Cancer Unit Biology

Humans have _______ sets of chromosomes. Of each set, one comes from the mother and one comes from the father

23

What is tertiary structure?

3-D molecule, functional

As tumor cells grow, they require oxygen and nutrients. ____________ occurs as growth factors are released and capillaries grow toward the tumor.

Angiogenesis

Stage 4 cancer

Cancer has fully metastasized and spread to organs outside the breast, the cancer is incurable

Guaine (G) always pairs with?

Cyosine (C)

________ is compacted and organized into chromosomes that are found in the nucleus of cells

DNA

Lysosome (Transport and Processing of Nutrients)

Digestion of incoming nutrients

Telophase and Cytokinesis

During telophase, the spindle disappears as new nuclear envelopes form around the daughter chromosomes. Each nucleus contains the same number and kinds of chromosomes as the original parent cell. Division of the cytoplasm begins

_________ is the body's ability to maintain a constant internal environment, including pH, temperature, and blood chemistry. Is often regulated by negative feedback loops

Homeostasis

the cell cycle consists of?

Interphase and M phase

Immunotherapy involves convincing the body's immune system to identify and eliminate cancer cells as "nonself" instead of "self."

Involves identifying antigen differences between "self" and cancer cells. Cancer vaccines use modified viruses to initiate an immune response against cancer cells. Monoclonal antibodies can be created to target specific cancer antigens.

_________________________ After blood is drawn, DNA is isolated from white blood cells and subjected to polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in order to make copies of the gene of interest.

Mutations in cancer causing genes can be tested for.

Golgo Apparatus (Transport and Processing of Nutrients)

Processing center of the cell

Systemic radiation treatment:

Radioactive substances are injected in blood or ingested in body

checkpoints in cell cycle functions to?

Regulate the speed at which the cell moves through the cell cycle. Ensure the cell is ready for cell division

During the ___________, DNA replication occurs

S Phase

endocrine system

Secretes hormones, which also regulate and coordinate the activities of other systems. Works more slowly than the nervous system

Low-dose treatments

Seeds are left inside patient after treatment.

High-dose treatment

Seeds are removed after treatment

__________ are held in place by a centromere until the M phase

Sister chromatids

Most doctors use a number system to grade cancers based on

Size of tumor Has tumor spread to nearby tissues Has cancer spread to nearby lymph nodes Has cancer moved to other organs

Internal radiation therapy:

Small deposits of radioactive material are placed in the body.

respiratory system

Supplies blood with oxygen for tissue cells and rids blood of carbon dioxide. Helps regulate the acid-base balance of the blood

___________ are repeating sections of nucleotides found at the end of chromosomes. They shorten with each cell cycle. When they are too short for replication, the cell undergoes apoptosis

Telomeres

what is interphase?

The majority of the cell's time; normal functions occur. Consists of G1 (growth),S (synthesis), and G2 (growth) phases

Adenine (A) always pairs with?

Thymine (T)

Stage 2 cancer

Tumor has become invasive and has grown, but is still located entirely within the breast, lymph nodes may be involved.

stage 3 cancer

Tumor has moved out of the breast tissue, but has not spread to distant organs, lymph nodes are involved.

Stages 0-1 cancer

Tumor is limited to a very small area and only nearby lymph nodes, if any, are involved

Cancer disrupts homeostasis by interfering with the body's ability to maintain homeostasis.

Tumors take up space in organs and block blood and lymphatic vessels and ducts, so organs cannot function. Tumors require oxygen and nutrients, depriving nearby tissues.

What happens during translation?

Within the cytoplasm, mRNA moves to a ribosome. tRNA reads codons (3 nucleotides) of the mRNA. For each codon, the corresponding amino acid is brought to the ribosome by tRNA and assembled. The polypeptide is released and the ribosome and mRNA may be used again.

what happens during transcription?

Within the nucleus, RNA polymerase exposes the nucleotide bases of the DNA to be transcribed. A copy of mRNA is made from the DNA strand. Uracil (U) is used instead of thymine (T). mRNA is edited and leaves the nucleus.

screening mammogram

X-ray of breast and surrounding tissues that looks for abnormalities associated with cancer

Diagnostic mammogram

X-ray of breast and surrounding tissues, used after finding a lump or suspicious blood work

Computerized tomography (CT) scans:

X-ray of organs with pictures from multiple angles that are used to generate a 3D image, can involve dye for contrast

DNA consists of units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains:

a 5-carbon deoxyribose sugar (green pentagon S), a phosphate group (yellow circle P), a nitrogen-containing base (blue C)

cells have the ability to

acquire materials and energy, respond to their environment, reproduce, maintain an internal environment,adapt to their environment

what is secondary structure?

amino acids interact based on weak chemical interactions

Centrioles (Cell Division)

assist in dividing the genetic material and contents of the cell during cellular reproduction

What is an example of tumor-suppressor genes

associated with breast cancer include p53 and BRCA1.

