C273 Intro to Sociology

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Dubois

'double-consciousness,' for du Bois, focuses on a feeling of 'twoness' where the experience of one's identity is fragmented into several contradictory facets; in this case, it is the identities of African Americans being Black and being American

rebellion

Finally, rebellion* is the decision to reject not only the conventional means but also the conventional goals. Such a person might join a counterculture, such as a gang, whose members value power rather than money, and who achieve power through criminal means.

ritualism

A second response in which someone fails to achieve goals, or gives up on them, but still holds onto the socially-acceptable means, is called ritualism*. In this case, a person might give up on financial success, but still attempt to abide by the conventional means of success, having a legitimate job, in order to feel accepted in society

roles

A set of attitudes and behaviors appropriate for a certain status

phenotype

A set of genes that creates a certain physical appearance

What is one potential criticism of Talcott Parsons' functionalist study of families?

He overlooked nontraditional family forms. (focused on heterosexual famlies)

Which category is the smallest racial minority officially recognized in the United States?

Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islanders make up 0.2 percent of the U.S. population; thus, they are the smallest racial category recognized in the United States.

Subculture--know two examples

Move beyond memorizing definitions and expect to be able to apply concepts and theories to examples. For each term, be sure that you can come up with one or two examples. For example, a key concept in Unit 2 is "subculture." Be sure to know that the definition of a subculture is a group within a larger group which has distinctive attitudes and behaviors. To further understand the meaning of a subculture, you will want to be able to come up with some examples. Here are two good examples of subcultures: country music fans; surfers.

In 2015, Obergefell v. Hodges made what institution legal throughout the United States for the first time.

same-sex marriage

What is a theory?

set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and sometimes predict social events

Values

shape the content of norms and are taught to members of a society through sanctioning. For example, suppose you encounter someone who likes the same band you do. You might hear her refer to a band member by a nickname you were unfamiliar with. She shares an online fan website with you where everyone refers to the band member using the nickname. You are likely to adopt that name yourself because it is a badge of membership in the group. No one is forcing you to choose that name; it is not an official "rule," but it is a way of belonging

The ability to recognize the societal forces that influence individual behavior and attitude is known as __________

sociological imagination

Ethnography

the systematic study of people and cultures. where the researcher observes the people or society being studied from the point of view of the subject being studied.

Sociological Imagination (C. Wright Mills)

the term coined by C. Wright Mills to describe a way of understanding the world that involves thinking about things from different perspectives and putting personal circumstances into a wider context.

labeling theory

the theory of how people are labeled or identified will influence the self-identification and behavior of the people labeled.

Sociological Imagination (C. Wright Mills)

the vivid awareness of the relationship between personal experience and the wider society. Or the Term coined by C. Wright Mills to describe a way of understanding the world that involves thinking about things from different perspectives and putting personal circumstances into a wider context.

Alienation

their estrangement from themselves and their society because of unnatural working conditions.

Out-Groups

those groups to which an individual does not belong.

transgender

transgender* refers to an individual's actual gender identity if they identify as something other than the sex they were assigned at birth. Transgender people include, among many possibilities, biologically male people who identify as female, biologically female people who identify as male

transsexual

transsexual* people who make the physical transition to the body they feel more comfortable with (which can require expensive surgery and hormonal medication).

Cohabitation

two people living together in an intimate relationship but not married

latent functions

unconscious or unrecognized consequences of the same institution, action, or social group

Name the 3 types of formal organizations

voluntary, utilitarian, coercive

Tuskgee Syphilis Study

was an infamous study that left people known to suffer from a disease untreated.

goal displacement

when the means used to achieve a goal becomes more important than the goal itself.

Assimilation

where a group of one culture gives up their distinctive culture and traditions to adopt the patterns of the dominant culture

Proletariat

working class

sociology

the study of human society

Heterosexuality

Primary sexual attraction toward the opposite sex

Homosexuality

Primary sexual attraction toward the same sex

Name the steps in the research process

1. Ask a question 2. Background research 3. Construct hypothesis 4. Collect Data 5. Analyze Data 6. Report Results

The population of female inmates is ___ times as large as it was in 1980?

10 times

Karl Marx

1818-1883. 19th century philosopher, political economist, sociologist, humanist, political theorist, and revolutionary. Often recognized as the father of communism. Analysis of history led to his belief that communism would replace capitalism as it replaced feudalism. Believed in a classless society.

Families-Lesson summary

1963, William J. Goode argued that globalization, industrialization, and the spread of Western ideals had begun to cause a shift from traditional kinship systems towards nuclear families and that the shift in families, in turn, spread globalization and industrialization. Marriage rates are decreasing. In 1960, one in ten adults over the age of 25 had never been married, and as of 2012, that number is closer to one in four (Wang & Parker, 2014). The number of people cohabiting has risen sharply. Because of increasing divorce rates and births outside of marriage, about one-half of all children will spend some time in a single-parent family in their lifetime (Furstenberg & Cherlin, 1991). A blended family is a family composed of children born with other sexual partners. 21 percent of marriages involve both spouses marrying for at least a second time. Gay and lesbian couples struggle with the same issues as heterosexual couples. The number of single-person households has dramatically increased.

Sociology as a science emerged in the what century

19th

Which of the following is the best example of how globalization might impact the culture in the United States?

A South Korean music video is widely seen in the United States. (Globalization refers to the spread of ideas across the globe, often through media)

causation

A cause and effect relationship in which one variable controls the changes in another variable.

Which of the following would be the best example of a stigma?

A child who is extremely obese

countercultural

A culture or subculture with values and customs that are very different from and usually opposed to those accepted by most of the society

. What would a desire to eat be considered? (Drive, instinct or reflex?)

A drive

2. What would a desire to eat be considered?

A drive, A generalized desire that's important for survival, such as the desire to eat, sleep, or have sex, is considered a drive.

Which of the following is an action that might be considered a crime but not deviant?

A person jaywalks across a street instead of using the crosswalk. (Many people consider walking diagonally across a busy intersection a reasonable (if somewhat dangerous) activity. It can be against the law, however.)

medicalization of deviance

A prime example is alcoholism. In the past, alcoholics were generally considered deviant, because people believed drinking too much alcohol was morally wrong. However, as medicine has started to classify alcoholism as a disease, Americans are more likely to characterize an alcoholic as "sick" rather than as morally blameworthy. In this case, the burden for treatment for deviance has shifted from the individual to medical professionals.

Lesson summary-marriage

A family is a grouping of people in which adults care for the children, and members are united through kinship. Kinship is connections among individuals that are established through ancestry, marriage, or adoption. Marriage is the social and legal union that usually involves economic cooperation, a sexual relationship, and child rearing. In industrial societies, the nuclear family, or a family composed of two parents and their children, usually functions as the basis for other kinship connections. An extended family includes relatives such as grandparents and cousins, who may or may not live in the same place as the nuclear family. A matrilocal pattern means that it is common in a culture to live with or near the wife's parents, while a patrilocal pattern means it is more common to live with or near the groom's parents. Moving away from the parents to begin a new family is known as neolocality and is common in core countries. Core countries often base marriage on love, though some cultures practice arranged marriages. Homogamy is marriage between people with similar social characteristics and is common in the United States. Rearing children is a central function of the family, though studies indicate that after one child, marital life satisfaction decreases for parents.

An example of an instinct from the quizzes

A gardner almost steps on a snake he knows to be harmless and screams

In-groups

A group of people who a person feels like she belongs

Primary groups

A group of people with whom an individual maintains close, personal relationships with, such as friends and family

reference group

A group where an individual compares himself to (Reference groups often play a role in shaping our tastes, preferences, aspirations. This experience can have positive effects; for example, a kid might put in extra time on the basketball court practicing his layups so that he can measure up to the rest of his basketball team.)

Which of the following describes one of the three functions Durkheim ascribes to deviance?

A homosexual lifestyle was identified as a deviant lifestyle. Self-identified members of this deviant group successfully fought for greater equal rights. (This is an example of how deviance can usher in new social norms by giving recognition to a previously unnoticed category.)

Homelessness--lesson summary

A large contributor to homelessness is the lack of affordable housing. Homelessness is partially caused by a lack of support for those with mental illness, the opioid epidemic, and gentrification of the inner city. Functionalists see homelessness as a dysfunction of society. Conflict theorists focus on capitalism as a cause of homelessness and on the criminalization of homelessness. Symbolic interactionists study the stigma associated with being homeless.

Bureaucracy

A large, complex organization composed of appointed officials

Content analysis research

A method by which the researcher analyzes cultural artifacts or various forms of communication.

secondary analysis research

A method by which the sociologist analyzes existing data that was already collected by others.

Experiment research

A method for testing a hypothesis under highly controlled conditions. In an experiment, there is often a division of test subjects into two groups: an experimental group*, a group that is subjected to the element being tested and a control group*, which is not subjected to the element being tested. The results from these two groups can be compared to determine the effect of what is being tested.

