BSC 2085 Lecture Exam 2 - Chapters 3 and 4

What is an example of Hypertrophy?

A normal response of skeletal muscle cells when they are challenged to life excessive weight

Define Scurvy

A nutritional deficiency caused by lack of adequate vitamin C needed to synthesize collagen

What do each centriole consist of?

A pinwheel array of nine triplets of microtubules, each connected to the next by nontubulin proteins and arranged to form a hollow tube

Define Connective Tissue

A primary tissue / form and function vary extensively / functions include support, storage, and protection

Define Apoptosis

A process of controlled cellular suicide / eliminates cells that are unneeded, stressed, or aged

What is a secretory vesicle?

A protein coated membranous sac used in Exocytosis

What is a G-protein?

A protein that relays signals between extracellular first messengers and intracellular second messengers via an effector enzyme

What is a centrosome?

A region near the nucleus that contains paired organelles called centrioles / cell center

What is a triplet?

A sequence of three nucleotide bases

What are the two major means of active membrane transport (General)?

Active Transport / Vesicular Transport

What type of connective tissue is found supporting the epithelial tissue?

Areolar Connective Tissue

Which connective tissue has a soft weblike matrix capable of serving as a fluid reservoir?

Areolar Connective Tissue / its loose weblike nature is capable of serving as a fluid reservoir

Where are the other locations that fat accumulates?

Around kidneys / Behind the eyeballs / Genetically determined locations (Abdomen / Hips)

Where are the small deposits of fat located?

Around the Heart / Lymph Nodes / Some Muscles / Bone Marrow

How does the ratio of cell surface to cell volume affect cell division?

As a cell grows its volume increases more rapidly than its surface area

How does a G-protein act?

As a middleman or relay to (activate / inactive) a membrane bound or ion channel

What Organelles are included in the Endomembrane System?

Both Endoplasmic Reticulum / Golgi Apparatus / Secretory Vesicles / Lysosomes / The Nuclear Envelope / Plasma Membrane

Why do Cancer cells lead to weight loss and tissue wasting that eventually contribute to death?

Consume exceptional amount of the body's nutrients

What two major functions do Membrane Receptors perform?

Contact Signaling / Chemical Signaling

What are the 2 major lysosomal functions in the lysosomal membranes?

Contains H⁺ (proton) pumps / Provides sites where digestion can proceed Safely within a cell

Define Avascular

Contains no Blood vessels

What do Motor Proteins do?

Continually move and reposition the organelles along the microtubules

What are essentially all covering and lining membranes?

Continuous multicelllar sheets composed of at least two primary tissue types (epithelium bound to an underlying layer of connective tissue proper)

What is the Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum?

Continuous with the Rough ER / Consists of tubules arranged in a looping network / Its enzymes play no role in protein synthesis

The Na⁺-K⁺ pumps operate almost ______

Continuously

What is the function of Cardiac Muscle?

Contracts to propel blood into the circulation / Involuntary control

What is a nucleus?

Control center of a cell; contains genetic material / clusters of neuron cell bodies in the CNS / center of an atom; contains protons and neutrons

What are the two basic components of Multicellular Exocrine glands?

Epithelium derived duct / Acinus

What does the Transfer RNA (tRNA) do?

Ferry amino acids to the ribosomes / decode mRNA's message for amino acid sequence in the polypeptide to be built

What cell type is found in Connective Tissue Proper?

Fibroblasts / Fibrocytes

What are Dense Connective tissues also known as?

Fibrous Connective Tissues

Define Myofilament

Filament that constitutes myofibrils

What are the functions of the Cristae and the Matrix in the Mitochondria?

Filled with teams of enzymes / Breaks down intermediate products of food fuels to water and carbon dioxide

What happens in G₂ Phase?

Final phase of interphase / Enzymes and other proteins needed for division are synthesized and moved to their proper sites / centriole replication is complete / At the end: checkpoint when the cell ensures that all DNA is replicated and damaged DNA has been repaired

What is the ground substance of Cartilage?

Firm / Contains large amounts of the GAGs chondriotin sulfate and hyaluronic acid, and firmly bound collagen fibers (occasionally elastic fibers)

Where are integral proteins in the lipid bilayer?

Firmly inserted into the lipid bilayer

What happens to the substance in Exocytosis?

First enclosed in a secretory vesicle that fuses with the plasma membrane and then ruptures spilling the sac contents out of the cell

What are the three steps to study tissue structure?

Fixed / Sectioned / Stained

What is the purpose of fixing tissue for microscopic viewing?

Fixing tissue preserves it and prevents it from deteriorating

What do Fibroblasts look like?

Flat branching cells that appear spindle shaped (tapered at both ends) in profile

What are Aponeuroses?

Flat, sheetlike tendons that attach muscles to other muscles or to bones

What do squamos cells look like?

Flattened and scale like

Where are free ribosomes found?

Floating in the cytosol

What are the cavities of the cisterns filled with?

Fluid

What happens in Vesicular transport?

Fluids containing large particles and macromolecules are transported across cellular membranes inside bubble like, membranous sacs called vesicles

What are the characteristics of the inner shell of Mitochondria?

Folded inward / Forms Shelflike Cristae (Crests) that protrude into the matrix

Why are these ionic concentration differences in cells essential?

For excitable cells to function normally / all body cells to maintain their normal fluid volume

What do Transitional epithelium do?

Form the lining of hollow urinary organs that stretch as they fill with urine

What happens to Mucin when it is dissolved?

Forms Mucus

Many proto-oncogenes have ______ sites that break when exposed to carcinogens, converting them to ______

Fragile / Oncogenes

What are the two types of Ribosomal populations?

Free / Membrane Bound

What do Simple Epithelia resemble when perpendicularly cut to their free surface?

Fried Eggs seen from the side

What are nucleosomes?

Fundamental unit of chromatin; consists of a strand of DNA wound around a cluster of eight histone proteins / nuclear bodies

What do Glycocalyx consist of?

Fuzzy, sticky carbohydrate rich area at the cell surface created by the sugars of glycoproteins and glycolipids

***MAKE CONNECTIONS If a segment of one of the DNA strands being replicated consists of CGAATG, what will be the base sequence of the corresponding DNA strand?

GCTTAC

What are the three basic phases of Transcription?

Initiation / Elongation / Termination

Define Vacuum-Assisted Closure (VAC)

Innovative healing process for open skin wounds and skin ulcers / often induces healing when all other methods fail

What two types of membrane proteins are there?

Integral / Peripheal

What are the most stable Cytoskeleton elements?

Intermediate Filaments

What are the two major periods of the cell cycle?

Interphase / Cell Divsion

What are the two newest approaches to battling cancer?

Interrupting the signaling pathway / Cancer immunotherapy

What are the three components of Ground substance?

Interstital Fluid / Cell adhesion Proteins / Proteoglycans

What are 3 different types of Extracellular fluid?

Interstitial Fluid / Blood Plasma / Cerebrospinal Fluid

Where are microvilli primarily found?

Intestinal Cells / Kidney Tubule Cells

What are examples of Cellular Secretions?

Intestinal fluids / Gastric Fluids / Saliva / Mucus / Serous Fluids

Where does secondary transport often occur?

Into cells lining the small intestine

What two major fluid compartments does the Plasma Membrane separate?

Intracellular Fluid / Extracellular Fluid

What are Caspases?

Intracellular enzymes that unleash a torrent of digestive activity within the cell

What are second messengers?

Intracellular molecule generated by the binding of a chemical to a receptor or protein; mediates intracellular responses to the chemical messenger

What is Cyclic AMP?

Intracellular second messenger that mediates the effects of teh first messenger fromed from ATP bu a plasma membrane enzyme

What separates exons?

Introns

Define invagination

Inward growth

What is the difference between Dense Regular Connective Tissue and Dense Irregular Connective Tissue?

Irregular Dense Connective Tissue are much thicker and are arranged irregularly

How is actin different in the microvilli?

It acts as a mechanical stiffener that shapes the cell rather than as a contractile protein

What three roles do Autophagy serve?

It allows cells to dispose of clumps of unneeded proteins and even cytoplasmic organelles, such as mitochondria, when they are worn out / In times of stress, particularly starvation, it allows cells to cannibalize parts of themselves in order to survive / it helps restructure cells during development

Why do Oxidase convert the Free Radicals to Hydrogen Peroxide even though it is reactive and dangerous?

It catalyses quickly converting to water

What is the Cutaneous membrane consist of?

Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium + Thick Layer of Connective Tissue (Dermis)

What is the energy source for all types of diffusion?

Kinetic Energy

Where do the Osteocytes reside in the Bone / Osseous Tissue?

Lacunae

What are spliceosomes?

Large RNA protein complexes that snip out the introns and splice together the remaining exon-coded sections

What do lysosomes look like?

Large Spherical membranous organelles containing activated hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes

What do Keloids result in?

Large mass of scar tissue at the skin surface

What does the presence of multiple nucleus usually signify?

Larger than usual cytoplasmic mass must be regulated

When does cytokinesis begin?

Late anaphase

Define Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Long nucleotide strands that reflect the exact nucleotide sequences of the genetically active DNA and carry the DNA's message

What do Muscle Fibers / Skeletal Muscle cells look like?

Long, cylindrical cells that contain many peripherally located nuclei

What is a flagella?

Long, whiplike cellular extension containing microtubules; propels sperm and some single celled eukaryotes

What are the two subclasses of Connective Tissue Proper?

Loose connective tissue / Dense connective tissue

Define Lamina Propria

Loose connective tissue supporting an epithelium / part of a mucous membrane

What are the clinical signs of Marfan's syndrome?

Loose jointedness / long limbs and spiderlike fingers and toes / visual problems / weakened blood vessels (especially aorta)

What happens to cells in a hypertonic solution?

Lose water and shrivel / Crenate

What are Liver and Phagocytic Cells filled with?

Lysosomes

What attaches to the Microtubules?

Mitochondria / Lysosomes / Secretory Vesicles

What is the singular form of Mitochondria?

Mitochondrion

Do all cells respond the same way to the same ligand?

No

Does the same distortion in Goblet Cells occur in Mucous Cells?

No

Is it a requirement for Mucosae to secrete mucus?

No

Are introns wasteful?

No / They act as control elements and allow for making different proteins from one gene by omitting or including certain exons

What is the Basal Lamina?

Noncellular, adhesive supporting sheet consisting largely of glycoproteins secreted by epithelial tissue

Define Inton

Noncoding segment or portion of DNA that ranges from 60 to 100,000 nucleotides long

What are supporting cells?

Nonconducting cells that support, insulate, and protect the delicate neurons

What are Malignant Neoplasts?

Nonencapsulated masses that grow relentlessly

All other stratified squamos epithelia of the body are ____

Nonkeratinized

What is Blood Plasma?

Nonliving fluid matrix found in Blood

Define Extracellular Matrix

Nonliving material in connective tissue consisting of ground substance and fibers / separates the living cells

What are the four phases of Mitosis?

Prophase / Metaphase / Anaphase / Telophase

What is the most major role (but not the only) of Stratified Epithelia?

Protection

What are the 6 basic functions of epithelium?

Protection / Absorption / Filtration / Excretion / Secretion / Sensory Reception

What balances the Potassium Cations inside of the cell?

Protein anions

What two major ways does repair occur?

Regeneration / Fibrosis

What does the Nervous System do?

Regulates and controls body functions

What does the basement membrane do?

Reinforces the epithelial sheet / helps it resist stretching and tearing / defines the epithelial boundary

What must the pre-mRNA do before it can be used as a messenger?

Remove the introns through the use of spliceosomes

Define Regeneration

Replacement of destroyed tissue with the same kind of tissue

Before a cell can divide, its DNA must be ______ exactly

Replicated

Cells that continually wear away _____ themselves almost continuously

Reproduce

What do the branching cells of neurons and the cytoplasmic extensions or processes enable them to do?

Respond to Stimuli / Transmit electrical impulses over substantial distances within the body

What is the fourth sequence in DNA Replication?

Restoration / Ligase enzymes splice short segments of DNA together restoring the double helix structure

What is the G₁ checkpoint?

Restriction point

How do the lysosomal membranes provide safe sites for digestion?

Retains dangerous lysosomal enzymes while permitting the final products of digestion to escape so that they can be used by the cell or excreted

What are the three types of fibers found in connective tissue?

Reticular / Collagen / Elastic fibers are found in the various connective tissues

What are the fibroblasts in the reticular fibers known as?

Reticular cells

What is the RNA in ribosomes called?

Ribosomal RNAs

Other types of connective tissue have a _____ supply of blood vessels

Rich

What are lamins?

Rod-shaped proteins that assemble to form intermediate filaments

What are the two distinct varieties of Endoplasmic Reticulum?

Rough / Smooth

What is the Nuclear envelope directly connected to?

Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Where are membrane bound ribosomes found in the cell?

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Unlike phagocytosis, pinocytosis is a ____ activity of most cells

Routine

What is Elastin?

Rubberlike proteins

What are extracellular materials?

Substances contributing to body mass that are found outside the cells

How are Epithelial cells nourished?

Substances diffusing blood vessels in the underlying connective tissue

What happens in the Cisterns of the Rough ER?

