
Two or More
How do substances move in a Symport System?
Two transported substances move in the same direction
What determines what type of repair is made?
Type of tissue damaged / severity of the injury
What are the 3 stop codons?
UGA / UAA / UAG
What is the Real Life equivalent to the Golgi Apparatus?
UPS
Simple Multicellular Exocrine Glands have ____ duct
Unbranched
What is the first sequence of DNA Replication?
Uncoiling / Enzymes unwind the DNA molecule forming a Replication Bubble
What are the four DNA sequences?
Uncoiling / Separation / Assembly / Restoration
What two types of glands are there based on the number of cells?
Unicellular / Multicellular
Gluscose Transport is typically ____
Unidirectional
MAKE CONNECTIONS** Phospholipid tails can be saturated or unsaturated. This is true of phospholipids in plasma membranes as well. Which type (saturated / unsaturated) would make the membrane more fluid? Why?
Unsaturated / Their double bonds cause the fatty acid chains to kink so that they cannot be packed closely and this makes the membrane more fluid
Which type of Mucous membrane does not secrete lubricating mucus?
Urinary Mucous Membrane
What do Oxidases do?
Use molecular oxygen (O₂) to detoxify harmful substances, including alcohol and formaldehyde
What does Secondary Active Transport do?
Uses a cotransport protein to couple the "downhill" movement of one solute to the "uphill" movement of another solute
What are the two layers of Serosa Membrane?
Visceral / Parietal
What does the ground substance of areolar connective tissue look like?
Viscous like Molasses
What is the membrane potential?
Voltage across the plasma membrane
What is skeletal muscle often referred to?
Voluntary Muscle
What is the function of Skeletal Muscle?
Voluntary movement / Locomotion / manipulation of the environment / facial expression / voluntary control
What breaks the bond between the polypeptide and tRNA in the P site?
Water
What is fibrillin
a protein that is associated with elastin in elastic fibers
What happens to cells in a hypotonic solution?
Water rushes into them and causes the cell to explode in extreme instances / Lyses
***MAKE CONNECTIONS The two layers of serous membranes are held together by serous fluid, which is largely water. Which properties of water makes these layers "stick" together?
Water's high surface tension (due to its hydrogen bonds) makes the layers of serous membrane stick together
What are Muscle Tissues?
Well vascularized tissues that are responsible for most types of body movement
What is the fundamental similarity that all cells respond to receptor binding?
When a ligand binds to a membrane receptor, the receptor's structure changes, and cell proteins are altered in some way
What happens during the Termination phase of Translation?
When a stop codon arrives at the A site, elongation ends
What is contact inhibition?
When cells begin touching
How does the Cilia move during a Recovery Stroke?
When it bends and returns to its initial position
How does the Cilia move during a Power Stroke?
When it is nearly straight and moves in an arc
What are Passive Processes?
When substances cross the membrane without any energy input from the cell / Substances move from High to Low concentrations
What are Active Processes?
When the cell provides the metabolic energy (normally ATP) needed to move substances across the membrane / Substances move from Low to High concentrations
What is Contact Signaling from the Membrane Receptors?
When the cells come together and touch to "recognize" each other
What is Amoeboid Motion?
When the cytoplasm flows into temporary extensions that allow them to creep along
What is the process known as Signal Transduction?
When the transmembrane protein acts as a receptor for hormones and relays messages to the cell interior
****JOKE How could you say the cells move?
When they get their ACT(in) together
When does an Active Process occur?
Whenever a cell uses energy to move solutes across the membrane
Where are simple epithelia located?
Where absorption, secretion, and filtration occur and a thin epithelial barrier is desirable
Where are Elastic Cartillage needed?
Where strength and exceptional stretchability are needed
What two ways are Glands classified?
Where they release their product / Number of cells
Where are elastic fibers found?
Wherever elasticity is needed / Skin / Lungs / Blood vessel walls
What do Histone Proteins do?
Which package and regulate the DNA
What are Leukocytes?
White Blood Cells
What is the special adipose tissue located in the small deposits?