Field research

A method in which researchers collect data at a particular site that is not manipulated by the researcher. Field research can draw on either direct observation*, where the researcher simply observes, or participant observation*, where the researcher both observes and joins in the activities.

Which of the following is the best example of movement from a coercive organization to a voluntary organization?

A person gets out of prison and joins AA to help him deal with his drug addiction. (Prison is a coercive organization and AA is a voluntary organization where people join together because of a shared interest or value.)

Which is an example of ethnocentrism?

A shopkeeper is offended when a foreign tourist tries to negotiate a price in the store, and the shopkeeper tells him to either buy the item or leave it.

conflict perspective

A sociological approach that assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of tension between groups over power or the allocation of resources, including housing, money, access to services, and political representation.

Functionalist Perspective

A sociological approach that emphasizes the way in which the parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability.

How would a sociologist regard a print dictionary?

A sociologist would say that because language is always changing, the dictionary would not have the most up-to-date information.

master status

A special status that more defines a person than other statuses

Lesson summary- "ROLES"

A status is an identity category that carries with it social expectations about what role the person will play in certain interactions. A role is generally attached to a status. Role expectations are the set of expectations people have for a status. A status set is all the statuses one person has. A master status is a status that is more important than the other statuses a person has. Role conflict is competing demands for time and energy that exist across multiple statuses. Role strain is competing demands for time and energy across roles within a given status.

Survey research

A study in which a selected group of subjects responds to questionnaires that are standard across all participants. Surveys provide information about how people think and act. example: the Gallup poll

retreatism

A third response to the gap between means and goals is retreatism*, or "dropping out," where a person rejects both the cultural goals and the conventional means of achieving them. Drug addicts and alcoholics can fit here, along with 'drop-outs,' people who simply reject the conventional trappings of success and the means of achieving it.

direct observation

A type of field research in which the researcher observes what is being studied.

What three factors does a marriage commonly contain?

Economic cooperation, a sexual relationship, and child rearing.

Aaron has a close family. He identifies strongly as a member of his family. Which of the following statements is true relative to Aaron's situation?

Aaron's family is both his primary group and his in-group.Aaron's family is his in-group because he identifies with them. His family is also his primary group because these are people with whom he maintains personal relationships because he loves and cares about them.

Lesson Summary

According to Émile Durkheim, deviance reinforces cultural values and clarifies moral boundaries, draws the non-deviant closer together, and can promote social change. Robert Merton's structural strain theory states that deviance occurs when people do not have legitimate means to pursue socially-sanctioned goals. When that happens, Merton described a five-part typology:Conformity: legitimate means to socially-sanctioned goalRitualism: legitimate means with the recognition that the goal will not be achievedInnovation: illegitimate means to a socially-sanctioned goalRetreatism: rejection of both the legitimate means and the goalRebellion: new means to a new goal

Lesson summary

Affirmative action

Affirmative Action as we know it today emerged out of presidential executive orders that Federal contractors do not discriminate on the basis of race, color, or national origin. This means people hired by the government to build bridges or plow snow or do any other work could not discriminate against anyone because of his or her race

Preparatory Phase

Also known as the imitation phase, the preparatory* phase is the first step in socialization that we experience when we are very young. Mead theorized that infants are the focus of their own world because they are not capable of understanding the perspectives of others.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

An Institutional Review Board is a committee associated with a university or other entity that is charged with ensuring research is ethical.

Hypothesis

An educated guess

Examples of folkways

An example of a folkway is showing up to a dinner party with a gift. No one will sanction a person for not bringing a gift, but it's a common custom to show the guest's appreciation for the work the host has done. Other examples of folkways are shaking hands when you first meet, giving a child a "timeout," and having dessert after dinner.

self

An individual's perception of their own identity

"two-spirit"

An umbrella term traditionally used by Native American people to recognize individuals who possess qualities or fulfill roles of both genders

Materialist conception of history

An understanding of history that focuses on material conditions, the production, distribution, and consumption of food and objects. It's commonly associated with Karl Marx.

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

Another early contributor to the discipline of sociology, Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) differed from Comte because he did not necessarily want to improve society; he only wanted to understand it. Drawing on Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, Spencer applied the theory of evolution to societies to explain how they evolve over time. He believed that societies went through natural evolutions, and therefore sociologists should not interfere and try to reform them. Spencer's hands-off approach to societal problems appealed to many people in power during his time. He believed that through the concept of "survival of the fittest," it was natural for some people to be poor and others to be rich. His ideas are called social Darwinism* because of his application of Darwin's theories to societies. Spencer fell out of favor and has mostly been forgotten.

role strain

Another kind of conflict occurs when there are conflicting expectations within the same status. This is called role strain*. Many of us have felt role strain in our status as a "friend." If one of our "friends" complains about his partner, and we feel he (and not his partner) is in the wrong, do we tell him how we really feel, or do we support him? The problem is that a "friend" is supposed to do both: a friend supports his friends, and a friend is someone who will step up and do the difficult job of telling his friend the truth. In this common case, the role expectations create role strain.

Gini Coefficient

Another way to measure the status of well-being in a country is to look at the Gini coefficient. The Gini coefficient*, also known as a Gini index, is a measure of how well-distributed income is across the population of a country. A measure of 0 indicates that all people receive the same income, and a measure of 1 (or 100%) indicates that one person has all the wealth while others receive nothing. The Gini coefficient is often reported in its percentile form as a number from 0 to 100.

What is the first step of the sociological research process?

Ask a question

Lesson Summary for prisons

At 2.2 million people imprisoned, the United States leads the world in incarceration rates. Functionalists believe prisons help manage the failure of other institutions, they deter crime, and they help rehabilitate prisoners. The conflict perspective holds that prisons are inevitable in a society with social inequality. The criminal justice system presents structural inequality as personal failings and houses the unemployed. Symbolic interactionism argues that by limiting interactions with non-criminals, prisons cement a criminal identity.

The term "sociology" was first used by

Auguste Comte when he proposed a science that would unite everything we know about human beings.

Lesson 5/12 summary

Because culture is large and changing, it has many variations. Subcultures are groups with distinctive beliefs, behaviors, and language within the culture. Countercultures are groups that are oriented against some aspects of the dominant culture. Identity categories play a large role in all societies. Race, ethnicity, and gender are identity categories.

What is the difference between a retreatist and a rebel, according to Robert Merton's five-part typology of deviance?

Both a retreatist and a rebel reject the socially acceptable goals and means; a rebel creates a new set of goals and means. Correct. A retreatist rejects the socially acceptable goal and the socially sanctioned means. Like a retreatist, a rebel rejects the goal and the means to achieve it. However, the difference is that the rebel substitutes new goals and means for herself.

What do structural strain theory and the conflict perspective have in common, as they relate to deviance?

Both believe deviance occurs when there is an imbalance of resources in society. Correct. Both the conflict perspective and structural strain theory at least partly attribute deviance to the imbalance of resources available in society.

Humphrey's Tearoom Trade Study

But almost all social scientists would identify Humphreys' research as unethical. As a participant observer, he did not obtain the men's informed consent. He tracked them down to their private residences and misrepresented himself in order to interview them. He kept a list of names and addresses that could have been used to arrest the men as criminals.

What is the term for a rigid system of social stratification that offers little to no social mobility?

Caste system Correct. A caste system is a rigid system of social stratification that determines a person's place in society, which they are usually born into.

Play Phase

Children can enter the "play" phase as soon as they start recognizing other people as distinct from themselves. Play* refers to any activity that a child enjoys that lacks structure or rules.

Name some gender identities

Cisgender—someone whose gender identity matches the sex they were born with Nonbinary—someone who sees themselves as neither masculine nor feminine Gender fluid—someone whose gender identity is fluid, fluctuating between masculine and feminine Gender-neutral—someone who prefers not to use the binary of gender pronouns like he/she U.A.A.B./F.A.A.B./M.A.A.B.—neutral descriptions for gender "Un-assigned at birth," "Female Assigned at Birth," "Male Assigned at Birth,"

What is the difference between companionate and expressive relationships?

Companionate relationships prioritize amorous love while expressive relationships value mutual betterment and goal achievement. Companionate relationships prioritize amorouslovewhile expressive relationships value mutual betterment and goal achievement.

How did Auguste Comte's original conception of sociology differ from previous studies of society?

Comte applied scientific observations to the study of society in hopes of improving it

What is a good example of self-concept?

Felix knows he is a good student.