Sugar Groups are attached to the Integral Proteins synthesized

Define Innervated

Supplied by nerve fibers

What does the supportive connective tissue do for the secretory unit?

Supplies it with blood vessels and nerve fibers to form a fibrous capsule

What is the function of Bone / Osseous Tissue?

Support and Protect Body Structures / Provide cavities for storing fat and synthesizing blood cells

What do the three general functions of the cytoskeleton do?

Support the cellular structures and provide the machinery to generate various cell movements

What are the 4 specific functions of areolar connective tissue?

Supporting and binding other tissues / Holding Body fluids / Defending against infection / Storing nutrients as fat in adipocytes

What surrounds the secretory unit?

Supportive connective tissue

How do you describe the role of connective tissue in one word?

Supports

What are the different types of cancer treatments?

Surgery / Chemotherapy / Irradiation (Cut / Burn / Poison)

What is a biopsy?

Surgically removing a tissue sample and examining it microscopically for malignant cells

What are examples of larger glands?

Sweat Glands / Mammary Glands

What is Edema?

Swelling due to the abnormal accumulation of fluid in their tissues

What is Tonicity?

The ability of a solution to change the shape (or plasma membrane tension) of cells by altering the cells internal water volume

Why is it named Goblet Cell?

The accumulating mucin distends the top of the cell making the cell look like a glass with a stem

How is the resting membrane potential maintained?

The active transport processes

What are the outcomes of a mutation?

The affected protein may remain unimpaired / May function abnormally or not at all leading to disease

What happens during the 2A Elongation phase of Translation?

The anticodon of an incoming tRNA binds with the complementary mRNA codon in the A site of the ribosome

What is lamina propia?

The areolar connective tissue that most epithelia rest on and is preset in all mucous membranes

What is hydrostatic pressure?

The back pressure exerted by water against the cell wall

Define Stoma

The basic internal structural framework of an organ

What is an isotonic solution?

The same concentration of nonpenetrating solutes

Define Healing by First intention

The simplest type of healing / occurs when the edges of the wound are brought together by sutures, staples, or other means used to close surgical incisions / only small amounts of granulation tissue need be formed

What does the Aminoacyl (A) site do?

The site for an incoming aminoacyl-tRNA

What is the role of the nucleoli?

The site of synthesis of ribosomal subunits

Where does elastic cartilage form?

The skeleton of the external ear / epiglottis

How does Size affect diffuse-ability in the Plasma Membrane?

The smaller the molecule the more readily it will diffuse across

What are the two results of an osmotic disturbance in animal cells?

The solute concentration is the same on both sides / the membrane stretches to its breaking point and lyses

What happens if equal volumes of aqueous solutions of different osmolarity are separated by a membrane that us permeable to ONLY THE SOLUTE?

The solute diffuses

Define Metastasis

The spread of cancer from one body part or organ into another not directly connected to it

Where is Smooth muscle located?

The walls of hollow organs (Digestive Tracts / Urinary Tracts / Uterus / Blood Vessels)

What do Simple Epithelia form in the lungs?

The walls of the air sacs across which gas exchange occurs

What does Simple Cuboidal Epithelium form?

The walls of the smallest ducts of glands and of many kidney tubules

What happens if equal volumes of aqueous solutions of different osmolarity are separated by a membrane that us permeable to ONLY WATER molecule?

The water diffuses

What does Stage 4 cancer mean?

The worst probability of cure

Define Healing by Second Intention

The wound edges remain separated / relatively large amount of granulation tissue bridge the gap / the manner in which unattended wounds heal / healing is slower than in wounds in which the edges are brought together / larger scars result

What is an important characteristic of cancerous epithelial cells?

Their failure to respect the basement membrane boundary, which they penetrate to invade the tissues beneath

What happens during the Termination phase of Transcription?

mRNA synthesis ends when the polymerase reaches a special nucleotide sequence called a termination signal / RNA polymerase and the complete mRNA transcript are released

What are pre-mRNA?

mRNA that is still littered with introns

What do the membranes do for the membranous organelles?

maintain an internal environment different from that of the surrounding cytosol

How do Bacteria and Infectious Agents use Contact Signaling?

To Identify "Preferred" target tissue

What are four functions of connective tissue?

To bind, support, protect, and insulate body organs / blood acts to transport substances throughout the body

Why is the specimen stained?

To enhance contrast between the structures

What roles do the phospholipids play in the Lipid Bilayer?

The hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails create a semipermeable membrane that dictates what molecules travel passively

What is resting membrane potential?

The voltage that exists across the plasma membrane during the resting state of an excitable cell

Are nucleoli membrane bound?

No

What is the Exrtacellular Matrix of Cartilage?

80% Water

What are the three types of Loose Connective Tissue?

Areolar / Adipose / Reticular

What three general functions does the cytoskeleton act as?

Bones / Muscles / Ligaments

What are Paracrines?

Chemicals that act locally and are rapidly destroyed

What is Semiconservative Replication?

A new molecule that consists of one old and one new nucleotide strand

What are Extended Chromatin?

Active Chromatin Segments

What is the anion that balances Sodium cations outside of the cell?

Chlorine (Cl⁻)

What is the typical range of a cell's resting membrane potential?

-50 to -90 millivolts (depending on the cell type)

The inside of the cell measures at _____mvolts

-70

At what Voltage is the Potassium concentration gradient exactly balanced by the electrical gradient?

-90mV

What does an immature cell name end in?

-blast

What does a mature cell name end in?

-cyte

How many Moles are in 1 osmol?

1

How frequent is Osteogenesis Imperfecta?

1 out of 20,000 births

What percentage of cartilage do chondrocytes account for?

1-10%

How many known oncogenes are there currently?

100+

The concentration of K inside the cell is ____X (higher / lower) than that outside

10X higher

The concentration of Na insidethe cell is ___X (higher/lower) than that outside

10X lower

What is the DNA-RNA hybrid?

16-18 base pairs of DNA are unwound and the most recently made RNA is still hydrogen bonded to the template DNA

Adipose tissue constitutes for ____ of an average person's body weight

18%

How many membranes does the MItochondria have?

2

The Na⁺-K⁺ pumps ____ K_____ of the cell.

2 / In

Our 20,000 genes are located on only about ___ of the nuclear DNA

2%

Ho many protein encoding genes do we have in the human body?

20,000

What are the Three repeating steps in Elongation phase of Translation?

2A / 2B / 2C

How many of the 64 Codons are stop signs?

3

The Na⁺-K⁺ pumps ____ Na _____ of the cell.

3 / Out

What is the lifespan of an Anucleate cell?

3-4 months

What are the three major components of Chromatin?

30% DNA / 60% Globular Histone Proteins / 10% RNA chains

How many cells are in the human body?

37 Trillion

How many sequences of events occur during DNA replication?

4

How many stages of cancer are there?

4 Stages

How many different types of tRNA are there?

45

Ho many steps are there during Apoptosis?

5

How many possible codons are there?

64

What is the Lipid Bilayer composed of?

80% Phospholipids / 20% Cholesterol

Adipocytes account for _____ of the Adipose Tissue's mass

90%

What are Membrane receptors?

A huge and diverse group of integral proteins that serve as binding sites

Define Reticular Lamina

A layer of extracellular material containing a fine network of collagen fibers / together with the basal lamina it is a major component of the basement membrane

What type of membrane consists of epithelium and connective tissue, and lines body cavities open to the exterior?

A mucous membrane consists of both connective tissue and epithelium / Lines body cavities open to the exterior

What is the final consequence of a Colorectal Adenoma?

A Colon Carcinoma

What is an anucleate cell?

A cell without a nucleus

Define Mutation

A change in DNA base sequence that may lead to incorporation of incorrect amino acids in particular positions in the resulting protein

Define Dysplasia

A change in cell size, shape, or arrangement due to chronic irritation or inflammation

Define Pus

A collection of tissue fluid, bacteria, dead and dying tissue cells, leukocytes, and macrophages in an inflamed area

What is Mucin?

A complex glycoprotein that dissolves in water then secreted

Define Ribosomal (rRNA)

A constituent of ribosomes that assists in protein synthesis

How does the cytoplasm divide?

A contractile ring made of actin filaments draws the plasma membrane inward to form a cleavage furrow over the center of the cell / the furrow deepns until it pinches teh cytoplasmic mass into two parts, yielding two daughter cells

What is Scar Tissue?

A fibrous type of connective tissue

What does Mesenchyme have?

A fluid ground substance containing fine sparse fibers and star shaped mesenchymal cells

What is a Colon Carcinoma?

A form of cancer that metastasizes quickly

Define Tissue

A group of similar cells and their intercellular substance specialized to perform a specific function

What is a hypertonic solution?

A higher concentration of nonpenetrating solutes than seen in the cell

What happens in a tight junction?

A series of integral protein molecules in the plasma membrane of adjacent cells fuse together like the zipper of a ziploc bag / impermeable function encircles the cell and separates one fluid filled compartment from another

Define ER Signal Sequence

A short peptide segment present in a protein being synthesized that causes the associated ribosome to attach to the membrane of rough ER

What do Endothelium provide?

A slick, friction reducing lining in lymphatic vessels and in all hollow organs of the cardiovascular system

What does Mucus do?

A slimy coating that protects and lubricates surfaces

What is a polyp?

A small benign growth consisting of apparently normal mucosa cells

What is a promoter?

A special DNA sequence that contains the start point of the gene to be transcribed / Specifies which DNA strand is going to serve as the template strand

What happens at the Restriction point?

A stop signal that can halt further growth

What is Histamine?

A substance that makes capillaries leaky

What is the Endomembrane System?

A system of Organelles that work together

Why do different cells respond differently to the same ligand?

A target cell's response depends on the internal machinery that the receptor is linked to, not the specific ligand that binds to it

What do Simple Epithelia resemble in the surface view?

A tiled floor

What is Keratin?

A tough protective protein

What are the complementary bases in DNA?

A-T / G-C

What are the complementary bases in RNA?

A-U / G-C

What cell type is found in Cartilage?

Chondroblasts / Chondrocytes

What do the H+ Pumps in the lysosomal membrane?

ATPases that gather hydrogen ions from the surrounding cytosol to maintain the organelle's acidic pH

What is ALWAYS the start codon?

AUG

Define Keloid

Abnormal proliferation of connective tissue during healing of skin wounds

Define Anaplasia

Abnormalities in cell structure and loss of differentiation

Where do small deposits occur in adults?

Above the collarbone / the neck / the abdomen / around the spine

What are Simple Columnar Epithelium mostly associated with?

Absorption / Secretion

What are mucous membranes adapted for?

Absorption / Secretion

What are the three primary concerns of Simple Epithelia?

Absorption / Secretion / Filtration

Why is Bone / Osseous Tissue rigid?

Abundant Collagen fibers / Presence of Inorganic Calcium Salts (Bone Salts)

What does Brown Fat store?

Abundant mitochondria that use the lipid fuels to generate heat

Define Hyperplasia

Accelerated cell division

How are the serosae named?

According to Location and Specific Organ Associations

What are Lysosomes also known in acidic conditions?

Acid Hydolases

Where do Lysosomes work best?

Acidic Conditions

What are the two types of stains?

Acidic Stains / Basic Stains

What term is interchangeable with Alveolar?

Acinar

What role do Saliva, Mucus, and Serous Fluids perform?

Act as Lubricants

What is the role of Integral Proteins?

Act as Transmembrane proteins that span the entire membrane and protrude on both sides

What is role of the Extracellular Matrix?

Act as a "Universal Cell Glue" that binds body cells together

What do Cadherins and Integrins (CAMs) do?

Act as an anchor *molecular velcro* in the extracellular space and to each other / Act as "Arms" that migrating cells use for mobility / Send SOS signals to rally Leukocytes / Act as mechanical sensors to transmit information about any changes in the extracelllular matrix to bring about Cell Migration, Proliferation, and Specialization

What are the two types of Myofilament?

Actin / Myosin

What are 3 examples of the microfilaments allowing for cell motility?

Actin forms that cleavage furrow that pinches one cell into two during cells division / microfilaments attached to cell adhesion molecules are responsible for the crawling movements or amoeboid motion, and for membrane changes that accompany endocytosis and exocytosis / in muscles cells, actin filaments interact with another protein, myosin to generate contractile forces in a cell

What do both Cyclic AMP and Ionic Calcium do?

Activate Protein Kinase Enzymes

Secretion is an _____ process

Active

What are Epiphyseal Plates?

Actively growing regions near the ends of long bones in children

What is the function of Interstitial fluid?

Acts as a rich, nutritious "soup" containing amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, regulatory substances, and wastes

What are the roles of basal lamina?

Acts as a selective filter that determines which molecules diffusing from the underlying connective tissue are allowed to enter the epithelium / Acts as scaffolding along which epithelial cells can migrate to repair a wound

What happens during Necrosis?

Acute injury causes the cells to swell and burst / induces inflammatory response that causes uncontrolled cell death

What are the four DNA nucleotide bases?

Adenine / Guanine / Cytosine / Thymine

What are the four RNA nucleotide bases?

