Cell and Molecular Biology, Chapter 1

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Nitrogen fixation

Conversion of nitrogen gas into reduced forms of nitrogen, such as ammonia than can be use by cells in the synthesis of nitrogen containing organic compounds including amino acids and nucleotides; some bacteria are capable

HeLa cells

Cultured tumor cells isolated from a cancer patient, Henrietta Lacks by George Get in 1951; first human cells for extended culturing

angstrom

one-tenth of a nanometer; atomic dimensions

Hematopoietic stem cells

produce blood cells in bone marrow

Complexity

prokaryotes are relatively simple; euks are more complex in structure and function

Capsid

protein coat + nucleic acid

Euk and pro similiarity:proteasomes

protein digesting structures of similar construction between archeabacteria and eukaryotes

Euk and pro similiarity: plasma membrane

similar construction

viral infection types: lytic infection

the virus that redirects the host into making more virus particles, the host cell LYSES and releases the viruses; "hijacking the cell'

Bacteriophage

bacterial viruses, most complex, most abundant biological entities on Earth; consists of a protein coat and nucleic acid; HIV

Cellular reproduction

euks divide by mitosis; proks divide by simple fission

Genetic material, form:

euks have many chromsomes made of both DNA and protein whereas prokaryotes have single, circuluar DNA

Genetic material, amount:

euks have much more genetic material than pros

Locomotion

euks use both cytoplasm movement, and cilia and flagella; pros have flagella but they differ in both form and mechanism

Cells evolve

evolved from precellular life form

Cyanobacteria

gave rise to green plants and an oxygen rich atmosphere

Evidence to support endosymbiont theory: 5

Organelles duplicate independently of nucleus

Evidence to support endosymbiont theory: 3

Organelles of euk cells contain their own DNA

Endosymbiont theory

Orgenelles in the eukaryotic cells (mitochondria and chloroplasts) evolved from smaller prokaryotic cells

Viroids

Pathogen, each consisting of a small, naked RNA molecule; cause disease by interfering with gene expression in host cells

Viruses

Pathogens; intracellular obligate parasites

Cells acquire and utilize energy

Photosynthesis provides fuel for all living organisms

Robustness

cells are hearty because they are protected from dangerous fluctuations in composition and behavior

Vorticella

have a contricle ribbon in the stalk and a large macronucleus that contains multiple copies of its genes

Cytosol

The soluble portion of the cytoplasm, which includes molecules and small particles, such as ribosomes, but not the organelles covered with membranes.

in vitro

in culture, outside the body

Euk and pro difference: cellulose

in plant cell walls

Metabolism

The sum total of the chemical reactions in a cell

Metagenome

The total gene content of the organisms present in an environment

Microbiome

Totality of the microbes, their genetic elements (genomes), an environmental interactions in a defined environment

Stem cells

Undifferentiated cells capable of self-renewal and differentiation

Virion

Virus particle outside the host cell

nucleus

a region bounded by a complex membranous structure called the nuclear envelope

Cells are capable of self-regulation

in the case of the sea urchin, half the cells were separated in early development and developed in to a whole sea urchin, rather than half

Robert Hooke

invented the microscope, first discovered cells in the mid 1600s.

neural stem cells

may be used to treat neurodegenerative disorders

Euk and pro difference: specialized organelles for aerobic respiration and photosynthesis

mitochondria and chloroplasts

Euk and pro difference: complex chromosome composed of...

...DNA and associated proteins that are capable of compacting into mitotic structures

Cells reproduce and each daughter cells receives...

...a complete set of genetic instructions

Feature found in euk and not pro: division of...

...cells into nucleus and cytoplasm, separated by a nuclear envelope containing complex pore structures

Euk and pro difference: complex flagella and...

...cilia

Viral specificity for a certain host is...

...determined by the virus' surface proteins; only infect certain types of cells/organisms

Multicellular eukaryotes have different cells types for..

...different fuctions

Euk and pro difference: presence of two copies of genes per cell...

...diploidy, one from each parent

Recent evidence indicates that pros are more....

...diverse and numerous than previous thought

Cells can grow and reproduce in culture for...

...extended periods; cultured cells are an essential tool for cell biologists

Based on whole genomes, many organisms appear to be...

...genetic mosaics

Cellular processes are...

...highly regulated

Euk and pro difference: Sexual reproduction requiring...

...meiosis and fertilization

Animal cells derive energy from the products of...

...photosynthesis, mainly in the form of glucose; cell can convert glucose into ATP- a substance with readily available energy

Euk and pro similiarity: inserting membrane...

...proteins

Euk and pro difference: cell division using a microtubule-containing spindle that...

...separates chromosomes

Cells from different speices...

...share similar structure, composition, and metabolic features that have been conserved throughout evolution

Viruses have surface proteins...

...that bind to the surface of the host cell

Euk and pro difference: ability to ingest...

..particulate material by enclosure within plasma membrane vesicles- phagocytosis

Pros are identified and classified on the basis of...

..specific DNA sequences

Cell size is limited by

1. volume of cytoplasm that can be supported by the genes in the nucleus 2. by the volume of the cytoplasm that can be supported by exchange of nutrients 3. by the distance over which substances can efficiently travel through the cytoplasm via diffusion

nucleoid

A dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell.

