Ch 1-4 exam

Stratum Spinosum

a) "spines" are exposed desmosomes (tight junctions) is artifact due to shrinkage when skin is fixed. b) Thickest living layer- several layers thick. Some mitosis c) Cells tied together with protein to form sheets d) Langerhan's cells (dendritic cell = phagocytic immune cell), e) some melanocytes 3. Stratum Granulosuma) "granular" granules of keratinohyalin, a precursor to keratin b) Still have nucleus c) Cells undergo apoptosis, fill with lipid rich substance (water proof)d) This layer increases keratin with friction: callus. 4. Stratum lucidum: Thick skin only: clear appearance b/c no nuclei or organelles. DeadComposition is exactly the same as stratum corneum. A transition zone between granulosum & corneum in thick skin 5. Stratum corneum- 25-30 layers of flat dead cells. Most numerous# of cells in this layer. - Keratinocytes- keratin (tough, fibrous protein). millions of keratinocytes slough off everyday. In areas of increased friction, rubs off faster.

Functions of Cell Membrane

a) simple diffusion: substance moves through semipermeable membrane without help from transport protein b) facilitated diffusion: diffusion of solutes through transport protein in plasma membrane c) osmosis: movement of water across semipermeable membrane d) active transport: transport of molecules that require use of energy in form of ATP to help them cross the cell membrane

Continued

- 3. Developmental Anatomy: conception -> physical maturity. Includes both gross & microscopicanatomy. - Embryology (embryo for the 1st two months. At month 3, becomes a fetus) - Comparative Anatomy: compares organization differences between types of animals. Reflect evolutionary history. Uses gross, microscopic & developmental anatomy. - Radiographic anatomy: what can be seen in X-rays, ultrasound or other procedures6. - Cross-Sectional anatomy: subspecialty of gross anatomy. Used in new technology eg) CT scansB. - Physiology- the study of function, which is intimately related to anatomy & can only be explained in terms of the underlying anatomy.

Intercellular Attachment

- Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAMs)Transmembrane proteins involved in intercellular attachment - Communicating junctions (gap junctions) - 2 cells held together with channels that have passageways to allow substances through. - Common among epithelial cells to help coordinate beating cilia - coordinate cardiac muscle heart beat & smooth muscle contraction C. Adhering junctions (Tight junctions):Lipid parts of two membranes held tightly together by Interlocking proteins of adjacent membranes 1. Function: seal off any space between cells to prevent movement of water or other molecules past. Makes a separation & a barrier between regions. 2. Where you find adhereing junctions:- Attach 2 cells at the lateral sides - Anchor epithelial cells to underlying basement membrane - Abundant in skin cells - you don't lose cells individually, rather, a sheet of cells

Dermis & Hypodermis/Subcutaneous layer

- Dermis 1. Papillary layer: Upper 20% areolar CT - Dermal papillae= increases surface area between epidermis & dermis. - Papillary plexus: branching network of capillaries which supply epidermal cells 2. Reticular layer: - Dense irregular CT - This layer contains bundles of collagen and elastin for resiliency and strength. - This layer diminishes as you age- causing wrinkles. C. Hypodermis/Subcutaneous layer: - Mainly consists of adipose. - For histology: very light staining layer - Thermoregulation, protection, padding - Distribution of subcutaneous fat changes over a life time and is different between sexes.

Body cavities

- Dorsal cavity: cranial, vertebral. posterior or back cavity Viscera for dorsal cavity: Cranial: brain, vertebral: spinal cord Vertebral: connected to cranial cavity. no structure runs through both cavities to separate them. - Thoracic cavity (upper): R/L pleura lungs Viscera: lungs Mediastinum (heart) or pericardial cavity viscera: heart - Abdominopelvic (peritoneal cavity): Abdominal cavity Pelvic: hip bone to waist. Viscera: bladder, reproductive organs, digestive tract

glands- specialized epithelial cells.

- Endocrine glands secrete their substances directly into their blood stream. 2. Exocrine glands secrete their substances into a duct, space or outside the body. How do glands secrete substances? a) Merocrine: secretion is produced & exported via exocytosis, no part of the cell dies or is lost. b) Holocrine: entire cells die and are discharged with its secretions. c) Apocrine: the apical (top) part of the cytoplasm is lost with the secretion 3. Goblet cell: specialized columnar cell. A unicellular gland which secretes mucin (mucus). 4. Shapes: alveolar, tubular (tubuloalveolar)Simple, compound ducts

Features

- Epidermis (stratified squamous, keratinized) Upper part of skin. - Dermis (areolar and dense irregular CT) Contains accessory structures such as nerves, blood supply, hair, glands - Hypodermis/ subcutaneous (adipose) *technically hypodermis is NOT part of skin.\ - Epidermial ridge (friction ridge)- hands, soles, = fingerprints & footprints - Dermal papillae: increase surface area of dermis contact with epidermis= diffusion of gasses & nutrients

Membranes

- Mucous membranes (mucosa): mucus coats these membranes. Found in areas of your body exposed to the outside not covered by skin. Protective role. 2. Serous membranes (serosa) Parietal layer- lines the wall of the cavity Visceral layer - directly on the organ Serous fluid- found between the parietal and visceral layers. a) lubrication/ educes friction between two membrane layers 3. Cutaneous membrane (skin or integument) 4. Synovial membrane- in synovial joints (eg knee, elbow, shoulder). Lubrication by producing synovial fluid.