If a cell is not ready for cell division, it will..?

be put into G0 phase to attempt to repair its DNA. If that is not possible, the cell may undergo apoptosis

During development, cells receive genetic information that allows them to?

become specialized, meaning they have a specific purpose in the body

some cancer drugs work by..?

binding to the active site, preventing the substrate from reacting with the enzyme

What is cancer?

cancer is a disease that is caused by the inability of the body to control the division of cells

the ____________ describes the organized series of events required for cell division

cell cycle

Alkaloids:

chemicals naturally produced by some plants; prevent cells from forming spindle fibers, thus preventing cell division

Topoisomerase inhibitors:

chemicals that disable topoisomerase enzyme, preventing DNA replication

Alkylating agents:

chemicals that integrate into the DNA, causing it to break at specific points; general and so can cause long-term side effects including other cancers

Antimetabolites:

chemicals that mimic nucleotides and are integrated into DNA, but interfere with DNA replication, preventing cell division

Nucleus (information processing)

contains the genetic information of the cell

Mitochondria (energy)

converts the energy found in nutrients to a form usable by the cell

Radiation therapy ____________, slowing down or stopping cell division. It can target specific areas, but isn't as effective at metastasized cancer cells

damages the DNA within a cell

Prophase

during prophase, the chromosomes are condensing. Each consists of two sister chromatids held together at a centromere. Outside the nucleus, the spindle begins to assemble between the separating centrosomes

urinary system

excretes nitrogenous and other wastes. Regulates water-salt balance of the blood. Helps regulate the acid-base balance of the blood

cancer is the _________ leading cause of death in young people

fourth

Genes ares units of?

genetic information that provide instructions for making proteins

cancer can be caused by?

genetic or environmental factors

Cancerous cells ignore the _____________ that makes them specialized; and they ___________

genetic programming; lose their function

The sum of all genetic information in cell is called?

genome

lymphatic system

helps maintain blood volume by collecting excess interstitial fluid and returning it via lymphatic vessels to the cardiovascular veins. Defends against disease.

integumentary system

helps maintain body temperature and protects internal organs

Sets of chromosomes are __________, meaning they code for similar traits, even though they may have different alleles

homologous

Each ___________ is copied, forming a sister chromatid

homologous chromosome

the shape of the enzyme determines?

how it will interact with molecules

As the number of cancer cells grow, physiological changes occur..?

in tissues or organs, impacting their role in homeostasis

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

is a nucleic acid that stores genetic information

Plasma Membrane (Isolation)

isolates the cell from its external environment and selectively allows for the passage of materials

Ribosomes (information processing)

location where the genetic information is used to manufacture proteins

Cancer cells are different from typical cells as they

look different (irregular shape, larger nuclei with more genetic material). Are immortal (because of telomerase enzyme that repairs telomeres). Lose the ability to specialize. Masses of unspecialized cells are called tumors. They can be benign or malignant.

Capillaries (red) and lymphatic vessels (green)

may carry tumor cells to other parts of the body where angiogenesis may occur. This spread of cancer to other parts of the body is called metastasis.

What is quaternary structure?

multiple protein chains interact to form larger molecules with more complex functions

_____________ are any changes to the nucleotide sequence of DNA, can be caused by chemicals (called carcinogens), radiation exposure, or viruses, may or may not impact protein structure

mutations

Taxanes:

naturally produced by yew trees; prevent microtubule breakdown during cell division so cell division doesn't continue

males have a _________ chance of developing cancer during lifetime; for females it is a _____________

one in two; one in three

what are four levels of protein structures?

primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure, quaternary structure

Muscular System

produces heat that maintains body temperature. Protects and supports internal organs

cells are either ______ or _________

prokaryotic (bacteria) or eukaryotic (animal, plant, fungi)

Enzymes are usually..?

protein catalysts for chemical reactions

nervous system

regulates and coordinates the activities of all the other systems. It responses quickly to internal and external stimuli

Interstitial brachytherapy

seeds placed in direct contact with tumor

intracavitary brachytherapy

seeds placed in nearby body cavities

Enzymes have an active site where the ___________

substrate binds; products are released after the reaction has occurred

digestive system

supplies blood with nutrients and water for tissue cells. Rids the body of non-digestible remains

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (Transport and Processing of Nutrients)

synthesis of proteins (rough ER), lipids (smooth ER), and carbohydrates (smooth ER)

What is a misconception of cancer?

that cancer is primarily a disease of the elderly

Metaphase

the chromosomes are aligned at the spindle equator midway between the spindle poles

Interphase

the eukaryotic cell duplicates the contents of the cytoplasm, and DNA replicates in the nucleus. The duplicated chromosome are not yet visible. A pair of centrioles is outside the nucleus

what is primary structure?

the linear sequence of amino acids

What is the M phase?

the portion where cell division occurs; consists of mitosis and cytokinesis

Anaphase

the sister chromatids separate and become daughter chromosomes. As the spindle fibers attached to the chromosomes disassemble, each pole receives a set of daughter chromosomes

most cancers are named based on?

the type of cells or tissues where they originate

Gene expression occurs in 2 stages?

transcription and translation

cardiovascular system

transport oxygen and nutrients to tissue cells and transports wastes away from cells. Also transports hormones secreted by the endocrine glands

____________ prevent unregulated cell growth by slowing down the progression of the cell through the cell cycle. Most code for proteins that survey DNA for damage during the G1 checkpoint

tumor-suppressor genes

External radiation therapy:

uses X-rays or gamma rays to target a specific area of the body

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI):

uses radio waves and magnets to generate detailed images of the body.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan:

uses radioactive tracers to measure the metabolism of cells, cancer cells are more active and stand out