Immanuel Wallerstein

Conflict theorist Immanuel Wallerstein divided the world into three broad categories of nations: periphery nations, semiperiphery nations, and core nations. These three categories are also sometimes called (in respective order) low-income, middle-income, and high-income

Global stratification--lesson summary

Conflict theorist Immanuel Wallerstein divided the world into three broad categories of nations: periphery nations, semiperiphery nations, and core nations.Periphery countries are the poorest, concentrated in Africa, Central America, and central Asia.Semi-periphery countries have some infrastructure and resources.Core countries have relatively low poverty rates and enjoy a fully industrialized economy. Wallerstein's world systems analysis argues that core countries dominate the periphery, just as those who own the means of production in capitalism dominate the workers who sell their labor. Multinational corporations, corporations based in one country that also operate in other countries, are a key component of how the global economy stratifies countries. Modernization theory argues that industrialization will gradually improve the lives of people in developing countries. Gross Domestic Product (GDP), a measure of a country's well being, is what everyone in the country earned over a certain period of time. Life expectancy is the average age at which people die within a country. Gini coefficient is a measure of how evenly income is spread across the population of a country

Lesson summary Deviance and conflict theroists

Conflict theorists argue that even the law works primarily in the interest of the groups with the most power. Conflict theorists argue that the treatment of and consequences for property crimes in contrast to white-collar crimes underscore social class differences in inequality and economic opportunity.

Conflict perspective on marriage

Conflict theorists consider the family to be a central institution in our society, just as functionalists do. However, instead of focusing on the benefits of the family, this perspective focuses on the inequality perpetuated by the family unit and traditional views of family.

According to Wallerstein, what is the relationship between core, semiperiphery, and periphery nations?

Core nations dominate periphery and semiperiphery nations since they control world wealth, dominating and exploiting other nations for their own benefit.

A researcher tests a sample of elementary school children in the United States on their reading abilities and also counts the number of books in their homes. He finds that those children who have books in their home have better reading skills. What is this an example of?

Correlation

What is the difference between correlation and causation?

Correlation means two variables are related, while causation means that one variable causes the other.

Counterculture

Countercultures* do not believe in or share in the dominant culture at all, but rather they aspire to change it and replace it with what they believe in.

Crime (vs. deviance)

Crime iss a behavior or action that violates a society's legal code and provokes a response from the criminal justice system, while deviance violates social norms.

Cultural relativism

Cultural relativism* is the idea that no one culture is "right" or better than another

Culture as a process

Culture is a process in which groups of people negotiate what is acceptable for that group; it is ongoing and always-changing. Individuals internalize cultural practices but also change and transform those practices as a result of experience.

Key concepts in unit 2 lesson 2

Culture is a society's beliefs, ideals, artistic expression, and patterns of behavior. Enculturation is the process by which a person becomes integrated into a culture. Subcultures are groups which share distinctive attitudes and behaviors that set them apart from the dominant culture. Ethnic groups are groups of people with a shared heritage.

Lesson 5-3 key points

culturally learned behavior

Culture* is what channels the expression of these behaviors. For example, a child's hunger drives her to eat, but culture guides her to eat with a fork.

An example of being ethnocentric

Cultures vary across the world. What is considered food varies from society to society. We eat cow meat, the French eat horse meat, and the Yanomami Indians eat spiders. If I think it is disgusting to eat horse and spiders, you are being ethnocentric.

Another example of subculture

Dedicated birdwatchers who often meet, share common goals, and use a specialized language to talk about their goals. (Any group of people who identify strongly with each other and have their own specialized language to talk about their experiences)

Descriptive research

Descriptive research*, as its name suggests, seeks to describe social phenomena, such as the characteristics of a nation, the values of affluent rural households, or the behavior of shoplifter

George Herbert Mead

Developed Symbolic Interactionism. Believed development of individual was a social process as were the meanings individuals assigned to things

Durkheim discovered that deviance serves three essential functions in society. What are they?

Deviance clarifies moral boundaries and affirms norms. (For example, when a teacher punishes a student for cheating, the rest of the class is aware that cheating gets you in trouble.) Reacting to deviance unites a group. (Me Too movement) Deviance inspires social change. (Body piercings, for example, have migrated from outrageous to acceptable body markings over time. Divorce too has moved from a stigmatized category to acceptable.)

Lesson summary--DEVIANCE

Deviance is an action, behavior, trait, or another characteristic that violates social norms. A stigma is a deeply discrediting label that attaches to someone. What counts as deviant changes across time and place. Functionalists, Conflict Theorists, and Symbolic Interactionists all offer explanations for how deviance works and what labeling people as "deviant" achieves for society.

Lesson Summary

Deviant behaviors often become more permanent labels for people. Differential association theory interprets deviance as behavior a person learns through interaction with others and society. Critics of the symbolic interactionist perspective say it does not explain the origins of deviant behavior. Medicalization is when certain behaviors or emotions come to be defined as medical conditions. Sometimes those behaviors were previously thought of as deviant. Social control is society's attempts to regulate and control people's behavior.

Which of the following is not a major sociological perspective?

Drive perspective

Name an example of a master status?

During class, a physics teacher chats with the star quarterback of the high school football team about strategies for the upcoming game.

Organic Solidarity (Durkheim)

Durkheim's explanation for the way in modern societies rely on differentiation to form social bonds. Different parts of society function as a whole much like an organism.

Group classification

Dyad--a group of 2 Triad--a group of 3 4+-a group of 4 or more

differential association

Edwin Sutherland's differential association* theory interprets deviance as behavior a person learns through interaction with others and society. This theory emphasizes the significant role that peers and community play in encouraging deviant behavior. According to Sutherland (1940), just as people are socialized to conform (obey laws and social norms) by those who are closest to them—their friends and family—people become criminals when they are more strongly socialized to break the law than to obey it. A person growing up in a high-crime area might have friends and family who are criminals and might see first-hand the benefits of a life of crime. This theory focuses on how people learn deviant behavior from their environment.

Which of the following is an example of role strain?

Emmanuel is a manager at a company. He needs to get a project done soon. One of his most valuable employees is available but dislikes the work that needs to be done. Emmanuel struggles between the risk of missing the deadline or alienating the employee. (Role strain refers to conflicts within a particular status. Emmanuel feels the conflict between keeping the top talent happy (role of a manager) and meeting a deadline (role of a manager)

Ethnicity--Lesson Summary

Ethnicity by settlement leads to ethnic enclaves within a larger culture, which have high concentrations of a particular ethnicity, prevailing cultural norms, and in some cases, distinct economic systems. Ethnicity can come from circumstances such as having the same religion. A common ethnic label can obscure significant cultural differences among the groups that are lumped together. Not everyone who comes from the same ethnic heritage has the same personal experience of ethnicity.

Ethnicity

Ethnicity*, on the other hand, is based on one's heritage and ancestry, and it is a much more flexible category that tends to expand and collapse over time.

What is the research method called when a person observes and records in-depth detailed information about a group of people?

Ethnography

gender variant (transsexual)

Examples of people who fall under the gender-variant umbrella include tomboys*, drag queens*, and intersex* people.

Explanatory research

Explanatory research*, on the other hand, seeks to explain how or why some social phenomena occur. These studies might include why women earn less than men or how people self-segregate in neighborhoods

How might a functionalist classify the popularity and prominence of football in American society?

Football is almost a religious institution that uses rituals to reinforce common American values, such as competition, and it serves as an outlet for aggression in order to help maintain social cohesion.

Deviance and the 3 Sociological perspectives

Functionalist Perspective Society needs deviance because it creates social cohesion. Conflict Perspective Deviance is linked to social inequality. Symbolic Interactionism Social norms are upheld when people subtly or overtly respond to deviant behavior in their everyday interactions.

Soc Theories on marriage and family-summary

Functionalists argue that the family provides socialization, economic production, care of the aged and sick, reproduction, child rearing, and sexual control. Talcott Parsons (1982) argued that families provide primary socialization and personality stabilization. Contemporary studies on marriage have also found some measurable benefits for the couple relative to unmarried people. Conflict theorists believe that within a larger society, marriage, and by extension, family, creates social inequality because of the struggle for power. Feminist theorists believe that the family is closely connected to patriarchy, a system in which men hold power and women are excluded from power. Role-taking is an important part of the symbolic interactionist perspective that the family provides socialization. Gender roles in marriage are unequal but slowly changing.

Family lesson summary

Functionalist perspective on marriage

Functionalists view society as a unit made of different social institutions that serve social functions and work together to maintain stability. Functionalists believe that families are a universal social institution because of the needs that they meet. The family provides socialization, economic production, care of the aged and sick, reproduction, child rearing, and sexual control. Functionalists argue that the family is universal because every society requires these needs to be met in some way.

Key terms for functional analysis

Functions, equilibrium, structure, balance, structure function, manifest function, latent function

Subculture examples

Gamers, country music fans, hipsters, and bodybuilders are all examples of subcultures.

What did Margaret Mead's research on the gender roles of the Arapesh, the Mundugumor (now called Biwat), and the Tchambuli (now called Chambri) suggest?

Gender roles are learned and not universal.

Sociologists study individual behavior in order to find what?

General patterns

What are gender roles?

Generally speaking, they are duties and characteristics that people of a certain gender are expected to carry out in a society.

ethnic enclaves

Geographic areas that have large numbers of a certain ethnic group

George Herbert Mead

George Herbert Mead first introduced the idea of role-taking in 1934. Mead's work emphasized the importance of everyday social interactions when it came to socialization—a view that is referred to as symbolic interactionism.