Adenine / Guanine / Cytosine / Uracil

What is the malignant adenoma known as?

Adenocarcinoma

What do Cell junctions do?

Adhere cells together and allow for communication

What other cell types are found in connective tissue?

Adipocytes / Leukocytes / Mast Cells / Macrophages

What are adipocytes?

Adipose / Fat cells

What makes Areolar Connective Tissue different from Adipose Tissue?

Adipose has a greater nutrient storing ability

Where is the basal lamina located?

Adjacent to the Basal Surface

What is the multistep mitochondrial process known as? Why?

Aerobic Cellular Respiration / It requires oxygen

What does Pinocytosis allow cells to do?

Afford them a nonselective way of sampling the extracellular fluid / absorb nutrients

When does cytokinesis end?

After mitosis ends

What are the three binding sites for tRNA?

Aminoacyl (A)-site / Peptidyl (P)-site / Exit (E)-site

What are the role of Nucleoli?

Aggregations of all the components needed to synthesize and assemble ribosomal subunits

What is the Immune Theory?

Aging results from a progressive weakening of the immune system / the body loses its ability to fight off pathogens or to heal systemic inflammation / associates aging and risks for chronic disease

What role do the intestinal and gastric fluids perform?

Aid in digestion

What basic structure do all cellular membranes share?

All cellular membranes consist of a double layer of phospholipids in which proteins are embedded

What is Apical-basal polarity?

All epithelia have an apical end and a basal end / Like a magnet has a North and South pole

What makes Psuedostratified Columnar Epithelia "Psuedo"?

All the cells rest on the basement membrane but only the tallest reach the free surface of the epithelium giving the tissues a false impression that several cell layers are present

What does Selectively / Deferentially permeable mean?

Allow some substances to pass while excluding others

What does the elastin in the elastic fibers allow for the fiber to do?

Allows it to stretch and recoil like a rubber band

How do Channel Transmembrane proteins function?

Allows small, water soluble molecules or ions to move through bypassing the lipid bilayer

Where are ciliated cells located in the body?

Along the respiratory tract propel mucus laden with dust particles and bacteria upward away from the lungs

What does a tRNA bind to?

Amino Acid / mRNA codon

Define Exons

Amino acid-specifying informational sequences (separated by introns) in the genes of higher organisms

What happens during Elongation phase of Translation?

Amino acids are added one at a time to the growing peptide chain via a process that has three repeating steps

How do phagocytes move about?

Amoeboid Motion

What is a neoplasm?

An abnormal mass of proliferating cells

What develops when the polyp enlarges?

An adenoma

What is the Pump Protein in a Sodium - Potassium Pump?

An enzyme called Na⁺-K⁺ ATPase

What is Telomerase?

An enzyme found in certain specialized cells / immortality enzyme

What are Coated Pits?

An infolding membrane that have a protein coating on the cytoplasmic face that deforms the membrane to produce the vesicle

Define Osteogenesis Imperfecta

An inherited condition that causes defective collagen production resulting in weak bones that break easily

What is a basal body?

An organelle structurally identical to a centriole and forming the base of a cilium or flagellum

What is the nucleus of a cell?

An organelle that controls cellular activities that typically lies towards the center of the cell

What do desmosomes serve as?

Anchoring junctions

Why can major changes in hydrostatic and osmotic pressure NOT occur in Animal Cells?

Animal Cells lack rigid cell walls

What is Heparin?

Anticoagulant chemical that prevents blood clotting when free in the bloodstream

What are cisterns?

Any cavity or enclosed space serving as a reservoir

Define Lesions

Any injury, wound, or infection that affects tissue over an area of a definite size

Define Adenoma

Any neoplasm of glandular epithelium, benign or malignant

Where is Adipose Tissue abundant?

Anywhere areolar tissue is plentiful / accumulates in subcutaneous tissue

Stratified epithelia are named according to the shape of the cells in the _____ layer

Apical

What are the two surfaces of all Epithelia?

Apical Surface / Basal Surface

Which type of glands are not found in humans (arguably?)

Apocrine Glands

What are the transmembrane proteins that water can move freely through?

Aquaporins (AQPs)

What product do glands secrete?

Aqueous fluids that usually contains proteins known as Secretions / Occasionally lipid or steroid rich secretion

What is the third sequence of DNA replication?

Assembly / With the old (parental) strands acting as templates, the enzyme DNA polymerase positions complementary free nucleotides along the template strands, forming two new strands / The leading and lagging strands are synthesize in opposite directions / Two new daughter DNA molecules result from one parental DNA molecule / Each new molecule consists of one old and one new nucleotide strand

What is Facilitated Diffusion?

Assisted Diffusion

What are Muscle Cells filled with?

Atin / Myosin / Cytoplasm is filled with Microfilaments

What are the main job of Intermediate Filaments?

Attach to desmosomes and act as internal cables to resist pulling forces exerted on the cell

What is the importance of ubiquitin in the life of a cell?

Attache to misfolded, damaged, or unneeded proteins, tagging them for destruction by proteasomes

Where is the basal surface found?

Attached to the underlying connective tissue

What happens when a Lysosomes' membrane ruptures?

Autolysis

What happens during autophagy?

Autophagosomes sweeps up bits of cytoplasm and unneeded organelles that are then delivered to lysosomes for digestion of the contents, which the cell reuses

Cartilage is

Avascular (no blood vessels)

Epithelium is _______ and ______

Avascular / Innervated

What is the process that transmits electrical impulses over substantial distances within the body?

Axons

What are the symptoms of Scurvy?

Blood vessel disruption / Delay in wound healing / weakness of scar tissue / loosening of teeth

Skeletal muscles are attached to the _____ of the skeleton

Bones

What three types of mature tissue are not Connective Tissue Proper?

Bone / Cartilage / Blood

What are chromosomes?

Barlike bodies of tightly coiled chromatin; visible during cell division

What two layers does the basement layer consist of?

Basal Lamina / Reticular Lamina

What does the large amounts of extracellular matrix in the connective tissue allow for it to do?

Bear weight / withstand great tension / endure abuses (physical trauma and abrasion)

Why are electron microscope images in shades of gray?

Because color is a property of light, not of electron waves

A ____ Neoplasm is strictly a local affair

Benign

What are the two classifications of Neoplasms?

Benign / Malignant

What are Proto-oncogenes?

Benign forms of oncogenes in normal cells

What is the function of desmosomes?

Bind neighboring cells together into sheets and also contribute to a continuous internal network of strong fibers that act as "guy-wires"

How do Carrier Transmembrane proteins function?

Bind to a substance and then move it through the membrane

What are desmosomes?

Binding Bodies

What are the five main functions of Connective Tissue?

Binding and Supporting / Protecting / Insulating / Storing Reserve Fuel / Transporting Substances within the body

What are Ligaments?

Binds bones together at joints to contain more elastic fibers than tendons and are slightly more stretchy

What two ways will a molecule travel using Facilitated diffusion?

Binds to a carrier protein in the membrane and is ferried across / Moves through water filled channel proteins

How are microtubules and microfilaments related functionality?

Both are involved in organelle movements within the cell and/or movements of the cell as a whole

Epithelia forms ____ between different environments

Boundaries

What do cuboidal cells look like?

Boxlike, approximately as tall as they are wide

What makes up the Nervous System?

Brain / Spinal Cord / Nerves

Define Histology

Branch of anatomy dealing with the microscopic structure of tissues

Compound Multicellular Exocrine Glands have ____ duct

Branched

How do malignant cells tend to travel throughout the body?

Break away from the parent mass and travel via blood or lymph to other bod organs

What role do Peroxisomes play in energy metabolism?

Breaking down and synthesizing fatty acids

What do the elaborate networks of Actin and Myosin generally do?

Bring about movement or contraction in all cell types

What is Osteogenesis Imperfecta also known as?

Brittle Bone Disease

What do Apical surfaces with micovilli known as under the microscope?

Brush Border

What does the outer nuclear envelope do?

Connects continuously with the Rough ER

What accounts for 90% of human cancers?

Carcinomas

The electrochemical gradients maintained by the Na⁺-K⁺ pumps are crucial for:

Cardiac Function / Skeletal Function / Neuron Function

What are inclusions?

Chemical substances that may or may not be present depending on cell type

You are looking at muscle tissue through the microscope and you see striped branching cells that connect with one another. What type of muscle are you viewing?

Cardiac Muscle Cells / Have striations and branching cells

What tissue have virutally no functional capacity for regeneration?

Cardiac Muscle Tissue / Nervous Tissue in the brain and spinal cord

What two sticky glycoproteins are Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAMs)?

Cadherins / Integrins

What happens when cells fail to follow normal controls of cell division and multiply excessively?

Cancer / A Neoplasm

Where are telomerase commonly found?

Cancer Cells

Define Carcinoma

Cancer arising in an epithelium

Define Sarcoma

Cancer arising in the mesenchyme-derived tissues, that is, in connective tissues and muscle

Define Oncogenes

Cancer causing genes

What is an example of Anaplasia?

Cancer cells typically lose the appearance of the parent cells and come to resemble undifferentiated or embryonic cells

Why are Anucleate cells temporary?

Cannot Reproduce / Cannot produce mRNA to make proteins so cannot self recover

What changes a normal cell into a cancerous one?

Carcinogens / Radiation / Mechanical Trauma / Certain Viral Infections / Chronic Inflammation / Many Chemicals / Toxins (Tobacco Smoke)

What does Messenger RNA (mRNA) do?

Carries the coded information to the cytoplasm, where protein synthesis occurs

What happens to cartilage in later life?

Cartilage calcifies or even ossifies (becomes bone) causing the chondrocytes to be malnourished and die

Why does injured cartilage heal slowly?

Cartilage is avascular and aging cartilage cells lose their ability to divide

Define Elastic Cartilage

Cartilage with abundant elastic fibers / more flexible than hyaline cartilage

What do enzymes do on the Rough ER?

Catalyze lipid synthesis

There are 4 theories of __ ____

Cell Aging

What is Phagocytosis?

Cell Eating / The cell engulfs some relatively large or solid material once bound to the receptors on the cell's surface, psuedopods form and flow around the particle

What is the Genetic Theory?

Cell aging is "programmed" into our genes / With each cycle of DNA replication the telomeres get a bit shorter and eventually they become too short for cell survival

What is Pinocytosis?

Cell drinking / Fluid phase endocytosis / a bit of infolding plasma membrane surrounds a very small volume of extracellular fluid containing dissolved molecules

What happens in the G₁ Phase?

Cell is metabolically acive, synthesizing proteins rapidly and growing vigously / most variable phase in terms of lenght / lasts several minutes to hours days or years / Virtually no activities direclty related to cell division occur / At the end, the centrioles start to replicate in preparation for cell division

What are the general functions of the Microfilaments?

Cell motility / Changes in Cell Shape

What is a multinucleate cell?

Cell with more than one nucleus

What is the smallest unit of life?

Cells

Describe Smooth Muscle

Cells are spindle shaped with central nuclei / No striations / Cells are arranged closely to form sheets

What forms the bases of Cilia and Flagella?

Centrioles

How do Carrier proteins carry molecules through the barrier?

Changes shape to move the binding site from one face of the membrane to the other

What are the two major roles of Transmembrane Proteins?

Channels / Carriers

What are Leakage Channels?

Channels that are always open and simply allow ions or water to move according to concentration gradients

What are Gated Channels?

Channels that are controlled (opened or closed) usually by chemical or electrical signals

What are Hormones?

Chemical Messengers

Some Simple Columnar Epithelia display ____ on their free surfaces

Cilia

Epithelial cells fit ____ together to form continuous sheets

Closely

What do dense regular connective tissue contain?

Closely packed bundles of collagen fibers running in the same direction / parallel to the direction of pull

What results from severe or destructive infections?

Clot Formation / Scarring

What are stop sign codons?

Codons that call for termination of polypeptide synthesis

Which fiber found in the connective tissue is the strongest and most abundant?

Collagen Fibers

What three types of fibers are found in connective tissue matrix?

Collagen fibers / Elastic fibers / Reticular fibers

What is one of the best understood human cancers?

Colorectal cancer

Define Mesenchyme

Common embryonic tissue from which all connective tissues arise

What are gap junctions?

Communicating junctions between adjacent cells

Each nucleotide acts as a template for construction a _______ strand

Complementary

In cells, transcription transfers information from a DNA sequence to the _______ base sequence

Complementary

How can Benign Neoplasts kill a patient?

Compressing Vital Organs

What are the real world equivalents of a nucleus?

Computer + Design Department + Construction Boss + Board of Directors = All in One

What does Receptor Mediated Endocytosis allow cells to do?

Concentrate material that is present only in small amounts in the extracellular fluid

What three factors influence the rate of diffusion?

Concentration / Molecular Size / Temperature

What are Osteons?

Concentric rings of bony matrix surrounding central canals containing the blood vessels and nerves serving the bone

What do leukocytes do?

Concerned with tissue response to injury

The shape of the nucleus ____ to that of the cell

Conforms

What do Reticular fibers do?

Connect the coarser collagen fibers and branch extensively to form delicate networks that surround small blood vessels and support the soft tissue of organs

Where is elastic connective tissue found?