Organelles

A tiny cell structure that carries out a specific function within the cell.

Evidence to support endosymbiont theory: 1

Absence of eukaryote species with organelles in an intermediate stage of evolution

Prokaryotes

All bacteria, arose 3.7 billion years ago

Based on nucleotide sequences of single genes, Woese proposed three major cell lineages:

Bacteria: include gram +, gram =, and cyanobacteria Archaea: include halophiles, thermophiles, methanogens, and acidophiles Eucarya: include plants, animals, fungi, and protists

Cell biology is reductionist

Based on the premise that studying the parts of the whole can explain the character of the whole

Euk and pro similiarity: similar mechanism for photosynthesis

Between cyanobacteria and green plants

Adult stem cells

Can be used to replace dmaged or diseased adult tissue

Cells are able to respond to stimuli

Cells are covered with receptors that interact with substances in the environment

Turnover in a cell

Cells expend an enormous amount of energy breaking down and rebuilding the macromolecules and organelles of which they are made; maintains integrity and enables cell to respond to changing conditions

Model organisms

E. coli, saccharomyces, arabidopsis, c, elegans, drosophila, mouse

Euk and pro similiarity: genetic information

Encoded in DNA using identical genetic code

Cytoplasm

Euks have membrane-bound organelles and complex cytoskeletal proteins; both have ribosomes but differ in size

Most complex cells

Found in single celled protists; vorticella

Cells posses a genetic program and the means to use it

Genes encode information to build each cell, and the organism, for cellular reproduction, activity and structure

Viral structure

Genetic material and can be single-stranded DNA or RNA; protein capsid surrounds the genetic material; lipid envelope may surround the capsid in some viruses

Euk and pro similiarity: share metabolic pathways

Glycolysis and TCA cycle

Synthetic biology

Goal is to develop novel life forms, using existing organisms as a starting point, that have unique value in medicine and industry, or in cleaning up the environment

Embryonic stem cells

Have greater potential for differentiation (pluripotent) than adult stem cells; must be differentiated in vitro; use of these cells involves ethical considerations

Eukaryotic cells

Include protists, fungi, plants, and animals

Prokaryotic cells, domain bacteria

Include the smallest known cells: mycoplasma, cyanobacteria: photosynthetic bacteria

Euk and pro difference: Complex membranous cytoplasmic organelles

Includes Er, golgi complex, lysosomes, endosomes, peroxisomes, and glyoxisomes

Induced pluripotent cells have been demostrated in culture

Involves reprogramming a fully differentiated cell into a pluripotent stem cell; cells have been used to correct certain disease conditions in experimental animals; could have significant applications

LUCA

Last universal common ancestor

Euk and pro similiarity: similiar apparatus for conservation of chemical energy as ATP

Located in the plasma membrane and pros and the mitochondrial membrane of euks

Evidence to support endosymbiont theory: 2

Many symbiotic relations are known among different organisms

Cells engage in mechanical activities

Materials are transported, structures are assembled; motor proteins

Prokaryotic cells, domain archaea

Methanogens, halophiles, acidophiles, and thermophiles

Euk and pro difference: complex cytoskeletal system

Microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules and associated motor proteins

Cells carry out a variety of chemical reactions

Miniaturized chemical plants; capable of hundreds of different reactions; require enzymes

Life

Most basic property of cells

Evidence to support endosymbiont theory: 4

Nucelotide sequences or rRNAs from euk organelles resembled that of prokaryotes

Synthetic biology tool box

Nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids

Differentiation

Occurs during embryonic development in other multicelluar organisms; numberes and arrangements of organelles relate to the function of the cell; despite differentiation, cells have many features in common

The origin of eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells arose first and gave rise to eukaryotic cells; endosymbiont theory

Genetic material, packaging:

Proks have a nucleoid region whereas euks have a membrane-bound nucleus

Euk and pro difference: presence of three different RNA synthesing enzymes

RNA polymerase

Anton von Leeuwenhoek

Refined the microscope, used a single lens microscope; viewed pond water

Cell replacement therapy

Remove somatic cells from patient; fuse somatic cell with enucleated oocyte; allow to develop to blastocyst; grow embryonic stem cells in culture; induce ES cells to differentiate; transplant required differentiated cells back into patient

Lateral gene transfer

Results in organisms with both parental DNA and DNA from other organisms in the environment; bacteria and eucarya show evidence of LGT in their genomes

Tobacco mosaic virus

Rod shaped particle consisting of a single molecule of RNA surrounded by a helical shell composed of protein subunits

Cell theory

Schlieden, Schwann, and Virchow All organisms are composed of one or more cell The cell is the structural unit of life Cells arise from pre-existing cells by division

Chromatin

Substance found in eukaryotic chromosomes that consists of DNA tightly coiled around histones

Provirus

The integrated viral DINA; every time it divides, the infected DNA divides too

viral infection types: integration

the virus integrates its DNA (called a provirus) into the host cell's chromosomes; infected how may behave normally until it is activated, leading to lysis; host may give rise to viral progeny by budding; host may become malignant

Euk and pro similiarity: similiar mechanisms for

transcription and translation of genetic information including similar ribosomes


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