One of the most fascinating phenomena in sociology is

Group dynamics

Lesson summary-Groups

Groups provide a sense of security and belonging. Groups teach us the rules of society. Primary groups are those which create strong emotional bonds among members. Secondary groups are ones created for functional reasons and usually create less emotion among their members. An aggregate is a group of people who are temporarily in the same place at the same time. A category is a group of people who share a characteristic.

formal organization

Groups that organize for a specific purpose (college)

Gender lesson summary

Here is a list of key ideas in this lesson: The functionalist approach focuses on the gendered division of labor contributing to the stability of marriage, whereby men take care of external aspects of the family, such as earning money, while the wife meets the family's emotional needs. Instrumentality is a focus on taking care of practical tasks and goals, while expressiveness is a focus on the family's emotional dynamic. Conflict theorists perceive differences in the sexes as an unequal social structure in which men reap more rewards for their contributions to society than women do. Those working from the conflict perspective note there are far more patriarchal, male-dominated, societies than matriarchal, female-dominated, societies in the world. Symbolic interactionists are particularly interested in gender socialization. The feminist approach is aligned with the conflict perspective but seeks to eliminate gender differences by gaining tangible benefits for women.

Marriage lesson summary

Here is a list of the key concepts in this lesson: A family is a grouping of people in which adults care for the children, and members are united through kinship. Kinship is connections among individuals that are established through ancestry, marriage, or adoption. Marriage is the social and legal union that usually involves economic cooperation, a sexual relationship, and child rearing. In industrial societies, the nuclear family, or a family composed of two parents and their children, usually functions as the basis for other kinship connections. An extended family includes relatives such as grandparents and cousins, who may or may not live in the same place as the nuclear family. A matrilocal pattern means that it is common in a culture to live with or near the wife's parents, while a patrilocal pattern means it is more common to live with or near the groom's parents. Moving away from the parents to begin a new family is known as neolocality and is common in core countries. Core countries often base marriage on love, though some cultures practice arranged marriages. Homogamy is marriage between people with similar social characteristics and is common in the United States. Rearing children is a central function of the family, though studies indicate that after one child, marital life satisfaction decreases for parents.

Lesson Summary

Here is a list of the key concepts in this lesson: Conflict theorists argue that even the law works primarily in the interest of the groups with the most power. Conflict theorists argue that the treatment of and consequences for property crimes in contrast to white-collar crimes underscore social class differences in inequality and economic opportunity.

Lesson 5/6 summary

Here is a list of the key concepts in this lesson: Globalization is the exchange of ideas across the globe, which slowly changes cultures. Cultural change can also occur because of a sudden cataclysmic event. Cultural change can occur because of the deliberate effort of a subgroup to change a culture. Modernization, the shift to a modern society, is cultural change driven by technology bringing people together.

More Racism-lesson summary

Here is a list of the key concepts in this lesson: Racism can be positive, negative, overt, or covert. It can exist within an individual, or it can be expressed by the policies or actions of an entire societal system. Explicit bias exists in the conscious mind. Implicit bias is a bias that is harbored unconsciously. Implicit bias is measured using the IAT (Implicit Association Test). Laws that promote or discourage discrimination often perpetuate it by defining the group, mindset, or behavior. Affirmative action seeks to remove bias by taking race explicitly into account when making selection decisions in jobs or schooling.

concepts for 2:5

Here is a list of the key concepts in this lesson: Reflexes are actions that are adaptive for survival. Instincts are innate physiological responses. Drives are general responses directed towards survival, such as the desire to eat or sleep. Culturally learned behavior is behavior that is not primarily controlled by innate responses such as reflexes, instincts, and drives.

Class system-leson summary

Here is a list of the key concepts in this lesson: Social stratification is the categorization and ranking of groups of people to form a hierarchy. Most societies are stratified. Though slavery is illegal in every country, underground human trafficking is a widespread, ongoing global issue. A caste system is an explicit system of stratification that a person is born into. Social mobility is the ability of people to change their class. A class system is a system of stratification that offers social mobility and is based on wealth and economic standing. Ascribed status is a status someone is born with and cannot change. Achieved status is a status someone gains through their actions.

wEALTH--LESSON SUMMARY

Here is a list of the key concepts in this lesson: Sociologists often divide class in the United States into five categories: the upper class, the upper-middle class, the lower-middle class, the working class, and the underclass. Wealth includes the value of all assets while income refers to the money coming into a household. The wealth held by the top 1 percent rose from just under 30 percent of the total wealth in the nation in 1989, to 39 percent in 2016, while the share of wealth held by the bottom 90 percent fell from just over 33 percent of the total wealth in the nation to less than 23 percent over the same period (Stone et al, 2019). The income gap is growing. Wealth allows a person to exert influence in certain areas of society. Wealth and power perpetuate one another. Wealth is transmitted to the next generation directly, through inheritance, but also indirectly through privileges.

Lesson Summary

Here is a list of the key concepts in this lesson: The preparatory phase is when children learn by imitating what they see others do. The play phase is when children engage in imaginative play, taking on the roles they encounter in their society. The game stage is when they understand rules and structure. The "particular other" is a person or character that is personally important to a child from whom they learn a role. The 'me' is the objective part of the self, representing the internalization of the generalized other; the 'I' is the response to the 'me.'

Lesson 2/6 summary

Here is a list of the key concepts in this lesson: We communicate ideas and information both verbally and non-verbally. Sociologists point to the use of language, symbols, and gestures used to communicate meaning in social interaction. Language is used to communicate information verbally, with the use of words, while gestures are used to communicate information non-verbally, with body language. Symbols are objects, words, or actions used to represent something else.

Modernization

Modernization*, the transition from a pre-modern to a modern society, brings unprecedented and rapid change that impacts each culture. It is technology-driven and makes cross-cultural connections possible and even inescapable.

Lesson summary

Heterosexuality is primary attraction towards people of the opposite sex. Homosexuality, bisexuality, and asexuality are all nonheterosexual identities.Homosexuality is primary attraction towards people of the same sex.Bisexuality is attraction towards people of any/all sex.Asexuality is lack of sexual attraction. Alfred Kinsey's study of sexual behavior gave important insight into American sexuality. LGBTQIA stands for,lesbian: women who are attracted to womengay: men who are attracted to menbisexual: attraction to people of any/all sexestranssexual: someone who has adopted some of the sex characteristics of the opposite sexqueer: a person who identifies as non-heterosexualquestioning: a person who is unsure or examining their previous gender or sexual identityintersex: a person who has the sex characteristics of male and femaleasexual: someone who feels a lack of sexual attractionally: someone who supports gender-variant and non-heterosexual people.

A law is passed requiring that girls' sports be given the same resources as boys' sports. This law leads to universities awarding valuable scholarships, which encourages parents to invest in girls' sports. Stronger female athletes attract more viewers to women's professional sports, which leads to a shift in how the culture views and values women. What sociological concept is this an example of?

Holism

Demographics-Lesson Summary

In 2010, the United States was 75 percent White and 12 percent Black. In a pluralist society, all racial and ethnic groups are distinct but have equal social standing. Assimilation is the process by which ethnic groups gradually give up their distinctive culture and traditions and adopt the patterns of the dominant culture. Segregation is the physical and social separation of different racial or ethnic groups. Genocide is the systematic killing of one group of people by another.

Marriage and divorce-lesson summary

In 2016, about 54.8 percent of Americans age 18 years old and up were married (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2017). Historically, marriages have been institutional, economic unions; then they were companionate, providing companionship and love; now they are expressive, allowing individuals to reach their full potential. Marriage rates are decreasing, and cohabitation is increasing as the stigma against it decreases. People with greater education and wealth marry at higher rates. Most children of divorced parents suffer effects in the two years after the divorce and then rebound. A small group of children experiences some long-term problems.

pluralist society

In a pluralist society*, all racial and ethnic groups are distinct but have equal social standing

category

In sociology people that share a trait or characteristic such as Americans of Irish descent

Summary of lesson 3. 4 Major perspectives in Sociology.

In this lesson, you learned about four major perspectives in sociology. Here is a list of the key concepts in this lesson: Functionalism: focuses on the functions and dysfunctions of social structures; functions and dysfunctions can be both manifest and latent Manifest functions are the stated intentions or purposes of an institution. Latent functions are the results of an institution that were not intended. Conflict perspective: the idea, based on the work of Karl Marx, that groups compete in society Symbolic interactionist perspective: a focus on how the everyday interactions among people create meaning Feminist perspective: a perspective that considers the role gender plays in social power dynamics

Sexuality lesson summary

In this lesson, you learned about the discrimination LGBTQIA people experience and the LGBTQIA civil rights movement. Here is a list of the key concepts in this lesson: Heteronormativity is promoting heterosexuality or just assuming that people are heterosexual. Michael Kimmel argues that being perceived as homosexual is primarily about gender norms, not being masculine or feminine enough; it is not about sexual preference. Like other disadvantaged groups, LGBTQIA people are bullied, subject to stereotypes, and underrepresented in the media.