Connecting adjacent vertebrae / in the walls many of the larger arteries

All epithelial sheets rest upon and are supported by ____ tissue

Connective

In which type of tissue is there a majority of Extracellular Matrix?

Connective Tissue

What are the four main classes of Connective Tissue?

Connective Tissue Proper / Cartilage / Bone / Blood

Define Bone / Osseous Tissue

Connective tissue that forms the bony skeleton

How do you describe the role of nervous tissue in one word?

Controls

What are Tendons?

Cords that attach muscles to bones

What is the Microvilli Terminal Web?

Core of bundled actin filaments that extend into a mat of actin filaments near the surface of the cell

What is Secondary Active Transport also known as?

Cotransport

What are the two types of epithelium?

Covering and lining epithelium / Glandular epithelium

What does vacuum assisted closure involve?

Covering the wound with a special sponge, and then applying suction through the sponge

How do you describe the role of epithelial tissue in one word?

Covers

What are the three types of covering and lining membranes?

Cutaneous / Mucous / Serous

What are two important Second Messengers?

Cyclic AMP / Ionic Calcium

What two groups of proteins are crucial to a cell's ability to finish the S Phase and enter mitosis?

Cyclins / Cyclin-Dependent kinases (Cdks)

How are Cyclin-Dependent kinases (Cdks) activated or deactivated?

Cyclins that function in a regulatory role

What is the second step of Apoptosis?

Cytochrome C and other factors leak from the mitochondria into the cytosol, and these factors activate caspases

What is a psuedopod?

Cytoplasmic extensions / False-Foot

What are ribosomes?

Cytoplasmic organelles at which proteins are synthesized

What is the Mitochondria?

Cytoplasmic organelles responsible for ATP generation for cellular activities

What are the 3 major elements of the cytoplasm?

Cytosol / Organelles / Inclusions

What process establishes the resting membrane potential?

Diffusion of ions, mainly the diffusion of K⁺ from the cell through leakage channels, establishes the resting membrane potential

What is a phagosome?

Eaten Body / Vesicle that fuses with a lysosome to have its contents digested

How does the resting membrane potential come about?

Diffusion causes ionic imbalances that polarize the membrane

How does Cartilage receive its nutrients?

Diffusion from blood vessels located in the connective tissue layer (perichondrium) surrounding it

What are the two stages of Prophase?

Early Prophase / Late Prophase

What happens in S Phase?

DNA is replicated / New histones are made and assembled into chromatin / Ensures correct mitotic phase

During what phase of the cell cycle is DNA synthesized?

DNA is synthesized during the Synthetic (S) Phase

What is the role of DNA in transcription?

DNA provides the coded instructions for protein synthesis via the mRNA synthesized on it / Acts as the template

What fixes the damaged DNA replication?

DNA repair mechanism

What is transcription?

DNA's information is encoded in mRNA

Define Necrosis

Death of a cell or group of cells due to injury or disease

The Reticular lamina is ___ to the basal lamina

Deep

What is the process that responds to Stimuli in neurons?

Dendrites

What is scar tissue?

Dense Connective Tissue

What 2 distinct modifications make Simple Columnar Epithelia ideal for digestive tract lining?

Dense Microvilli on the Apical surface of absorptive cells / Tubular glands made primarily of cells that secrete mucus-containing intestinal juice

What are the three types of Dense Connective Tissue?

Dense Regular / Dense Irregular / Elastic

What type of connective tissue is damaged when you cut your index finger tendon?

Dense Regular Connective Tissue

What are Nucleoli?

Dense spherical bodies in the cell nucleus involved with ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis and ribosomal subunit assembly

The Nuclear Envelope process is energy ________ and guided by ________ transport proteins

Dependent / Soluble

Which two types of cell junctions would you expect to find between muscle cells of the heart?

Desmosomes / Gap Junctions

Where is Contact Signaling important?

Development / Immunity

What does structural variation mean?

Different organells come to predominate in different cells

What are the 3 types of Passive Transport?

Diffusion / Facilitated Diffusion / Osmosis

What are the three primary germ layers?

Ectoderm / Mesoderm / Endoderm

What are the 4 functions of the Lysosomes?

Digesting particles taken in by endocytosis, particularly ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins / Degrading stressed or dead cells and worn out or nonfunctional organelles through Autophagy / Performing metabolic functions / Breaking down bone to release calcium ions into the blood

What two major roles do cellular secretions perform?

Digestion / Lubrication

What is a hypotonic solution?

Dilute / Lower concentration of non-penetrating solutes

The energy is provided ____ in Primary Active Transport

Directly

Where does the energy come from in Primary Active Transport?

Directly from Hydolysis of ATP by transport proteins known as PUMPS

What does the nucleoplasm contain?

Dissolved Salts / Nutrients / Other Essential Solutes

What is the function of Extracellular Fluid (ECF)?

Dissolves and transports substances in the body

What do "guy-wires" do?

Distribute tension throughout a cellular sheet and reduce the chance of the sheet tearing when it is subjected to pulling forces

How do Vesicles in Exocytosis bind to the Plasma membrane?

Docking Process / Transmembrane proteins on the vesicle known as v-snares attach to t-snares and binding them together

Define the Pericardium

Double layered sac enclosing the hear and forming its superficial layer / has fibrous and serous layers

What are Autophagosomes?

Double-membrane vesicles used during the process of autophagy

Endocrine glands are also known as

Ductless glands

Define Endocrine Glands

Ductless glands that empty their hormonal products directly into the blood

When are Proteasome activity critical?

During starvation when the complexes degrade preexisting proteins to provide amino acids for synthesis of new and needed proteins

When does Mesenchyme arise?

During the early weeks of embryonic development and eventually differentiates into all other connective tissue cells

What is the function of the polyribosome?

Efficiently produces multiple copies of the same protein

What proteins are abundant in Elastic fibers?

Elastin

What is Voltage?

Electrical potential energy resulting from the separation of oppositely charged particles

Where are Gap Junctions commonly found?

Electrically excitable tissue / Heart and Smooth Muscle where ion passage from cell to cell helps synchronize their electrical activity and contraction

What 3 key roles do Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAMs) in the body?

Embryonic Development / Wound Repair / Immunity

Define Endoderm

Embryonic germ layer / forms the lining of the digestive tube and its associated structures

Define Ectoderm

Embyonic germ layer / forms the epidermis of the skin and its derivatives and nervous tissue

What two ways can a gland release their product?

Endocrine (Internally secreting) / Exocrine (externally secreting)

What is the vesicle involved in Pinocytosis?

Endosome

What are the two unique Squamous Epithelia?

Endothelium / Mesothelium

Where are key places that hyaline is found?

Ends of bones as articular cartilage / tip of the nose / connects ribs to the sternum / most of the respiratory system passage (trachea) / makes up most of the embryonic skeleton before bones form

Where does the energy come from in Secondary Active Transport?

Energy stored in concentration gradients of ions created by primary active transport pumps.

What substances are taken up in Receptor Mediated endocytosis?

Enzymes / Insulin / Some Hormones / Low density lipoproteins (such as cholesterol) / Iron

What are the other roles of Transmembrane proteins?

Enzymes / Receptors for Hormones

What happens to the cyclins at the end of mitosis?

Enzymes destroy the cyclins / the process begins again

What is the skeletal hyaline carrtilage called during childhood?

Epiphyseal Plates

What tissue are still highly mitotic in adults?

Epithelia / Blood forming Tissues

What are the 4 general types of tissue?

Epithelial / Connective / Muscle / Nervous

What tissue regenerate extremely well?

Epithelial Tissue / Bone or Osseous Tissue / Areolar Connective Tissue / Dense Irregular Connective Tissue / Blood Forming Tissue

Epithelial tissue is the only tissue type that has polarity, that is, an apical and a basal surface. Why is this important?

Epithelial tissue lines body cavities and covers the body's external surface / thus polarity with one free (apical) surface is a requirement

What is the point that Diffusion must reach to stop?

Equilibrium

What are the vast majority of blood cells?

Eryhtrocytes (Red Blood Cells)

Where are Aquaporin channels abundantly found?

Erythrocytes / Kidney Tubule cells

Cell Division is ______ for body growth and tissue repair

Essential

Where do the Sugar Groups produced in the Rough ER eventually located?

Eventually will face the extracellular environment

Define Autopsy

Examination of the body, ts organs, and its tissues after death to determine the cause of death

What do Capillaries consist of?

Exclusively of endothelium and its exceptional thinness encourages the efficient exchange of nutrients and wastes between the bloodstream and surrounding tissue cells

What separates the Cutaneous membrane from the other epithelial membranes?

Exposed to air / dry membrane

What does the Fibrous Capsule do in Multicellular Exocrine Glands?

Extends into teh gland and divides it into lobes

What are the 3 major classes of extracellular materials?

Extracellular Fluid (ECF) / Cellular Secretions / Extracellular Matrix

What two characteristics do connective tissue share that set them apart from other primary tissue?

Extracellular Matrix / Common Origin

Define Basement Membrane

Extracellular material consisting of a basal lamina secreted by epithelial cells and a reticular lamina secreted by underlying connective tissue cells

What are immune responses?

Extremely specific responses that take longer to swing into action

What is glandular epithelium?

Fashions glands of the body

What does the G in the G Phases stand for?

Gap

What are Transcription factors?

Gene activating chemicals that stimulate histones at the gene transcription site to loosen

What does the abundant fat beneath the skin serve for the entire body?

General Nutrient needs

What is the centriole matrix best known for?

Generating microtubules and organizing the mitotic spindle in cell division

Define Marfan's Syndrome

Genetic disease resulting in abnormalities of connective tissues due to a defect in fibrillin

What are Proteasomes?

Giant "waste disposal" complexes composed of protein-digesting enzymes

Define Holocrine Glands

Glands that accumulate their secretions within their cells / secretions are discharged only upon rupture and death of the cell

Define Exocrine Glands

Glands that have ducts through which their secretions are carried to a particular site

Define merocrine glands

Glands that produce secretions intermittently / secretions do not accumulate in the gland

What happens when specific Cdk (Cyclin-dependent Kinases) and Cyclins join together?

Initiates enzymatic cascades needed for cell division

Which organelle has cis and trans faces?

Golgi Apparatus

What two components make up the extracellular matrix?

Ground Substance / Fibers

What are the three main components of Connective Tissues?

Ground substance / Fibers / Cells

What do oncogenes accelerate?

Growth

What types of chemical signals affect cell division?

Growth factors / Hormones

Define Hypertrophy

Growth of an organ or tissue due to an increase in the size of its cells

What phase are Cells that permanently stop dividing?

G₀ Phase

What are the 3 subphases of Interphase?

G₁ / S Phase / G₂

At what point does a damaged DNA replication stop?

G₂/M checkpoint

What type of mixture is the cytosol?

Has properties of both colloid and a true solution

What are tissues stained with in Transmission Electron Microscopy?

Heavy metal salts

What types of stains are used to stain tissues to be viewed with a transmission electron microscope?

Heavy metal salts are used

What are functions of the microfilament in nonmoving cells?

Help maintain cell shape and distribute tension throughout the cell

What is the role of Phagocytes in the body?

Help protect the body by ingesting and disposing of bacteria , foregin substances, dead tissue cells

What are the cell types found in blood?

Hemocytoblast / Hematopoietic stem cell

What 3 chemicals are found in the Mast cell's secretory granules

Heparin / Histamine / Proteases / Other enzymes

Epithelium has a ____ regenerative capacity

High

Where are stratified epithelia commonly found?

High abrasion areas where protection is important / Skin surface and the lining of the mouth

How does Temperature affect the Rate of Diffusion?

Higher temperatures increase the speed of molecular movement and means more rapid diffusion

What are Free Radicals?

Highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons that can scramble the structure of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids

Define Neuron

Highly specialized nerve cells that generate and transmit electrical signals

What is the importance of the histone proteins present in the nucleus?

Histone proteins provide the means to pack DNA in a compact, orderly way, and they play a role in gene regulation

What are connexons?

Hollow cylinders composed of transmembrane proteins

What does the Golgi Apparatus look like?

Hollow dinner plates with swarms of membranous vesicles

Define Liposomes

Hollow microscopic sacs formed of phospholipids that can be filled with a variety of drugs

**APPLY While examining a multicellular exocrine gland under the microscope, you notice that there are many cells in metaphase. Is this gland a merocrine or holocrine gland? Explain.

Holocrine / Holocrine glands have the highest rate of cell division / The secretory cells rupture when they secrete so they must be continuously replaced

What are the three phases of Translation?

Initiation (Translation) / Elongation (Translation) / Termination (Translation)

What do Endocrine Glands secrete through exocytosis?

Hormones

What is the most noticeable difference in all connective tissue?

How richly they are supplied by blood vessels

What is the most abundant cartilage in the body?

Hyaline Cartilage

What are the 3 types of Cartilage?

Hyaline Cartilage / Elastic Cartilage / Fibrocartilage

What do Oxidases convert free radicals to?

Hydrogen Peroxide

What happens to proteins that are marked with Ubiquitins?

Hydrolyzed to small peptides by proteasomes

If a cell ejects or loses its nucleus, what is its fate and why?