White Fat / White Adipose Tissue
How does the extended length of a neuron's processes aid its function in the body?
With extended processes, a neuron can conduct electrical signals a great distance within the body
How is Bone well supplied with Blood?
With invading blood vessels
Where are chondrocytes found?
Within Lacunae
What is a Mammography?
X-ray examination of breast tissue
What does TP53 code for?
a protein that stops cell division in cells whose DNA has been damaged
Can Ribosomes switch from Free to Membrane bound throughout their life?
Yes
Are condensed chromatin visible under a light microscope?
Yes / Often darker staining and more easily detected
What happens when you define the properties of cells?
You define the properties of life
The nucleus of a squamos cell is
a flattened disc
What is the nuclear lamina?
a network of lamins
What is the inflammatory response?
a relatively nonspecific reaction that develops quickly wherever tissues are injured
What four components need to combine at the P-Site of the translation phase?
a small ribosomal subunit / an initiator tRNA carrying the amino acid methionine / the mRNA / a large ribosomal subunit
How long does a single cycle of mitosis last in a human cell?
an hour or less
How many different types of cells are there?
around 250
Cartilage is:
avascular and noninverted
Describe Cardiac Muscle
branching, striated, generally uninuleate cells that connect at specialized junctions (intercaated discs)
Dense Regular Connective Tissue, unlike areolar connective tissue, has ____ cells othen than fibroblasts and is ____ vascularized
few / poorly
What us the predominant cell type in growing cartilage?
chondroblasts
What is Granulation tissue?
delicate pink tissue that contains capillaries that grow in from nearby areas and lay down a new capillary bed
The nucleus of a columnar cell is
elongated from top to bottom / located closer to the cell base
What is the general role of skeletal muscle?
form the flesh of the body / contract and pull on bones or skin / cause body movements
What function does the arrangement of Dense Regular Connective Tissue serve?
forms white, flexible structures with great resistance to tensions where the tension is exerted in a single diection
Where is Dense Irregular Tissue found?
found in the skin as the leathery dermis / fibrous joint capsules / Fibrous coverings that surround some organs ( kidneys / bones / cartilages / muscles / nerves )
In healing by first second, ___ amounts of granular tissue need to be formed
larger
What do the Network of Filaments of the Peripheral proteins do?
helps support the membrane from the cytoplasmic side
What do the products of the tumor suppressor genes create?
inhibit cell growth and division
What is a nuclear pore complex?
intricate complex proteins that line each pore forming an aqueous transport channel and regulating entry and exit of molecules and large particles into and out of the nucleus
What are Telomeres?
nonsensical strings of nucleotides that cap the ends of chromosomes, providing protection / vital for chromosomal survival
How is Osmolarity expressed?
osmol/L
What do proto-oncogenes code for?
proteins that are essential for cell division, growht, and cellular adhesion, among other things
Osmotic pressure ___ water ____
pulls / in
Hydrostatic pressure ____ water ____
pushes / out
In Simple infections healing is solely by ____
regeneration
What are stem cells?
relatively undifferentiated cells that divide as necessary to produce new cells
What do ribosomes look like?
small, dark staining granules composed of proteins and a variety of RNA / Two globular subunits that fit together like the body and cap of an acorn
In healing by first intention, ___ amounts of granular tissue need to be formed
smaller
The nucleus of a cuboidal cell is
spherical
What do Membrane bound ribosomes do?
synthesize proteins destined either for incorporation into cell membranes or lysosomes or for export from the cell
What does the Peptidyl (P)-site do?
tRNA holding the growing polypeptide chain
What is an aminoacyl-tRNA?
tRNA loaded with amino acid cargo
The first name in epithelium describes:
the amount of layers
Where does the tRNA pick up the amino acid?
the cytoplasmic pool
What is the RNA polymerase?
the enzyme that oversees the synthesis mRNA
The second name in epithelium describes:
the shape of the cells
As in epithelial tissue, the cells in muscle tissue are all ____ packed together
tightly
What is the cytosol?
viscous, semitransparent fluid substance of cytoplasm in which other elements are suspended