Innovation

Innovation* occurs when people accept society's goals but adopt alternative (disapproved) means of achieving them. For instance, someone might try to make money by selling drugs or by stealing.

Max Weber

Max Weber called this shift the "rationalization of society," in which interactions are dictated by the need to accomplish objectives efficiently rather than by established traditions (1922). Rationalized societies give rise to formal organizations because these groups place a much higher value on achieving goals than they do on the relationships among the people that comprise them.

Lesson Summary-Minorities

Institutional racism is racism embedded into institutions: policies, laws, and practices that disproportionately favor or disadvantage one race over another. Systemic racism is the underlying societal attitude that drives any form of racism. Systemic and institutional racism pervades the criminal justice system. Policies can be covertly targeted at minorities, or, more often, applied to minorities. Systemic and institutional racism pervades the real estate industry as well. Educational facilities are often lacking for minority communities. Studies show that minorities are discriminated against in the hiring process.

globalization

Integration of national economies into the global economy with open access to people, goods, and information

Which of the following ensures that a bureaucracy can still perform if one individual worker is unable to perform his or her job?

Interchangeability (Interchangeability is a characteristic of bureaucracies that ensures that any qualified person can perform the duties specific to a role in the organization. If one individual can no longer perform his or her role, another person can do it; therefore, the organization keeps running.)

Which of the following is an advantage of field research?

It can offer a lot of detail about a topic

How does modernization change a society's culture?

It changes culture by putting more people in contact with one another and by changing the technological conditions of life.

Religion--Lesson Summary

It is challenging to come up with one definition of religion since it varies across time and place. One definition is religion is a form of culture that codifies beliefs into ritualized practice and gives people a larger sense of meaning or purpose. A cult is a recently formed religion at odds with the dominant society or religion, which is why some sociologists call them new religions. A charismatic leader is someone who inspires people because of his or her extraordinary gifts or qualities. Sects are larger than cults and generally originate from within one of the dominant religions because of members' dissatisfaction with how religious life is conducted. Evangelism is the active recruitment of new members. A church has a national and international governing body, bureaucracy, and leaders that give direction to local congregations. A church, by definition is one of the dominant religious groups within its culture. A church might have denominations or independent branches. Polytheism is the worship of multiple gods. Monotheism is the worship of one god. Animism is the belief that nonhuman things have spirits. Totemism is the connection between humans and nature.

Bureaucratic dysfunction

It is incredibly difficult to coordinate the efforts of many on a large scale; lack of communication and coordination can lead to the dysfunctions that many of us know so well.

What do sociologists think about ethnocentrism?

It is useful insofar as it gives people a sense of belonging, but it can prevent them from learning about other cultures. (Ethnocentrism is useful because it allows people to move through their own society easily, but it can become a barrier to experiencing other cultures.)

Which of the following statements best describes the sociological imagination

It looks at personal issues from a wider, more general perspective

operational definition

It makes a hypothesis about a characteristic testable.

what does it mean for research results to be statistically significant?

It means the results have probably not occurred by chance.

Which theory of global stratification most closely resembles functionalism?

Modernization theory Correct. Modernization theory holds that the development of the core nations has benefitted the periphery nations; therefore that globalization serves an important social purpose, spreading the wealth and technological know-how to less developed countries.

How does cultural norms differ from mores?

Mores are norms; however, mores govern a society's notion of right and wrong.

Jane Addams and Hull House

Jane Addams (1860-1935), along with Ellen Gates Starr, co-founded one of the first settlement houses in the United States, called the Chicago Hull House. Settlement houses were community centers that offered services to marginalized groups of people, such as immigrants and the poor. In addition to being funded by wealthy donors, Hull House was staffed by college students who lived with, assisted, and learned about these minority groups. Addams also focused on improving the issues of child labor, juvenile justice, industrial safety, working hours, women's rights, and ethnic minorities' rights. She was a proponent of sympathetic knowledge, which is knowledge that is gained from interacting directly with those groups being studied, such as by living or working among them. Addams helped found the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and was a recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931.

Which of the following groups of people share their ethnicity by circumstance?

Jewish people- Jewish people are a group defined only by a shared religious-cultural heritage, but they have been perceived as a race. Because of people's strong perception of their "otherness," they are defined as an ethnic group through historical circumstances.

Lesson summary

Karl Marx believed that a capitalist* society stratifies groups unequally due to the structure of work itself. According to Marx, the capitalist class accumulates ever greater wealth by owning the means of production. Alienation is Marx's concept that because a worker has to sell his or her labor, he or she is not allowed to experience full humanity. Weber focused on class, status, and "party," a person's connection to systems of power, to explain stratification. Functionalists believe that stratification benefits society by rewarding those who contribute the most and by incentivizing everyone to work.

Cultural construction

Keep in mind that culture is a negotiated process that determines how a group thinks about things and how (in general) it acts. Given this, and given the wide range of cultures through time and across the world, it becomes clear that many of the values and norms we hold dear are cultural constructions*

Asexuality

Lack of sexual attraction toward any sex/gender identity

Language as symbols

Language* is a particularly complex set of symbols used to communicate. Like all other aspects of culture, definitions are ever-evolving. For example, as technology affects the nature of romantic and intimate relationships, new terms pop up to describe new phenomena that result from these dating experiences. "Ghosting," for instance, has been coined to describe the situation when one participant of a relationship ends the relationship simply by disappearing and cutting off all contact

LGBT

Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, Transgender

Life Course Theory According to Glen Elder, Jr.'s (n.d.) page, "Research," the life course theory has five principles:

Life-Span Development: Human development and aging are lifelong processes. Agency: Individuals construct their own lives through the choices and actions they take within the opportunities and constraints of history and social circumstance. Time and Place: The life course of individuals is embedded and shaped by the historical times and places they experience over their lifetime. Timing: The developmental antecedents and consequences of life transitions, events, and behavioral patterns vary according to their timing in a person's life. Linked Lives: Lives are lived interdependently and socio-historical influences are expressed through this network of shared relationships

How does a sociologist view marriage?

Marriage provides a way of publicly signaling love and commitment but is always changing

bourgeoisie

Marx called this top tier the "capitalist class," or bourgeoisie* (1939/1973). This class, he argued, owns the means of production, which is the system of producing goods and services. They do this because they own "capital," an accumulation of money that they don't need to spend. With this capital, they buy factories and machines to produce goods. They hire workers. The capitalist class pays the people who work for them less money than they make from selling the goods, and in this way, they accumulate more capital to invest. Money breeds money while the capitalist himself does not need to work. For Marx, because of this system, it is inevitable that the rich will grow richer.

Max Weber (1864-1920)

Max Weber (1864-1920), another highly influential sociologist, accepted some of Marx's ideas but disagreed with others. Rejecting the materialist conception of history, he believed that the rationalization of social and economic life was the primary force of modern development—far more so than class conflict. Rationalization* is replacing traditional or emotional motives for social action with rational ones, that is the desire to increase production or lower costs. This replacement leads to more efficient social institutions. Weber compared Western society with other societies (such as China and India) and attributed the vastly different developments to cultural and religious differences, pointing to Christianity as a major reason for capitalism's success in the Western world.

Give an example of nature vs nurture in a girl named Arlene.

Nature is responsible for Arlene's sex, skin color, and intellectual capacity; furthermore, both of her parents are musicians, and so she may have been born with the potential for musical talent. Nature thus provides her with the building blocks of the person she can become, and these inborn traits will continue to influence her as she goes through life.

What is the difference between nature and nurture

Nature* refers to a person's genetic and biological attributes, that is, to the traits that he or she is born with. Nurture* refers to the social environment and experiences a person is exposed to, that is, how he or she is raised and the opportunities that he or she has access to in life.

What is the best summary of George Herbert Mead's theory of social interactions?

No one is born knowing how to communicate with one another, and people have to learn what symbols mean and how to use them.

symbols

Objects, words or actions that stand for something else

Implicit bias

On the other hand, is a bias that is harbored unconsciously.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

One of the most influential sociologists in the history of the discipline was Comte's fellow countryman Émile Durkheim (1858-1917). He seized on the idea that social behavior could be studied as a science. He argued that, in order to do this properly, scientists needed to study social facts the way they would study physical objects or events in nature. Social facts* are external circumstances or events that have an effect on the way individual people behave, such as the use of dollars as currency in the United States. While human beings created dollars, no one individual can live and conduct business in the United States if he or she refuses to use the dollar. Durkheim claimed that many aspects of the economy, religion, and the government are social facts, exerting social constraint over people, influencing and binding their behavior to the confines of the society they are a part of. Furthermore, he found that certain disruptions or distortions of the bonds between an individual and their group can be challenging for the individual and even result in suicide.