If a cell loses its nucleus, it is doomed to die because it will be unable to make proteins, which include enzymes needed for all metabolic reactions

What do determines if an organelle is membranous or not?

If it has a membrane

What are the three steps of Tissue Repair?

Inflammation / Organization / Regeneration

What do the cells of Malignant Neoplasts resemble?

Immature cells that invade their surroundings

Define Macrophage

Immune cell type common in connective tissue, lymphoid tissue, and many body organs / phagocytizes tissue cells, bacteria, and other foreign debris / presents antigens to T cells in the immune response

Where is Transcytosis common? Why?

In Endothelial cells lining blood vessels / Provides a quick means to get substances from the blood to interstitial fluid

How do the two types of facilitated diffusion differ?

In channel mediated diffusion the diffusing substance moves through a channel protein / In carrier mediated diffusion the diffusing substance attaches to a carrier protein that moves it across the membrane

Where are cilia mainly located?

In large numbers, on the exposed surfaces of certain cells

What toxins often invade the cell using Receptor Mediated Endocytosis?

Influenza Virus / Diptheria / Cholera

What are three characteristics of Channel Proteins?

Inhibited by Certain Molecules / Show Saturation / Tend to be specific

Where are the "seeds" of cancer found?

In our own genes

Where is Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium found?

In the ducts of some of the larger glands

Where are tight junctions found?

In the epithelial cells that line the digestive tract

What are Condensed Chromatin?

Inactive Chromatin segments

What are the major role of Microvilli?

Increase the plasma membrane surface of absorptive cells

The energy is provided ____ in Secondary Active Transport

Indirectly

How do G protein-coupled receptors exert their effect?

Indirectly through a G protein

Define Goblet Cells

Individual cells that produce mucus

What does the Ubiquitin-proteasome pathway handle?

Individual proteins that are misfolded, damaged, or unneeded and must be disposed of

What is a common example of Dysplasia?

Infections

Why can Water pass through the Bilipid Membrane?

It is extremely small in size

Why is the Rough ER known as the Membrane Factory?

It is where integral proteins and phospholipids that form part of all cellular membranes are manufactured

What role does cholesterol play in the Lipid Bilayer?

It lays between the Phospholipid tails to stiffen the membrane

What does it mean that a benign neoplasm is a strictly local affair?

It remains compacted / Often encapsulated / Tend to grow slowly / Seldom kill their hosts if removed before they compress vital organs

Why is Telomerase referred as the Immortality enzyme?

Its ability to lengthen previously shortened telomeres

Why is Areolar Connective Tissue viscous?

Its high concentration of hyaluronic acid

Why is Adipose Tissue richly vascularized?

Its high metabolic activity

What are the 2 Major functions of the Rough ER?

Its ribosomes manufacture proteins secreted from cell / "Membrane Factory"

What is nucleoplasm?

Jellylike fluid located in the nuclear envelope in which other nuclear elements are suspended

Why is Passive Transport so important?

Keeps the cell from expending enormous amounts of ATP

The epidermis of the skin is _____

Keratinized

What are the two new strands known as during the third sequence of DNA replication?

Leading / Lagging

What are the two types of Channels?

Leakage / Gated

What cells in the body secrete hyaluronidase to liquefy the ground substance and ease their passage to get to disease causing microoganisms?

Leukocytes

What are the other types of Blood Cells?

Leukocytes / Platelets

Define Malignant

Life threatening / pertains to neoplasms that spread and lead to death / Cancer / Bad

How can we imagine Elongation phase in Translation?

Like a train track

How do Motor Proteins act?

Like train engines moving substances along on the microtubular "railroad tracks" / Move "hand over hand" somewhat like an orangutan - gripping releasing and then gripping again at a new site further along the microtubule

What does the inner nuclear envelope do?

Lined with the nuclear lamina that maintains the shape of the nucleus and acts as a scaffold to organize DNA in the nucleus

Where are Simple Columnar Epithelia found?

Lining the Digestive Tract from the stomach through the rectum

What two characteristics determine if a substance can cross the plasma membrane?

Lipid Solubility / Size

What is the Cytoskeleton?

Literally cell skeleton / An elaborate series of structural proteins running through the cytosol, supporting cellular structures and providing the machinery to generate various cell movements

What is a simpler way to say Organelles?

Little organs

What Organ produces the most Blood Proteins?

Liver

Exocrine Glands include:

Liver / Pancreas / Mucous Glands / Sweat Glands / Oil Glands / Salivary Glands

Where are Peroxisomes especially numerous?

Liver Cells / Kidney Cells

What do the small deposits of fat serve for the body?

Local nutrient needs of highly active organs

What makes RNA different from DNA?

Located in the cytoplasms vs nucleus / Uracil vs Thymine / Single Stand vs Double Helix

Mucosa refers to the ____ of the membrane NOT its cell _______

Location / Composition

Which organelle has major site of ATP synthesis?

Mitochondria

What two types of Cells are "Experts" at Phagocytosis?

Macrophages / Certain Leukocytes

What is Receptor Mediated Endocytosis?

Main mechanism for the specific endocytosis and transcytosis of most macromolecules by body cells

Where is brown fat found in babies? Why?

Mainly on the back / They lack the ability to produce body heat by shivering

What is the function of the Mature cytes cells?

Maintain the health of the matrix

What do free ribosomes do?

Make soluble proteins that function in the cytosol, the mitochondria, and other organelles

Cancers are ____ neoplasms

Malignant

What are among the largest cells in the body?

Mature Adipocytes

What type of cells are anucleate?

Mature Red Blood Cells

What happens if oncogenes "switch on" dormant genes?

May allow cells to become invasive and metastasize

What do histones provide?

Means for packing the very long DNA molecules in a compact, orderly way but they also play an important role in gene regulation

What do the motor proteins of the Peripheral proteins do?

Mechanical Functions / Changing cell shape during cell division / Muscle Cell contraction

Which cell division process produces sex cells?

Meiosis

What are Glycolipids?

Membrane carbohydrates attached to the lipids in the membrane

What are Glycoproteins?

Membrane carbohydrates attached to the proteins in the membrane

What is the fluid mosaic model?

Membrane structure that depicts the plasma membrane as an exceedingly thin structure composed of a double layer (bilayer) of lipid molecules with protein molecules "plugged into" or dispersed in it

Define Mucous membranes

Membranes that form the linings of body caivities oopen to the exterior (digestive tracts / respiratory tracts / urinary tracts / reproductive tracts)

What the Endoplasmic Reticulum?

Membranous network of tubular or saclike channels (cisterns) in the cytoplasm of a cell

What are Peroxisomes?

Membranous sacs in cytoplasm containing powerful oxidase enzymes that use molecular oxygen to detoxify harmful or toxic substances, such as free radicals

What is the Golgi Apparatus?

Membranous system close to the cell nucleus that packages protein secretions for export, packages enzymes into lysosomes for cellular use, and modifies proteins destined to become part of cellular membranes

What are the three modes of secretion of Multicellular Exocrine Glands?

Merocrine / Holocrine / Apocrine

What is the most common mode of secretion?

Merocrine glands

What is the common origin of all connective tissues?

Mesenchyme (Embryonic Tissue)

What are the three forms of RNA?

Messenger RNA (mRNA) / Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) / Transfer RNA (tRNA)

What would be more accurate names for Interphase?

Metabolic Phase / Growth Phase

What 5 roles do the enzymes play in the Smooth ER?

Metabolize, Synthesize cholesterol and phospholipids, synthesize the lipid components of lipoproteins (In Liver Cells) / Synthesize steroid-based hormones such as Sex Hormones / Detoxify drugs, certain pesticides, and cancer causing chemicals (in Liver and Kidneys) / Break down stored Glycogens to form free Glucose (In Liver Cells) / Store Calcium ions in most Cell types

What is the capability of malignant cells travelling to other parts of the body?

Metastasis

What are the 2 other types of RNA that do not synthesize proteins?

MicroRNAs / Small interfering RNAs

Which organelle moves organelles within cell using motor proteins?

Microtubule

How does the Centrosome act as?

Microtubule Organizing Center

What is a centriole?

Minute body found in pairs near the nucleus of the cell; active in cell division

What often happens when infants with osteogenesis imperfecta are taken to the ER?

Misdiagnosed and treated as Battered babies

Which organelle contains its own DNA?

Mitochondria

What two distinct events are a part of the Mitotic Phase?

Mitosis / Cytokinesis

What is the Golgi Apparatus major function?

Modify, concentrate, and package the proteins and lipids made at the rough ER and destined for export from the cell

What do tight junctions help prevent?

Molecules from passing through the extracellular space between adjacent cells and restrict the movements of membrane proteins

The higher the Glycosaminoglycan content, the (more or less) viscous the ground substance

More

Bigger Cells require (more or less?) nutrients which must pas through proportionally (more or less?) surface area as the cell grows.

More / Less

Why does a deep injury to the skin result in abundant scar tissue?

More severe injuries damage and destroy more tissue, requiring greater replacement with scar tissue

Define Fibrocartilage

Most resistant to compression and stretch / forms vertebral discs and knee joint cartilage

What is the concentration gradient?

Movement from an area of high concentration down or along to an area of low concentration

How do you describe the role of muscle tissue in one word?

Moves

Secondary Active Transport ALWAYS:

Moves more than one substance at a time using a Cotransport Protein

What is Vesicular trafficking?

Moving substances from one area (or membranous organelle) in the cell to another

What is Transcytosis?

Moving substances into across and then out of the cell

What do all Unicellular Glands universally produce in human cells?

Mucin

What are the two most important Unicellular glands?

Mucous Cells / Goblet Cells

What do ciliated Psuedostratified Columnar Epithelia in the lungs contain?

Mucus-secreting Goblet cells

What 2 types of excitable cells need the ionic concentration differences?

Muscle / Nerve

What are Skeletal muscle cells also called?

Muscle Fibers

Define Skeletal Muscle

Muscle composed of cylindrical multinucleate cell with obvious striations / the muscle(s) attached to the body's skeleton / voluntary muscle

Define Involuntary Muscle

Muscle that cannot ordinarily be controlled voluntarily

What do the Harmful factors do to normal cells that can turn them into Cancer cells?

Mutations- Changes in DNA that alter the expression of certain genes

What are examples of Ligands?

Neurotransmitters / Hormones / Paracrines

What are Oxidases most important function?

Neutralize free radicals

Are extended chromatin visible under a light microscope?

No

Simple diffusion and osmosis occurring directly through the plasma membrane are ____ specific or saturable processes.

NOT

The inside of the cell is slightly ___

Negative

What are acidic stains full of?

Negatively charged molecules

What is an Adenoma?

Neoplasm of glandular epithelium

Apoptosis is particularly common in the developing ___ system

Nervous

What is the main component of the nervous system?

Nervous Tissue

What cells never reproduce once they are fully mature?

Nervous Tissue / Skeletal Muscle / Heart Muscle

What do Peripheral Proteins include?

Network of filaments / Enzymes / Motor Proteins / Links the cells together

What diseases are related to problems with Autophagy?

Neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's / Parkinsons)

What are intermediate filaments known as in Nerve Cells? Epithelial Cells?

Neurofilaments / Keratin Filaments

What are the two major cell types of Nervous Tissue?

Neuron / Supporting Cells

Where are reticular tissue particularly abundant?

Next to other tissue types / Basement membrane of epithelial tissue / around capillaries

How does the availability of space affect cell division?

Normal cells stop proliferating when they reach contact inhibition

Define Benign

Not Harmful / Not Malignant / Kindly

Where is the apical surface found?

Not attached to surrounding tissue / Exposed either the outside of the body or the cavity of an internal organ / borders open space

What are the three recognizable regions or structures of the nucleus?

Nuclear Envelope / Nucleoli / Chromatin

What is the nuclear envelope punctured with?

Nuclear Pores

What are the three events occurring in prophase that are undone in telophase?

Nuclear envelope breaks up / spindle forms / nucleoli disappear / the chromosomes coil and condense

What is the largest organelle in the cell?

Nucleus

What does White Fat store?

Nutrients for other cells

What happens during the Initiation phase of Translation?

Occurs when 4 components combine at the P-site

Why is Protection not a concern for Simple Epithelia?

Often very thin

Polymerases only work in ____ direction

One

The ribosome has ____ binding site(s) for mRNA and _____ binding site(s) for tRNA

One / Three

How many layers do simple epithelia have?

One Layer

What is a gene?

One of the biological units of heredity located in DNA; transmits hereditary information

What are Microfilaments?

One of three types of cytoskeletal elements; thin strands of the protein actin

What are Microtubules?

One of three types of cytosketal elements; hollow tubes made of the spherical protein tubulin

What is Interphase?

One of two major periods in the cell life cycle includes the period from cell formation to cell division

Define Mitotic Phase

One of two major periods in the cell life cycle; involves the division of the nucleus and the division of the cytoplasm

What does Unicellular mean?

One-cell

Why are synovial membranes not considered a part of the covering and lining membranes?

Only consist of Connective Tissue

Where do exocrine glands secrete?