Taboo

Out of all of the social norms, a taboo* is the strongest prohibition of an action. Taboos are even more forbidden than mores. They include actions such as incest and cannibalism. The word was first introduced into English by James Cook's voyage to the Kingdom of Tonga in 1777, where inhabitants used the word to refer to practices that were forbidden. He introduced the word and concept to Britain, from where it spread as a way of understanding the values of other cultures.

liminal stage

People in between two stages of life (typically adolescents)

According to Merton, what creates the conditions for social strain?

People lack legitimate means to achieve a socially-sanctioned goal. Merton categorized the different ways people respond when they lack the legitimate means to achieve a goal that society deems legitimate.

socially constructed

Perceptions and practices that come out of interactions with a group

A person's physical features, or ________, are the physical expression of their biological genes.

Phenotype

Positivism (Auguste Comte)

Philosophical system created by August Comte that applies scientific standards to the study of society. Positivism maintains the only truths are those that can be concluded by direct observation or by experimentation.

Give an example of a folkway (from quiz)

Placing your napkin on your lap

Functionalist Perspective of prison

Prisons compensate for the failure of other institutions such as the education system. Prisons help prevent crime by providing a negative sanction. Prisons help prisoners find positive and legal ways to interact with society so that once they leave they will be productive members of society

heteronormativity

Promoting heterosexuality or assuming that it is the default sexuality

What is the difference between race and ethnicity?

Race has no biological basis but is an important social category. Ethnicity refers to shared ancestry.

Race-lesson summary

Race is a category, created socially, based on a person's physical traits such as skin color or facial features. Experts argue over the extent to which race has any biological component. All agree it has little basis in biology. Ethnicity is a shared sense of cultural, ancestral, and national identity. While race and ethnicity are difficult to conceptualize, they are socially meaningful. Phenotype is a set of genes that create a certain physical appearance. Scientific racism is the use of scientific theories, techniques, or research to rationalize racism, categorization of people, and racial superiority. Eugenics is the promotion of a supposedly better race over others.

Which of the following best describes the distinction between race and ethnicity?

Race is a social category based on a person's physical traits; ethnicity comes from a shared sense of cultural, ancestral, and national identity. Race is a category, created socially, based on a person's physical traits; ethnicity comes from a shared sense of cultural, ancestral, and national identity.

Race

Race* is a social concept with no biological reality (though many Americans erroneously believe that race is based on biology). Rather, race simply groups similar-looking people together and assumes that they share inherent traits.

Systemic Racism

Racism directed against a group of people through an institution's rules and policies

Redlining

Redlining refers to the practice of marking "hazardous" neighborhoods—neighborhoods that often contained minority residents—in a red outline to warn lenders of the "higher risk" of lending to these communities

The rationalization of society describes the shift in what held groups together from _________ to _________.

Relationships to goals--The rationalization of society was Max Weber's term for the shift in society's value of tradition to the need to accomplish goals. This was primarily a result of industrial advancements, which meant the people began to work outside of the home for companies, rather than for their family.

How is data for domestic violence usually collected?

Reporting from public agencies, such as police departments and hospitals b. Random sample surveys

. Eli generally feels comfortable around new people and confident about navigating social interactions. One day, he finds himself feeling insecure as he talks to some new Chinese clients. He wonders if they understand his jokes or if he's doing something culturally inappropriate. What different versions of the self (respectively) is the scenario an example of?

Self-concept and self-image (Self-image refers to a context-dependent version of a self. Eli generally feels confident about meeting new people, so that would not be an example of self-image.)

Unit summary

Sex refers to biological features distinguishing male from female. Gender refers to socially constructed meanings, beliefs, and practices used to separate 'masculinity' and 'femininity.' Gender roles are the duties and characteristics socially assigned to each gender. Gender marketing, designating certain products as only for one gender, socializes children into their gender and reinforces gender stereotypes. Candace West and Don Zimmerman's conception of "doing" gender conceives of gender not as a static identity but rather as everyday interactions that evoke and reinforce gender differences.

What is the difference between sex and gender

Sex* refers to the biological characteristics that make someone male or female. Gender*, on the other hand, refers to the culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males. Sex is biologically determined; gender is what our society deems appropriate for our sex.

Bisexuality

Sexual attraction toward any sex/gender identity

What is the difference between social groups and formal organizations?

Social groups are created often casually around relationships in daily life; formal organizations are created to achieve goals. Social groups are formed around our daily interactions, while formal organizations are created for an explicit purpose as a means of achieving goals. The members of a formal organization can also be members of the same social group.

Poverty--lesson summary

Social mobility is a person's ability to move up or down in the social hierarchy of a society. Health, housing, and educational outcomes are tied to class inequality, where the higher the income and wealth, the greater the likelihood of positive health outcomes, access to quality housing, higher quality of education, and increased likelihood of graduating from high school and attending college. Poverty is disproportionately experienced across social groups, according to gender, race and ethnicity, age, and level of educational attainment. Racial and ethnic groups with the highest poverty rates are Blacks and Latinx.

Lesson summary 2/6

Social norms are what forms of communication and behavior are expected within a given culture. Folkways are ways people do something, but adhering to or violating them does not come with any serious sanctions. Mores are social norms that govern what is considered to be right and wrong in a given culture and are typically tied to morals. The violation of mores typically results in serious consequences. Taboos are actions that are completely forbidden.

salience principle

Sociological principle that states that we categorize other people about what is most noticeable about them

Lesson Summary

Some non-Western cultures recognize more than two culturally defined genders. An individual may display any combination of masculine and feminine characteristics and interests, regardless of what sex he or she is born with. The term transgender refers to an individual's actual gender identity if they identify as something other than the sex they were assigned at birth. Transsexual refers to people who have transitioned to the sexual identity they feel most comfortable with.

Lesson Summary-Prejudice and Discrimination

Sociologist W.E.B. DuBois wrote about race relations between Blacks and Whites in America. A stereotype is a generalization about an entire category of people. Racial-ethnic stereotypes are generalizations based on categories of race or ethnicity. The salience principle is the idea that we categorize other people on the basis of what is most noticeable about them. The conflict theory of prejudice, from the conflict perspective, is the idea that those in the dominant class will use prejudice as a means to oppress those in the economically deprived lower classes. The scapegoat theory holds that prejudice arises from the frustration of those who are economically or socially disadvantaged, who then turn that aggression against others who are lower on the social hierarchy. Cultural theory is the idea that prejudice is a learned behavior. Intersectionality holds that class, race, and gender are all intertwined and interact to create different levels of disadvantage in society. While prejudice is an attitude, discrimination is a behavior, an overt action that has a negative impact on a person or group. Racism is the set of attitudes and practices used to justify treating one race as inherently superior or inferior to another.

life course

Sociologists call this the life course* approach, one that focuses on the connection among the roles, attitudes, and activities considered appropriate for a particular stage of life, determined largely (though not exclusively) by age. We are socialized throughout our lives into certain behaviors and attitudes that are considered appropriate, and these change across time. A teenager does not talk the same way as an adult; a boy might be considered the friend of a 7-year-old, but the boyfriend of the same person ten years later.

gestures

Sociologists categorize non-verbal gestures as symbols because of their social meaning: when you look at two people holding hands, you think you know something about their relationship. Our sense that holding hands is a "signal" points to its status as a symbol.

Who was August Comte

Sociology was born with the Industrial Revolution. In the 19th centuries, things were changing rapidly, people were flocking to the cities, cities were growing exponentially, there was a lot of overcrowding, there was no indoor plumbing. And so this was very chaotic and Sociology was born during this time because a man named August Comte looked out his window and he decided that he should try to make sense of what was going on. Most philosophers were busy describing society and he really wanted to understand it, like why is this going on? How can we help and direct what's going on here? Comte was heavily influenced by physics so he thought we could take the rules of the natural sciences and apply them to society. In any event he coined the term sociology, before that the word did not exist, and he said that you should study social dynamics, which is how societies change, and you should also study social statics, which is how societies stay the same. He is given credit for being the founder of sociology because he coined our term and gave us a label and he gave us a focus. Other than that, Comte didn't really do sociology per say, but he is known as getting the ball rolling for us.

Sociology

Sociology* can best be summed up as the systematic study of social life and human society

structural strain theory

Structural strain theory describes what occurs when people cannot reach socially accepted goals through legitimate means. According to Merton (1968), structural strain leads to deviance and crime.

Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)

Studied social behavior in Britain and U.S. Emphasized impact of economy, law, trade, health, and population on social problems (long answer :) Harriet Martineau (1802-1876), who is credited with bringing sociology to England thanks to her translations of Auguste Comte's works, pushed for the analysis and understanding of all aspects of a society. She especially highlighted such issues as women's lives, marriage, children, domestic and religious life, and race relations, which earlier sociologists had ignored or dismissed as insignificant. As an active supporter of women's rights and the emancipation of slaves, Martineau also argued for the importance of sociologists actively trying to fix the problems of society.)

subcultures

Subcultures* are part of a larger culture, but share distinctive attitudes and behaviors that set them apart from the dominant culture.

Subcultures

Subcultures* exist within the larger culture of society as groups that share a distinct pattern of customs, rules, and traditions that differ from the dominant culture

Name 5 types of research methods

Survey, experiment, field research, secondary analysis, and content analysis

With which of the main schools of sociological thought do Mead's ideas about socialization and role-taking most closely align?

Symbolic interactionism

Which sociological perspective studies the role-taking processes of family members?

Symbolic interactionist perspective Symbolic interactionists study the role-taking process.

Symbolic perspective on marriage

Symbolic interactionists focus on marriage and family at a more micro-level than the other two perspectives we have discussed. Symbolic interactionists study relationships among family members in greater depth. Studies that take the symbolic interactionist view may examine the role of each parent in the house and the effect on their children's well-being. Role-taking* is an important part of the symbolic interactionist perspective of socialization. When a girl plays "house" with her dolls, she generally takes the role of the provider and caregiver in the scenario. If these gender roles are reinforced very early, boys and girls are more likely to perform them within the context of marriage as well.

ethnocentric

The attitude or opinion that the norms, values and customs of one's own culture are superior to those of other people's or the act of judging another group's heritage or culture by the standards and values inherent in one's own culture. (This isn't necessarily conscious—you don't have to brag about the superiority of your culture to be ethnocentric. As previously discussed, culture is deeply embedded in human beings. We come to see the world in a particular way, and it's difficult to see it otherwise.)

Social Darwinism

The belief that only the fittest survive in human political and economic struggle.

What is cultural relativism?

The belief that the set of cultural practices and beliefs of one group is no better than those of other groups

Correlation

The extent of degree of statistical association between two or more variables.

Feminist perspective of marriage

The feminist perspective of marriage and family also aligns with the conflict perspective, since it highlights the role of family in social stratification. Feminist theorists believe that the family is closely connected to patriarchy*, or a system in which men hold power and women are excluded from power. Men control the sexuality of women in order to know who their heirs are, and therefore, families transform women into the property of men. Even though there have been many changes over the past century, women are still responsible for the majority of housework and child rearing (England, 2001).

The Gadsden flag originated as a symbol of American opposition to British oppression in the Revolutionary War. It was later taken by the Tea Party movement to symbolize government overreach. What does flying this flag do for the Tea Party?

The flag helps people inside the group feel an emotional identification with the movement through an implicit connection to the American Revolution. (The Tea Party movement took a symbol from the American Revolution (like the name "Tea Party" itself) and used it to help members feel a sense of patriotism from their connection to the historical American value of fighting against government overreach.)

lesson 12 summary

The idea that our beliefs are cultural constructions. People's cultural constructions work for their society but may not be shared by other societies. Most people are ethnocentric without realizing it since they rarely consider their own ways of acting and beliefs. Cultural relativism, the belief that no culture is better than others, can be a powerful teaching tool.

Game Phase

The key difference between "game" and "play" is the structure and organization of a game. Games* are played by following certain rules. Children who participate in games tend to be a little older or more developed than those who just play since they can understand rules and the importance of getting along with others in order to complete the game. This is the final stage in Mead's development of the self.

What did Charles Horton Cooley (1902) develop?

The looking glass self

Socialization

The process by which people learn customs and values of their culture.

Socialization

The process by which people learn who they are in relation to others and how they fit into their society is known as socialization*. For most people, socialization begins at a young age; as children, we learn about the social world around us and gradually understand how we fit into that world. This module will describe how people internalize socialization.

Diffusion

The process of a gradual spread of cultural ideas is called diffusion*

sanctions

The rules or norms of society are enforced through sanctions*, rewards (like smiling) for good behavior and penalties (like honking or staring) for bad behavior.

A person who is not of African heritage nevertheless looks African-American. Sociologists predict that people will treat her as an African American because of what principle?

The salience principle The salience principle states that we categorize people by what is most distinctive in their appearance. If someone looks African-American, she will be treated as one.

Lesson Summary

The stages of the looking-glass self are first to imagine how we appear to others, second to imagine how they would judge us, and third to react to those judgments with pride or shame. Self-image is a temporary judgment about ourselves, depending on how those around us are reacting to us. Self-concept is a more durable image of ourselves.

manifest function

The stated intended consequences of an institution, action or social group

applied sociology

The term that describes professionals who use sociological theories and methods outside of academic settings in order to produce social change

labeling theory

The theory that how people are labeled will influence the behavior of the people labeled.

Violence and abuse in family-Lesson Summary

The two very broad categories of domestic violence are partner (spouse or boyfriend/girlfriend) abuse and child abuse. The family is traditionally considered the main realm of privacy, so when violence does occur, it is harder to detect and difficult to get information about. Family abuse is more like to occur in low-income families, when the father is unemployed or absent, in minority families, in isolated families, or in families with four or more children. Between 1994 and 2010, about four in five victims of intimate partner violence were female (Catalano, 2012). Sociologists argue that the abuse of women comes from boys' socialization. Marital or partner rape is harder to track than other crimes. Situational violence, the most common form of domestic violence, occurs when an argument escalates into a violent situation. In this type of conflict, women are just as likely as men to initiate the violence. Intimate terrorism involves an abuser who controls his or her partner through violence in combination with other forms of control. Men are more likely to be perpetrators of this type of domestic violence. The overwhelming majority of reported child abuse cases are perpetrated by parents of the child, and the greatest percentage of children suffer from neglect.

latent function

The unconscious or unrecognized consequences of an action within the framework of a social group.

More on the 3 Traditional approaches for sociology

There are three traditional approaches that sociologists use to understand society, which come out of the work of early practitioners. Some sociologists view society as a larger "whole," like a body, and understand groups and institutions within society as "parts" that need to work together in order to succeed, as did Durkheim. Others believe that society is always in conflict, with groups competing for scarce resources, as did Marx. Still others are most concerned with the everyday, routine interactions between individuals. These three classic perspectives are known as functionalism, the conflict perspective, and symbolic interactionism (respectively), and they provide a framework for understanding contemporary sociological research.

Property Crime

These crimes involve depriving someone of something that belongs to him or her. Burglary, robbery, grand theft auto, and arson all fall under this category.

Mead divides the development of the self as a child into stages, based loosely on the child's age (though there will always be exceptions and variations). wHAT ARE THE 3 STAGES?

These three stages are generally classified as the preparatory, play, and game phases (1934).

Structural strain theory

To the functionalist perspective, Robert Merton contributed a theory called structural strain theory*. Structural strain theory describes what occurs when people cannot reach socially accepted goals through legitimate means. According to Merton (1968), structural strain leads to deviance and crime.

Lesson Summary-crime

Types of crimes include violent crime, property crime, victimless crime, white-collar crime, hate crimes, and organized crime. Women commit all types of crimes at a much lower rate than men. Within each gender, the distribution of crimes committed is about the same. Men are more often the victims of violent crime, but women are murdered by their partners at twice the rate of men.

Why are operational definitions of variables necessary for research?

Variables need established operational definitions so that they can be measured and the data can be analyzed.

examples of cultural norm vs cultural value

Voting is a cultural norm in America, and the belief in the power of voting is a cultural value

Who introduced the idea of double consciousness?

W.E.B. DuBois

W.E.B. DuBois (1868-1963)

W.E.B. DuBois W.E.B. DuBois (PD). The first African-American to earn a doctorate from Harvard University, W.E.B. DuBois (1868-1963) focused on individuals' social identities, particularly within the context of the experiences of African Americans. He coined the term double consciousness*, which he defines as a feeling of twoness in which one's identity is fragmented. He further elaborates that it is "this sense of always looking at one's self through the eyes of others, of measuring one's soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity" (DuBois, 1903). This double consciousness is especially present in African Americans, whose identity is split between being an American citizen and being a Black who carries the weight of his or her historic oppression.

What are the 3 parts to the looking glass self?

We imagine how we appear to other people, we imagine how those other people will judge us, we react to that hypothetical judgement with pride or shame

Sociologists do study how people think and feel about the world around them, the culture of groups, and the allocation of resources. However, what sets sociology apart from other disciplines is that it focuses primarily on external factors that shape individuals (unlike psychology), industrialized societies, rather than pre-industrial or developing societies (as anthropology does), and multiple social institutions, such as the economy, religious organizations, and the government (unlike economics).

What sets sociology apart from other disciplines?

What is the difference between transsexual and intersex?

While intersex refers to someone who is born with sexual characteristics from both sexes, transsexual refers to someone who has chosen to assume some sexual characteristics associated with the opposite sex.

How does white-collar crime illustrate the conflict approach to deviance?

White-collar criminals are often wealthy and powerful, so they have more resources available to cover up their deviant actions. Correct. The conflict perspective, as it relates to deviance, states that laws are based on the interest of the groups with the most influence. Since white-collar criminals are usually wealthy and powerful members of society, they have resources that can help cover up their crimes, which might not be available to other people.