Onto body surfaces / into body cavities

Define Gland

Organ specialized to secrete substances for further use in the body or excrete substances for elimination

What are Lysosomes?

Organelles that originate from the golgi apparatus and contain strong digestive enzymes

What are small interfering RNAs?

Originate outside the cell / interfere with viral replication

Why is blood classified as connective tissue?

Originates from Mesenchyme / Consists of Blood Cells and a Nonliving fluid matrix

Where does the DNA Molecule begin?

Origins of Replication

What do microtubules look like with their attachments?

Ornaments hanging from Tree Branches

What is bone tissue also known as?

Osseous Tissue

What produces the organic portion of the Extracellular matrix in Bone / Osseous Tissue?

Osteoblasts

What are the cells found in Bone / Osseous Tissue?

Osteoblasts / Osteocytes

What cell type is found in Bone?

Osteoblasts / Osteocytes

What do Mast Cells do?

Oval cells detect foreign microorganisms and initiate local inflammatory responses against them

What are the two most important enzymes found in Peroxisomes?

Oxidase / Catalases

What types of molecules can pass through the Bilipid Membrane using Simple Diffusion?

Oxygen / Carbon Dioxide / Steroid Hormones / Fatty Acids / Small Nonpolar molecules

***MAKE CONNECTIONS It has been observed that aging cartilage tends to calcify o ossify and its cells die. What survival needs are not being met in these cells and why is this so?

Oxygen and nutrient needs are not being met because the calcified cartilage matrix is too hard to allow them to reach the cells by diffusion. Remember, cartilage is avascular

What uses Merocrine glands?

Pancreas / Most Sweat Glands / Salivary Glands

What do Simple Epithelia form in the Kidneys?

Part of the Filtration membrane that filters blood to make urine

What are the two types of ways substances move through the plasma membrane?

Passively / Actively

What is an example of severely damaged cell that has a failed plasma membrane?

Patients with severe burns

Define epithelium

Pertaining to a primary tissue that covers the body surfaces, lines its internal cavities, and forms glands

What are cells that use phagocytosis also known as?

Phagocytes

Where are Lysosomes abundant?

Phagocytes

Phagocytosis cells gather in the lungs, particularly in the lungs of smokers. What is the connection?

Phagocytic cells engulf debris and a smoker's lungs would be laden with carbon particles and other debris from smoke inhalation

What are the three types of Endocytosis?

Phagocytosis / Pinocytosis / Receptor Mediated

Where are Stratified Columnar Epithelium?

Pharynx / Male Urethra / Lining some glandular ducts / transition areas or junctions

What is the function of smooth muscle?

Propels substances or objects along internals passageways / involuntary control

What is the Mitochondrial Theory?

Places the blame on damage caused by free radicals, resulting in diminished energy production by damaged mitochondria

What are the 3 major components that all human cells have at one point?

Plasma Membrane / Cytoplasm / Nucleus

What type of membrane lines the thoracic walls and covers the lungs? What is is called?

Pleurae line the thorax walls and cover the lungs

The plasma membrane is ______ due to ions

Polar

Water is (Polar / Nonpolar)

Polar

Why are the blood vessels weakened in Marfan's syndrome?

Poor connective tissue reinforcement

Dense connective tissue is

Poorly vascularized

Why are Channels selective?

Pore Size / The Charges of Amino Acids lining the pores

The outside of the cell is slightly ____

Positive

What are basic stains full of?

Positively charged molecules

What is autopsy also known as?

Postmortem Examination / Necropsy

What ion mainly determines the resting membrane potential?

Potassium (K⁺)

What two ways does the cilia move?

Power Stroke / Recovery Stroke

What are Artifacts?

Preserved tissue under the microscope that has been exposed to many procedures that alter its original condition and introduce minor distortions

What are the Two types of Active Transport (Specific)?

Primary Active Transport / Secondary Active Transport

Define Mesoderm

Primary germ layer that forms the skeleton and muscles of the body

What is the Golgi Apparatus known as?

Principal "Traffic Director" for cellular proteins

Define Mitosis

Process during which the chromosomes are redistributed to two daughter nuclei; nuclear division

What is Autolysis?

Process of autodigestion (self digestion) of cells, especially dead or degenerate cells

What do Chondroblasts do?

Produce new matrix until the skeleton stops growing at the end of adolescence

What are the 2 major functions of the Endomembrane System?

Produce, Degrade, Store, and Export biological molecules / Degrade potentially harmful substances

What is another way to say Apoptosis?

Programmed Cell Death

Define Fibosis

Proliferation of fibrous connective tissue called scar tissue

What are Proteoglycans?

Protein cores to which large polysaccharides called glycosaminoglycans are attached / The strandlike glycosaminoglycans stick out from protein core like the fibers of a bottle brush / they tend to form huge aggregates in which the glycosaminoglycans intertwine and trap water, forming a substance that varies from a fluid to a viscous gel

What are Proteases?

Protein-degrading enzymes

What is the Extracellular matrix composed of?

Proteins / Polysaccharides

What solutes are found in the cytosol?

Proteins / Salts / Sugars

What are Ubiquitins?

Proteins that attach to other proteins to mark them for destruction

What are cell adhesion proteins?

Proteins that serve mainly as a connective tissue glue that allows connective tissue cells to attach to the extracellular matrix

What allows Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) to function?

Proteins working with it form functional ribosomes which are the sites of protein synthesis

What is the role of Hyaline Cartilage in the body?

Provides firm support with some pliability

What do the Glycocalyx do?

Provides identity molecules - specific biological markers by which approaching cells recognize each other

What type of Epithelia is similar in function to the Simple Columnar Epithelia?

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelia

Some epithelia are psuedostratified. What does this mean?

Psuedostratified epithelia appear to be stratified because their cells' nuclei lie at different distances from the basement membrane. However, all cell rest on the basement membrane

What happens during the Initiation phase of Transcription?

RNA polymerase binds to the promoter, pries apart the two DNA strands and initiates mRNA synthesis at the start point within the promoter region

What happens during the Elongation phase of Transcription?

RNA polymerase moves along the template strand, joining together RNA nucleotides complementary to the DNA. It elongates the mRNA transcript one nucleotide at a time, unwinding the DNA double helix in front and rewinding it behind

Where are most Microtubules located?

Radiate from a small region of cytoplasm near teh nucleus called the centrosome or cell center

What is an Erythrocyte?

Red Blood Cell

Define Atrophy

Reduction in size or wasting away of an organ or cell resulting from disease or lack of use

How are Multicellular Exocrine glands classified?

Structure / Mode of Secretion

What is the Elaborate Smooth ER that is found in Skeletal and Cardiac muscle known as?

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

Any transport process that depends on a transport protein (such as carrier or channel) will be __________.

Saturable

How are Glucose carriers described when they are "engaged"?

Saturated

What are used to repair damaged Nervous Tissue / Skeletal Muscle / Heart Muscle?

Scar Tissue

Where are unicellular glands found?

Scattered within epithelial sheets

Define Pathology

Scientific study of changes in organs and tissues produced by disease

What are the only true examples of Holocrine glands?

Sebacious (Oil) Glands

At which sequence in DNA replication is the Replication Fork found?

Second Sequence

Define Metaphase

Second stage of mitosis / The chromosomes align in the center between the two poles of the cell

What is the function of the Immature blast cell?

Secrete the ground substance and the fiber characteristic of their particular matrix

How do Merocrine Glands secrete?

Secrete their products by exocytosis sas they are produced

What are the 2 important functions of Simple Cuboidal Epithelium?

Secretion / Absorption

What is the function of Psuedostratified Columnar Epithelia?

Secretions / Absorption

Where is the Rough ER abundant and well developed?

Secretory Cells / Antibody Producing Immune Cells / Liver Cells

What is a Alveolar secretory unit?

Secretory cells that form small, flatlike sacs

What is a tubular secretory unit?

Secretory cells that form tubes

What is a Tubuloalveolar unit?

Secretory cells that have both Tubular and Alveolar characteristics

What do mast cells contain in the cytoplasm?

Secretory granules with chemicals that mediate inflammation (especially in sever allergies)

What is the acinus?

Secretory unit consisting of secretory cells

The nuclear envelope is _____ _____

Selectively Permeable

Define Autophagy

Self Eating

What is the second sequence of DNA replication?

Seperation / The two DNA strands separate as the hydrogen bonds between base pairs are broken

What is the Cell Cycle?

Series of changes a cell goes through from the time it is formed until it has reproduced itself

What is the lubricating fluid between the parietal and visceral layers?

Serous Fluid

Define the Peritoneum

Serous membrane lining the interior of the abdominal cavity and covering the surfaces of abdominal organs

What are the roles of Liposomes?

Serve as multipurpose vehicles for drugs, genetic material, and cosmetics

What is the primary role of reticular fibers?

Serve as the internal framework that supports many free blood cells in lymph nodes, the spleen , and bone marrow

What is the general role of Areolar Connective Tissue?

Serves as universal packing material between other tissues / binds body parts together while allowing them to move freely over one another

It takes _____ genetic changes to transform a normal cell into a cancerous cell

Several

What does Adipose Tissue act as?

Shock Absorber / Insulation / Energy Storage Site

Define Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Short chain RNA molecules that transfer amino acids to the ribosome

What is the most important example of Primary Active Transport System?

Sodium - Potassium Pump

What do histone proteins do in nondividing cells?

Shut down the nearby DNA

What guides the signal sequence to the appropriate receptor sites?

Signal Recognition Particle (SRP)

What is a Ligand?

Signaling chemicals that bind specifically to membrane receptors

What do you call signaling chemicals that bind to membrane receptors? Which type of membrane receptor is most important in directing intracellular events by promoting formation of second messengers?

Signaling chemicals that bind to membrane receptors are called ligands. G protein-coupled receptors direct intracellular events by promoting formation of second messengers

What is Extracellular Matrix of Bone / Osseous Tissue?

Similar to Cartilage but is harder and more rigid

What are the two structural classifications of Multicellular Exocrine Glands?

Simple / Compound

What tissue combination makes up Serosa Membrane?

Simple Squamos Epithelium Tissue + A thin layer of areolar connective tissue

Stratified epithelia are "built" for protection or to resist abrasion. What are the simple epithelia better at?

Simple epithelia are "built" to provide for efficient absorption and filtration across their thin epithelial barriers

Define Endothelium

Single layer of simple squamos cells that line the walls of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels

What does the Exit (E)-site do?

Site for outgoing tRNA

What are the three kinds of muscle tissue?

Skeletal / Cardiac / Smooth

What cells are commonly multinucleate?

Skeletal Muscle Cells / Bone Destruction Cells / Liver Cells

What tissue have a weak capacity for regeneration?

Skeletal Muscle Tissue / Cartilage Tissue

Which muscle type(s) is voluntary? Which is injured when you pull a muscle while exercising?

Skeletal Muscle tissue is voluntary and injured when you "pull a muscle" while exercising

Where do the mot common cancers originate?

Skin / Colon / Lung / Breast / Prostate

Where are desmosomes common?

Skin and Heart Muscle

What are three mechanical defenses of tissue to the body's external boundaries?

Skin and Mucosae / Cilia of Epithelial Cells lining the respiratory tract / Strong Acid produced by stomach glands

What is the tissue response to Vacuum assisted closure?

Skin stretches leading to fibroblasts in the wound form more collagen tissue and new blood vessels proliferate, bringing more blood into the injured area, which also promotes healing

Injured cartilage heals ___

Slowly

What types of molecules pass through the nuclear envelope?

Small Molecules / Protein Molecules imported from the cytoplasm / RNA molecules exported from the nucleus

What are MicroRNAs?

Small RNAs that can interfere with and suppress mRNAs made by certain exons, effectively silencing them

What does "Areolar" mean in Latin?

Small open space

What are Organelles?

Small structures that perform specific cell functions

What are organelles?

Small subcellular structures that perform specific functions for the cell as a whole

What do centrioles look like?

Small, barrel shaped organelles oriented at right angles to each other

Each daughter cell is ___ and has (more/less) cytoplasm than the parent cell and it genetically ____

Smaller / Less / Identical

How does Molecular Size affect the Rate of Diffusion?

Smaller molecules diffuse more rapidly

What are the characteristics of the outer shell of Mitochondria?

Smooth / Featureless

Which organelle has a site of steroid hormone synthesis?

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Which organelle has cisterns?

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum / Golgi Apparatus / Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

What are the two types of Involuntary muscle?

Smooth Muscle / Cardiac Muscle

What tissue have a moderate capacity for regeneration?

Smooth Muscle Tissue / Dense Regular Connective Tissue

What are the two surfaces that Apical surfaces can have?

Smooth and Slick / Fuzzy with Microvilli or Cilia

Why must the DNA be replicated exactly?

So that identical copies of the cell's genes can be passed to each of the two resulting daughter cells

What is the Cation that is predominant outisde of the cell?

Sodium (Na⁺)

What are the "fibers" found in blood?

Soluble protein molecules that precipitate, forming visible fiberlike structures during blood clotting

What 2 factors affect Tonacity?

Solute Concentration / Solute Permeability of the Plasma Membrane

What two ways do peroxisomes form?