Which aspect of eating would a sociologist be most likely to study?

Whom a person chooses to eat with. (Just because eating is a biological drive does not mean that it doesn't have social significance. Sociologists would focus on how eating was culturally meaningful.)

Folkways

William Graham Sumner (1840-1910), a professor at Yale, coined the term "folkways." Folkways* are informal norms or everyday customs that typically do not come with any serious consequences when violated. Folkways provide rules for guiding our behavior but are not considered to be essential for society's survival

What is a likely criticism feminists bring against heterosexual marriage?

Within the family, women do more of the housework and child rearing than men. Gender roles are reinforced in family life, causing an unequal division of labor in the marriage and transmitting those unequal roles to the next generation.

Which of the following best illustrates the relationship between a role and status?

Zach has the status of manager at a company. In his role as a manager, he occasionally asks his subordinates to redo their work so that it conforms to his expectations.

Marx

a central figure in sociology who pioneered the conflict approach to sociology which understands social groups as competing with one another

intersex

a condition in which the individual has a mixture of male and female reproductive structures, so that it is not clear at birth whether the individual is a male or a female

Spencer

a hands-off theorist who applied Darwin's theory of social evolution to society

Durkeheim

a key figure who advocated studying social facts the way scientists study physical facts

Weber

a key figure who studied modernization in society, the movement from traditional to capitalist societies

Stigmas

a negative label attached to a person, behavior or circumstance, to distinguish that person or thing from the rest of society (cause people to be shunned as outsiders; people may, in turn, internalize these negative labels and act accordingly, leading to more deviant behavior.)

intersectionality theory

a perspective that highlights the connections and interactions between various forms of inequality, especially race, class, and gender

Status

a position within a social structure. Clearly, just as people belong to many different groups, so too do they occupy a wide range of statuses.

theoretical perspective

a set of assumptions about an area of study accepted as true

What is a hypothesis?

a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more concepts

Mechanical Solidarity (Durkheim)

a type of solidarity stemming from the fact that people all did pretty much the same kinds of work, including hunting, gathering, cooking. More important, people in this type of solidarity have strong collective conscience.

deviance

actions, behaviors, and traits that violate social norms

status set

all the statuses a person holds at a given time

Adaams

an activist who promoted sympathetic knowledge, knowledge that comes from identifying with others

social interactions

any kind of communication between people that is understood to have meaning

Bureaucracies

are formal organizations that are more highly developed

more (prounounced more a)

are social norms that govern a society's understanding of right and wrong. A more, therefore, is a more serious social norm. If someone goes to the front rather than the back of a line in a store, he or she is violating a social norm and may be subjected to a sanction. But when someone embezzles money or takes drugs, he or she is violating a more.

Role expectations

are the behaviors and qualities expected from someone who occupies a certain status. If we see a child misbehaving in public without being corrected, we might feel critical towards her "father."

Ethnocentrism

belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic group

drives

biologically inherited impulses to reduce discomfort

symbolic interactionist perspective

the sociological approach that views society as the sum of the interactions of individuals and groups

Norms

can be thought of as unwritten "rules" for behavior; norms are learned

In Western societies, we have four key stages of life: name them

childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age.

Instinct

complex behaviors that are preprogrammed

role conflict

conflicting expectations from two or more social roles. (For example, if you do an internship at your mother's office, and suddenly a family friend is your supervisor, you might experience role conflict.)

Quantitative Research

contains factors that are measured in numbers

A sociologist analyzing the language of job ads from the early twentieth century looking for gender bias would be an example of which type of research?

content analysis

Countercultures

do not believe in or share in the dominant culture at all, but rather they aspire to change it and replace it with what they believe in. For example, the "off-the-grid" movement supports independence and sustainable living—encouraging people to generate their own electricity, gather rainwater, grow their own food, and, in general, live very differently from others in modern developed nations. This would be considered countercultural in our society today

Corporate Crime

executives violating laws in order to benefit their corporation,

Explicit bias

exists in the conscious mind. It is a bias toward or against a particular group that a person knows he or she harbors.

Luciana is a sociologist who studies the experience of first-generation Latinx families in St. Louis. She is asked by a non-profit to consult on how to decrease the stigmatization faced by prisoners upon their release from prison. What ethical issue does Luciana potentially face?

expertise

name some agents of socialization

family, peers, teachers, institutions, mass media

Comte

father of sociology

Homophobia

fear of and prejudice against homosexuality

Key terms for feminist theory

feminism, oppression, patriarchy

Name the theoretical Perspectives in Sociology

functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism

ethnic groups

groups of people with a shared heritage; religious groups; political groups; and institutions.

ethnic groups

groups of people with a shared heritage; religious groups; political groups; and institutions. The big picture here is that culture always "belongs to" a set of people, and all sorts of cohesive groups with important commonalities—and differences—can be part of a larger culture.

The main objective of this course is to expand your sociological imagination or to what?

help you see the larger social forces at work in all of our lives.

While psychology might consider whether stress leads people to smoke at a higher rate, sociology would most likely ask what?

how the prevalence of smoking in a peer group affects the decision to start smoking. Correct. Sociologists study the social forces surrounding an individual.

Incarceration rates of women is increasing or decreasing?

increasing

Key terms for conflict theory

inequality, sexism, racism, poverty, scarce resources, power, exploitation, competition, conflict

The requirement that all participants in a study be aware of potential risks is known as _________

informed consent

institutional racism

institutions and social dynamics that may seem race-neutral but actually disadvantage minority groups

culture

is a society's beliefs, ideals, artistic expression, and patterns of behavior

Social control

is how social norms are enforced. Agents of social control, such as a police officer or a school principal, regulate responses to deviance and crime. Social control of deviance can be exerted by formal means, such as a police officer arresting someone, or more informal ones, such as parents grounding a child for dying her hair green. Even more subtle behaviors can serve as informal kinds of social control, such as staring at someone who is talking too loudly in a public place. All of these actions—arresting someone, grounding a child, and staring—are ways to reinforce the acceptable standards of behavior in a society.

Culture relativism

is the practice of being open-minded about other people's cultural practices in an attempt to better understand them. Think of it as "walking a mile in someone else's shoes," so to speak. Understanding that the Yanomami Indians eat spiders as a source of protein because they live in an environment where spiders are abundant and other sources of protein are not is an example of cultural relativism.

conformity

is the reaction of adopting the broader cultural goals of success and accessing the legitimate means to achieve the goal or goals.

periphery nations

less economically developed with weak governments and institutions

utilitarian organization

maintains membership through payment

Homogamy

marriage between people with the same social characteristics

stratified

multiple layers--family unit such as in Africa where men eat meat and most nutritious food first, then women, then children last. Thus the malnutrition in children is high.

neolocality

new family living away from ones parents

Qualitive research

offers characterizations and descriptions of the studied phenomena. Field studies are often qualitive.

agents of socialization

people or groups that affect our development, self concept, attitudes, behaviors, or other orientations toward life. (Agents of socialization* are people who help us form our social identity, teach us about which groups we fit in with, and help us navigate through our given social settings. Agents of socialization can be your parents and family members, your peers, your classmates, your coworkers, and mass media.)

aggregates

people that come together for short periods of time without regularity and without knowing each other. (The crowd will consist of a number of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time)

Example of ethnic groups

people who identify as Mexican can have cultural roots in both the American Southwest and in Mexico).

secondary groups

people with whom an individual shares a functional relationship, length is shorter and around a common task

Auguste Comte employed which of the following philosophical systems which studied society through a scientific lens?

positivism

reflex

predetermined response

Bias

prejudice

Theory

refers to a set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and sometimes predict social events.

culturally learned behavior

refers to actions that humans learn from the environment around them. Unlike most species of animals, humans rely on culture rather than instincts to create a way of life and ensure survival (

argot

special words or phrases used by a specific group of people (or special language, to describe aspects of the group and distinguish themselves from the surrounding culture.)

manifest functions

stated, intended consequences of an institution, action, or social group

White-collar crime

such as tax evasion, corporate scandals, and fraudulent accounting practices (

If you wanted to compare the attitudes of Virginia residents towards gun control with the attitudes of Oregon residents, which research method would you choose?

survey

Key terms for symbolic interactionism

symbols, meaning, interaction, labels, definitions/language

What is sociology?

the academic study of social behavior

Hawthorne Effect (Observation Bias)

the behavior of study participants is altered simply because they recognize that they are being studied

social norms

the behaviors, values, and beliefs that a culture agrees upon and enforces, help us move through our world with a minimum of friction and confusion

Postmodernism

the belief that society is no longer governed by history or progress

Feminism

the belief that women should possess the same political and economic rights as men

eugenics

the desire to improve humanity by encouraging genetically "superior" people to have children and genetically "inferior" people to not have children.

instrumentality

the perceived relationship between performance and rewards

Martineau

the person who brought sociology to England and furthered it by focusing on issues in the domestic sphere

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