Some by pinching in half / Most by budding off of the Endoplasmic Reticulum via a special ER machinery that differs from that used for vesicles destined for modification in the Golgi Apparatus

What types of molecules can travel across the membrane using Active Transport?

Some sugars / amino acids / many ions

Define Intercalated discs

Specialized connections between myocardinal cells containing gap junction and desmosomes

Each membrane pump or cotransporter transports only ______ substances

Specific

What are two important characteristics of any transport process?

Specificity / Saturability

What is the only flagellated human cell?

Sperm

What do Peroxisomes look like?

Spherical Membranous sacs containing a variety of powerful enzymes

What is the function of Cartilage?

Stands up to both tension and compression / tough but flexible / provides resilient rigidity to the structures it supports

What is the significance of AUG?

Start codon

Define Hormones

Steroidal or amino acid based molecules released to the blood that act as chemical messengers to regulate specific body functions

What happens when a tissue is penetrated and injured?

Stimulation of inflammatory and immune responses which wage their battles largely in the connective tissue of the body

What do adipocytes do?

Store energy as fat

What are examples of inclusions?

Stored nutrients (Glycogen granules in liver and muscle cells) / Lipid droplets in fat cells / Pigment (Melanin) granules in certain skin and hair cells

What does the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum do?

Stores Calcium and releases it as a trigger for contraction

What are Chromatin?

Strands of DNA (genes) and associated proteins; forms chromosomes when condensed (tightly coiled)

What is the most widespread of the stratified epithelia?

Stratified Squamos Epithelia

Most mucosae membrane contain what types of epithelial tissue?

Stratified Squamos Epithelia / Simple Columnar Epithelia

Cell specialization leads to ___ variation

Structural

**APPLY Consider a plasma membrane glycoprotein. Describe the protein's path through the cell to the plasma membrane starting with its synthesis on the ribosome

Synthesized by a ribosome attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Carbohydrates are attached to the protein in the cisterns of the rough ER, making it a glycoprotein. The glycoprotein is incorporated into a vesicle that migrates from the ER to the golgi apparatus. Its carbohydrate may be modified or added to within the Golgi. It then exits from the trans face of the Golgi as part of a vesicle that migrates to and fuses with the plasma membrane. This membrane fusion results in the carbohydrate of the glycoprotein facing the outer surface of the plasma membrane

What does the S in S Phase stand for?

Synthetic

Over half of all cancers involve malfunction or loss of _____

TP53

What is a flagella commonly called?

Tail

Which vesicular transport process allows a cell to take in cholesterol from the extracellular fluid?

Taken in by receptor mediated endocytosis

What do columnar cells look like?

Tall and column shaped

What three structures do Dense Regular Connective Tissue form?

Tendons / Aponeuroses / Ligaments

What does Tono- mean?

Tension

How do the A, P, and E ribosomal sites differ functionally during protein synthesis?

The A site is the entry site for tRNA at the ribosome / The P site is where the tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide is located / the E site is the tRNA exit site from the ribosome

What do lysosomes function make their nickname?

The Demolition Crew

Where are the Enzymes found on the Rough ER?

The External (Cystolic) face of the ER membrane (where the needed substrates are readily available)

What is the most abundant extracellular material?

The Extracellular Matrix

Why is the Plasma membrane a Physical barrier to diffusion?

The Hydrophobic Core

What does the extent to which the solutes decrease water concentration depend on?

The NUMBER of solute particles

As a cell grows, its plasma membrane expands. Does this membrane expansion involve endocytosis or exocystosis?

The Plasma membrane expands as a result of exocytosis

What is the Mitochondia known as?

The Power house of the cell

What the Cutaneous membrane?

The Skin

What does the extent to which the solute decrease water concentration NOT depend on?

The TYPE of solute particles

Where is Cardiac Muscle located?

The Walls of the Heart

Why is the way that Cilium moves wavelike?

The bending of one cilium is quickly followed by the bending of the next and then the next creating a current at the cell surface

What does having Stage 1 cancer mean?

The best probability of cure

What happens when an immature blast cell synthesize a particular matrix?

The blast cells matures to a cyte cell

How does hyperplasia cause Anemia?

The bone marrow produces red blood cells at a faster rate

What is the third step of Apoptosis?

The caspases unleash a torrent of digestive activity within the cell / initiates apoptosis

What happens in all 3 Subphases?

The cell grows by producing proteins and organelles

What are the 3 concepts of Cell Theory?

The cell is smallest unit of life / All organisms are made of one or more cells / Cells only arise from other cells

What is the difference in movement of a cell and a flagella?

The cell propels other substances across a cell's surface / flagellum propels the cell itself

What is the fifth step of Apoptosis?

The cell then sprouts "eat me" signals, releases chemical that attracts macrophages and is phagocytized

What makes the cells in blood different from the other cells

The cells are not located in "its" tissue and does not make the fluid matrix of that tissue

What is the cytoplasm?

The cellular material surrounding the nucleus and enclosed by the plasma membrane

What happens when a cell is about to form cilia?

The centrioles multiply and line up beneath the plasma membrane at the cell's (free/exposed) surface / Microtubules then sprout from each centriole forming the ciliary projections by exerting pressure on the plasma membrane

What makes the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum "rough"?

The external surface is studded with ribosomes

Why is adipose tissue so important in the body?

The fat stores allow humans to survive a few days without eating

What four events happen during the Organization step of Tissue Repair?

The clot is replaced by the ingrowth of fragile capillaries that are characteristic of granulation tissue. This restores the vascular supply / Fibroblasts multiply and produce growth factors and collagen fibers that bridge the ap. When healing is complete, these fibroblasts revert to the redting stage or undergo apoptosis (cell suicide) / Macrophages phagocytize dead and dying cells and other debris / surface epithelial cells multiply and begin to migrate over the granulation tissue

What is the electrochemical gradient?

The combined difference in concentration and charge; influences the distribution and direction of diffusion of ions

What is an example of an antiport system?

The cotransporter uses the Na concentration gradient to pump H ions out of the cell to regulate the intracellular pH

What is the Wear and Tear Theory?

The cumulative effect of assaults, such as environmental toxins, leads to accelerated rates of cell death throughout the body

Define Cell Differentiation

The development of specific and distinctive features in cells, from a single cell (the fertilized egg) to all the specialized cells of adulthood

How does the Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function apply to cells?

The different cell types vary greatly in shape and size and dictate their functions

What is Osmosis?

The diffusion of a solvent (Usually water) through a membrane

Define Cytokinesis

The division of cytoplasm that occurs after the cell nucleus has divided

What is the Nuclear Envelope?

The double membrane barrier of a cell nucleus

What is the fourth step of Apoptosis?

The dying cell shrinks into a ball without leaking its contents into the surrounding tissue

What happens during the 2C Elongation phase of Translation?

The entire ribosome translocates, shifting its position one codon along the mRNA

Where are unicellular glands located?

The epithelial linings of the intestinal and respiratory tracts

Define Mesothelium

The epithelium found in serous membranes lining the ventral body cavity and covering its organs

What three events happen during the Regeneration step of Tissue Repair?

The fibrosed area matures and contracts, pulling the margins of the wound together / as it regenerates, the epithelium thickens under the scab, which detaches / a fully regenerated epithelium with an underlying area of scar tissue results. The scar may be visible as a white line depending on the severity of the wound

What constructs Collagen fibers?

The fibrous protein Collagen

Define Telephase

The final phase of mitosis / Begins when migration of chromosomes to the poles of the cell has been completed and end with the formation of two daughter nuclei

Define Prophase

The first stage of mitosis / The chromosomes become visible, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and a spindle forms

What is the epiglottis?

The flap that covers the opening to the respiratory passageway when swallowing

What is the Interstitial Fluid?

The fluid in the tissue that bathes all of our cells

What is blood?

The fluid within blood vessels / most atypical connective tissue

What is the matrix of the mitochondria?

The gel-like substance within the mitochondrion

What happens by the second month of embryonic development?

The general (primary) tissues have appeared / all major organs are in place

What does the nucleus contain?

The genetic instructions needed to build nearly all the body's proteins / dictates the kinds and amounts of proteins to be synthesized at one time in response to signals acting on the cell

How does Concentration affect the rate of Diffusion?

The greater the difference in concentration of the diffusing molecule or ions between the two areas, the more collisions occur and the faster the particles diffuse

What happens during the 2B Elongation phase of Translation?

The growing polypeptide bound to the tRNA at the P site is transferred to the amino acid carried by the tRNA in the A site / A new peptide bond is formed

What is the Replication Point?

The point at which the strands unzip

Define Translation

The information carried by mRNA is decoded and used to assemble polypeptides

What is translation?

The information carried by mRNA is decoded and used to assemble polypeptides

What is the Cytoplasm?

The intracellular fluid packed with organelles

What is the driving force for diffusion?

The intrinsic kinetic energy of the molecules

What happens in Translation?

The language of nucleic acids is translated into the language of proteins / The base sequence becomes the amino acid sequence

What is interstitial fluid?

The large amounts of fluid that functions as a molecular sieve through which nutrients and other dissolved substances can diffuse between the blood capillaries and the cells

What are three major protections against carcinogens?

The liver inactivates many carcinogens / cells have intrinsic DA repaid mechanisms to help undo mutations / Some immune system cells continuously scan our body cells and eliminate any cancerous cells they find

***APPLY Three patients are in intensive care because of damage and widespread cell death in three different organs. One patient has brain damage from a stroke, another has had a heart attack, and third has a damaged liver (a gland) due to a car accident. All of these patients WILL survive, but only one will regain full function through tissue regeneration in the damaged organ. Which one and why?

The liver is a gland that is derived from epithelial tissue. Epithelial tissue regenerates well. Nervous tissue in the brain and cardiac muscle exhibit virtually no functional regeneration

What is the most obvious structural feature of Areolar connective tissue?

The loose arrangement of fibers

Compare the function of lysosomes and peroxisomes?

The lysosomal enzymes digest foreign substances engulfed by the cell, nonuseful or deteriorating organelles, or even the cell itself to prevent the buildup of cellular debris. The enzymes in peroxisomes detoxify harmful chemicals and neutralize free radicals

The major function of cilia is to move substances across the free cell surface. What is the major role of microvilli?

The major function of the microvilli is to increase the cell's surface area for absorption of substances

What happens if the Cyte Cell matrix is damaged?

The mature cytes cell reverts back the blast form to repair and regenerate the matrix

What happens to the Plasma membrane when the cell is severely damaged?

The membrane becomes permeable to everything

What happens when a v-snare and t-snare bind together?

The membranes corkscrew together and fuse rearranging the lipid monolayers without mixing them

What is the first step of Apoptosis?

The mitochondrial membranes become permeable in response to internal or external signals

What is Lipid Solubility?

The more lipid soluble the more readily it will diffuse across

Define Areolar Connective Tissue

The most widely distributed connective tissue in the body

What is diffusion?

The movement of molecules or ions from an area where they are in higher concentration to an area where they are in a lower concentration

What is a polyribosome?

The multiple ribosome-mRNA complex

What keeps the cell from losing ALL of its Potassium through the leakage channels?

The negative charge of the Protein anions keep the Potassium attracted to stay inside the cell

What happens if equal volumes of aqueous solutions of different osmolarity are separated by a membrane that us permeable to ALL molecules?

The net diffusion of both solute and water occurs

PREDICT** Usually Na and Cl cannot cross the plasma membrane of cells. What would happen to a cell if it suddenly became permeable to both Na and Cl?

The non-penetrating solutes inside the cell would no longer be balanced by non-penetrating solutes outside the cell / The cell would swell and possibly lyse / Na Cl and Water would all rush into the cell

What distinguishes reticular tissue from areolar connective tissue?

The only fiber in the reticular tissue matrix are reticular fibers

What is a Plasma Membrane?

The outer boundary of the cell, which acts as a selectively permeable barrier

What are Covering and lining epithelium?

The outer layer of the skin / dips into and lines the open cavities of the urogenital, digestive, and respiratory systems / covers the walls and organs of the closed ventral body cavity

What do Microtubules determine?

The overall shape of the cell, as well as the distribution of cellular organelles

Define S Phase

The part of the interphase period of the cell cycle in which DNA replicates itself, ensuring that the two future cells will receive identical copies of genetic material

Define Secretion

The passage of material formed by a cell to its exterior / cell product that is transported to the exterior of a cell

What happens at Gap Junctions?

The plasma membranes are very close and the cells are connected by hollow cylinders (connexons) composed of transmembrane proteins

What is Chemical Signaling?

The process in which a LIGAND binds a specific receptor and initiates a response

What is apoptosis and what is its importance in the body?

The process of programmed cell death which rids the body of cells that are stressed, damaged, old, or no longer needed

What happens if the protein from TP53 cannot repair the damage?

The protein triggers apoptosis

What is granulation tissue name from?

The protude nublike capillaries from its surface giving a granular appearance

What are the 3 factors that control cell division?

The ratio of cell surface to cell volume / chemical signals / The availability of space

Define Genetic Code

The rules by which the base sequence of a DNA gene is translated into protein structures

What are cells?

The structural units of all living things

What does Keratinized mean?

The surface cells contain keratin

What is osmotic pressure?

The tendency of water to move into the cell by osmosis

Define anticodon

The three base sequence complementary to the messenger RNA (mRNA) codon

Define Codon

The three base sequence on a messenger RNA molecule that provides the genetic information used in protein synthesis / codes for a given amino acid

What is Osmolarity?

The total concentration of all solute particles in a solution

What is phosphorylation?

The transfer of a phosphate group from ATP

Define Transcription

The transfer of genetic code information from a DNA base sequence to the complementary base sequence of an mRNA molecule

What is the function of Blood?

The transport vehicle for the cardiovascular system, carrying nutrients, wastes, respiratory gases, and many other substances throughout the body

How do substances move in an Antiport system?

The transported substances "wave to each other" as they cross the membrane in opposite directions

What is Simple Diffusion?

The unassisted diffusion of lipid soluble or very small particles

What is the coding strand?

The uncoiled DNA not used as a template

What is the Ground Substance?

The unstructured material that fills the space between the cells and contains the fiber

**APPLY Your classmate Jennifer is confused by all the different types of membranes. To help her understand, explain the key differences between the serous and mucous membranes, the plasma membrane and the basement membrane.

These membranes differ from each other in their size, composition, and location. Plasma membranes surround cells and are tiny, made of two layers of phospholipid molecules with embedded proteins. The basement membrane is larger than the plasma membrane and is a layer of extracellular material that lies just outside the basal surface of epithelial cells. Serous and mucous membranes are much larger still. They consist of many cells and because they consist of two types of tissues they are considered organs

Why are all the Organelles a part of the Endomembrane System?

They are all the membranous elements that are either structurally connected or arise via forming or fusing transport vesicles

How do Peripheral Proteins differ from Integral Proteins?

They are not embedded in the lipid bilayer / attached loosely to integral proteins or have hydrophobic regions that anchor them into the membrane

What happens when the three primary germ layers specialize?

They become the four general(primary) tissues (Epithelium / Nervous / Muscle / Connective)

What makes Mitochondria complex organelles?

They contain their own DNA, RNA, and Ribosomes / They reproduce

What does it mean when Dense Irregular Connective tissue is arranged irregularly?

They run in all directions

What is a cilia?

Tiny, hairlike projections of a cell; may move in a wavelike manner to propel substances across the exposed cell surface

Define Sections of Tissues

Thin slice of tissue prepared for microscopic study

Define Anaphase

Third stage of mitosis / Chromosomes move toward each pole of a cell

What do Mitochondria typically look like?

Threadlike / Lozenge shaped

What does scanning electron microscopy provide?

Three dimensional pictures of an unsectioned tissue surface

How are multicellular glands formed?

Through Invagination of an epithelial sheet into the underlying connective tissue

What are the 3 major types of Cell junctions?

Tight Junctions / Desmosomes / Gap Junctions

What are Motor Proteins in Microtubules?

Tiny Protein Machines

What are microvilli?

Tiny projections on the free surfaces of some epithelial cells; increase surface area for absorption

How are Osmolarity and Tonacity different?

Tonacity is based on how the solution affects cell volume / Osmolarity is based solely on its total solute concentration

What three instances would Active Transport be required?

Too Large to Pass through the Channels / Incapable of dissolving in the Lipid Bilayer / Moving against its concentration gradient

What are Intermediate Filaments?

Tough, insoluble protein fibers that resemble woven ropes

What is the first major step in polypeptide synthesis?

Transcription

What are the two major steps of Polypeptide synthesis?

Transcription / Translation

What do Protein Kinase Enzymes do?

Transfer phosphate groups from ATP to other proteins, activating a whole series of enzymes that bring about the desired cellular activity

What is the second major step in polypeptide synthesis?

Translation

What are Carriers?

Transmembrane proteins that re specific for transporting certain polar molecules or classes of molecules that are too large to pass through membrane channels

What are Channels?

Transmembrane proteins that transport substances usually ions or water through the aqueous channels from one side of the membrane to the other

What does Active Transport require?

Transport proteins that combine specifically and reversibly with the transported substance

What is Endocytosis?

Transporting substances into the cell

What is exocytosis?

Transporting substances out of the cell

What four events happen during the Inflammation Step of Tissue Repair?

Trauma cause injured tissue cells, mast cells, and others to release inflammatory chemicals / inflammatory chemicals make local blood vessels leaky, allowing white blood cells, fluid, clotting proteins, and other plasma proteins to seep into the injured area / clotting seals off the injured area and prevents bacteria, toxins, and other harmful substances from spreading / the surface of the clot exposed to air dries and forms a scab

What do Osteons look like?

Tree Rings

What are ducts?

Tubelike connections to the epithelial sheets

What are the 3 classification of Secretion Units in Multicellular Exocrine Glands?

Tubular / Alveolar / Tubuloalveolar

What group of genes act as the brakes for cell growth?

Tumor Suppressor Genes

What are Intermediate Filaments made of?

Twisted units of Tetramer (4) fibrils that have a diameter between those of microfilaments and microtubules

All epithelium have ___ names

Two

How many daughter strands result from One Parent strand?

Two Daughter Strands

How many layers do larger glands typically have?

Two layers of cuboidal cells

Define The Pleurae

Two layers of serous membrane that line the thoracic cavity and cover the external surface of the lung

How many layers do stratified epithelia have?

Two or More

How do substances move in a Symport System?

Two transported substances move in the same direction

What determines what type of repair is made?

Type of tissue damaged / severity of the injury

What are the 3 stop codons?

UGA / UAA / UAG

What is the Real Life equivalent to the Golgi Apparatus?

UPS

Simple Multicellular Exocrine Glands have ____ duct

Unbranched

What is the first sequence of DNA Replication?

Uncoiling / Enzymes unwind the DNA molecule forming a Replication Bubble

What are the four DNA sequences?

Uncoiling / Separation / Assembly / Restoration

What two types of glands are there based on the number of cells?

Unicellular / Multicellular

Gluscose Transport is typically ____

Unidirectional

MAKE CONNECTIONS** Phospholipid tails can be saturated or unsaturated. This is true of phospholipids in plasma membranes as well. Which type (saturated / unsaturated) would make the membrane more fluid? Why?

Unsaturated / Their double bonds cause the fatty acid chains to kink so that they cannot be packed closely and this makes the membrane more fluid

Which type of Mucous membrane does not secrete lubricating mucus?

Urinary Mucous Membrane

What do Oxidases do?

Use molecular oxygen (O₂) to detoxify harmful substances, including alcohol and formaldehyde

What does Secondary Active Transport do?

Uses a cotransport protein to couple the "downhill" movement of one solute to the "uphill" movement of another solute

What are the two layers of Serosa Membrane?

Visceral / Parietal

What does the ground substance of areolar connective tissue look like?

Viscous like Molasses

What is the membrane potential?

Voltage across the plasma membrane

What is skeletal muscle often referred to?

Voluntary Muscle

What is the function of Skeletal Muscle?

Voluntary movement / Locomotion / manipulation of the environment / facial expression / voluntary control

What breaks the bond between the polypeptide and tRNA in the P site?

Water

What is fibrillin

a protein that is associated with elastin in elastic fibers

What happens to cells in a hypotonic solution?

Water rushes into them and causes the cell to explode in extreme instances / Lyses

***MAKE CONNECTIONS The two layers of serous membranes are held together by serous fluid, which is largely water. Which properties of water makes these layers "stick" together?

Water's high surface tension (due to its hydrogen bonds) makes the layers of serous membrane stick together

What are Muscle Tissues?

Well vascularized tissues that are responsible for most types of body movement

What is the fundamental similarity that all cells respond to receptor binding?

When a ligand binds to a membrane receptor, the receptor's structure changes, and cell proteins are altered in some way

What happens during the Termination phase of Translation?

When a stop codon arrives at the A site, elongation ends

What is contact inhibition?

When cells begin touching

How does the Cilia move during a Recovery Stroke?

When it bends and returns to its initial position

How does the Cilia move during a Power Stroke?

When it is nearly straight and moves in an arc

What are Passive Processes?

When substances cross the membrane without any energy input from the cell / Substances move from High to Low concentrations

What are Active Processes?

When the cell provides the metabolic energy (normally ATP) needed to move substances across the membrane / Substances move from Low to High concentrations

What is Contact Signaling from the Membrane Receptors?

When the cells come together and touch to "recognize" each other

What is Amoeboid Motion?

When the cytoplasm flows into temporary extensions that allow them to creep along

What is the process known as Signal Transduction?

When the transmembrane protein acts as a receptor for hormones and relays messages to the cell interior

****JOKE How could you say the cells move?

When they get their ACT(in) together

When does an Active Process occur?

Whenever a cell uses energy to move solutes across the membrane

Where are simple epithelia located?

Where absorption, secretion, and filtration occur and a thin epithelial barrier is desirable

Where are Elastic Cartillage needed?

Where strength and exceptional stretchability are needed

What two ways are Glands classified?

Where they release their product / Number of cells

Where are elastic fibers found?

Wherever elasticity is needed / Skin / Lungs / Blood vessel walls

What do Histone Proteins do?

Which package and regulate the DNA

What are Leukocytes?

White Blood Cells

What is the special adipose tissue located in the small deposits?

White Fat / White Adipose Tissue

How does the extended length of a neuron's processes aid its function in the body?

With extended processes, a neuron can conduct electrical signals a great distance within the body

How is Bone well supplied with Blood?

With invading blood vessels

Where are chondrocytes found?

Within Lacunae

What is a Mammography?

X-ray examination of breast tissue

What does TP53 code for?

a protein that stops cell division in cells whose DNA has been damaged

Can Ribosomes switch from Free to Membrane bound throughout their life?

Yes

Are condensed chromatin visible under a light microscope?

Yes / Often darker staining and more easily detected

What happens when you define the properties of cells?

You define the properties of life

The nucleus of a squamos cell is

a flattened disc

What is the nuclear lamina?

a network of lamins

What is the inflammatory response?

a relatively nonspecific reaction that develops quickly wherever tissues are injured

What four components need to combine at the P-Site of the translation phase?

a small ribosomal subunit / an initiator tRNA carrying the amino acid methionine / the mRNA / a large ribosomal subunit

How long does a single cycle of mitosis last in a human cell?

an hour or less

How many different types of cells are there?

around 250

Cartilage is:

avascular and noninverted

Describe Cardiac Muscle

branching, striated, generally uninuleate cells that connect at specialized junctions (intercaated discs)

Dense Regular Connective Tissue, unlike areolar connective tissue, has ____ cells othen than fibroblasts and is ____ vascularized

few / poorly

What us the predominant cell type in growing cartilage?

chondroblasts

What is Granulation tissue?

delicate pink tissue that contains capillaries that grow in from nearby areas and lay down a new capillary bed

The nucleus of a columnar cell is

elongated from top to bottom / located closer to the cell base

What is the general role of skeletal muscle?

form the flesh of the body / contract and pull on bones or skin / cause body movements

What function does the arrangement of Dense Regular Connective Tissue serve?

forms white, flexible structures with great resistance to tensions where the tension is exerted in a single diection

Where is Dense Irregular Tissue found?

found in the skin as the leathery dermis / fibrous joint capsules / Fibrous coverings that surround some organs ( kidneys / bones / cartilages / muscles / nerves )

In healing by first second, ___ amounts of granular tissue need to be formed

larger

What do the Network of Filaments of the Peripheral proteins do?

helps support the membrane from the cytoplasmic side

What do the products of the tumor suppressor genes create?

inhibit cell growth and division

What is a nuclear pore complex?

intricate complex proteins that line each pore forming an aqueous transport channel and regulating entry and exit of molecules and large particles into and out of the nucleus

What are Telomeres?

nonsensical strings of nucleotides that cap the ends of chromosomes, providing protection / vital for chromosomal survival

How is Osmolarity expressed?

osmol/L

What do proto-oncogenes code for?

proteins that are essential for cell division, growht, and cellular adhesion, among other things

Osmotic pressure ___ water ____

pulls / in

Hydrostatic pressure ____ water ____

pushes / out

In Simple infections healing is solely by ____

regeneration

What are stem cells?

relatively undifferentiated cells that divide as necessary to produce new cells

What do ribosomes look like?

small, dark staining granules composed of proteins and a variety of RNA / Two globular subunits that fit together like the body and cap of an acorn

In healing by first intention, ___ amounts of granular tissue need to be formed

smaller

The nucleus of a cuboidal cell is

spherical

What do Membrane bound ribosomes do?

synthesize proteins destined either for incorporation into cell membranes or lysosomes or for export from the cell

What does the Peptidyl (P)-site do?

tRNA holding the growing polypeptide chain

What is an aminoacyl-tRNA?

tRNA loaded with amino acid cargo

The first name in epithelium describes:

the amount of layers

Where does the tRNA pick up the amino acid?

the cytoplasmic pool

What is the RNA polymerase?

the enzyme that oversees the synthesis mRNA

The second name in epithelium describes:

the shape of the cells

As in epithelial tissue, the cells in muscle tissue are all ____ packed together

tightly

What is the cytosol?

viscous, semitransparent fluid substance of cytoplasm in which other elements are suspended