Gross Anatomy (macroscopic)

- Surface Anatomy: superficial anatomical markings (chapter 12 of your book) - Regional Anatomy- superficial & internal structures in specific area of body eg) neck. Higher anatomical courses generally take the regional approach - Systemic Anatomy: consider organ systems. 11 organ systems.

Characteristics of a membrane:

- The cell's membranes are semipermeable or selectively permeable. This acts as a barrier to only allow through what the cell (or organelle) requires. Channel proteins a) Channel proteins: allows substances to pass into or out of cell. b) Gated channel proteins: a "gated" channel means that it is closed most of the time, but opens when stimulated.

Plasma membrane

- The membrane is mainly a phospholipid bilayer with cholesterol & proteins embedded. Allparts of the membrane are in motion & fluid. - Major 3 components of plasma membrane are: a) Phospholipids: hydrophobic tail and a hydrophilic head portion. This macromolecule creates a bilayer and forms the bulk of the membrane. Some of these lipids may have a small sugar group (oligosaccharide) attached to them. These are called glycolipids. b) Proteins. - If they go through the entire membrane they are called integral or transmembrane proteins. If an integral protein functioned to transport substances in/out of the cell, it can be called a channel protein. - If a protein is attached to just one side of a membrane, it's a peripheral protein. - Some proteins have a small sugar group (oligosaccharide) attached to them. These are called glycoproteins. . The sugar groups are used to communicate with other cells. Eg) it lets other cells know what kind of cell one is.Some proteins may have a lipid attached to them. These are called lipoproteins c) cholesterol functions to maintain fluidity of the membrane

Electron microscope

- Used to resolve items that are too small to view with light microscope eg) viruses or DNA. 2. Electrons beamed at a sample. Wavelengths of electrons are smaller than visible light for better resolution. A detector picks up diffraction pattern of electrons & a computer generates the image. 3. There are two types of electron microscopes: a). Scanning Electron Microscope: Scans the surface of structures with very great detail & resolution. 3-D image b) . Transmission Electron Microscope: Specimen are sliced thin- gives image of internal ultrastructure. 2-D image

Endocytosis (within)

- phagocytosis- engulfing large substances from outside "cell eating". Eg) white blood cell taking in a bacterium. ii. pinocytosis- cell taking in small "sips" of fluid outside the cell. "cell drinking" iii. receptor-mediated endocytosis (most specific kind of endocytosis). A protein receptor on the surface of the cell will fit only a specific kind of molecule. Upon binding, the cell's membrane will begin to sink inwards, forming a vesicle to take in the substance. f). exocytosis: cell releases substances to the outside by allowing its vesicles to fuse with plasma membrane. 5. Extensions of Plasma membrane: Microvilli - Fingerlike extensions of the membrane to increase surface area. Found in areas where there is a lot of secretion & absorption eg) small intestine Cytoplasm 1. Cytosol: - contains different ions than extracellular fluid. - contains high concentration of dissolved or suspended proteins that regulate metabolism of cell - contains small amounts of carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids

Ch 1. Introduction to anatomy

-Microscopic anatomy: what you can see with a microscope, not seen with the naked eye - Cytology: study of cells -Histology: study of tissues - Tissues: groups of specialized cells working together, has a function. - 4 basic tissue types in humans. (epithelial, nervous, muscle, connective)

Loose connective tissue

1. Areolar: sponge-like. Btwn other tissues, binding/filler. 2. Adipose: very little ECM. Adipocytes. Nucleus pushed to side: signet ring shape a) Functions of adipose: i) energy storage ii) cushion/pad internal organs iii) provide insulation (warmth) b) 2 kinds of adipose i) white fat: yellow/white. One large lipid droplet. Dominant in adults: padding storage.Metabolically inactive ii) brown fat:Abundant in infants, children. Fat stored in many vacuoles. Highly vascularized, & many mitochondria. (blood supply and mitochondria give it a brown color) Metabolically active. Functions to raise infants body temperature quickly. 3. Reticular "network".Primarily made of reticulin fibers which form a "fish netting" to suspend cells.Found in the lymphatic organs (spleen, lymph nodes) , also liver

Blood

1. Function: transportation, regulation (temp, pH, water content), protection 2. Components: a) plasma: water & dissolved molecules. b) Formed elements i. erythrocytes: carry gasses; no nucleusii. leukocytes: immunity- large cells with nucleusiii. platelets or thrombocytes: blood clotting

Abdominal divisions

4 Quadrants: 1. upper right (UR), 2. Lower right (LR), 3. Upper left (UL), 4. Lower Left (LL) 9 regions: right hypochondriae region, right lumbar region, right iliac (inguinal) region, epigastric region (top center), umbilical region, hypogastric region, left hypochondriae region, left lumbar region, left iliac (inguinal) region

Levels of organization

ATOM -> MOLECULE-> MACROMOLECULE (PROTEINS, CARBS, LIPIDS, NUCLEIC ACIDS) -> ORGANELLE (SPECIALIZED UNITS, MITOCHONDRIA, GOLGI, NUCLEUS) 1. Cell: basic unit of living things. 2 basic types of cell: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. 2. Tissues: group of similar cells and extracellular matrix that perform a specific function (epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous) 3. Organs: composed of different types of tissue and perform a particular function within the organ system 4. Organ system: 11 human organ systems 5. Organism: all of the body systems together.

Anatomical Position & terms

Anatomical position Axial region of body: anything in the central access (head to waist) Appendicular region of body: upper and lower extremities (arm and legs) Supine:laying on your back prone: laying on your stomach Directional terms Anterior/ventral: anything towards the front of your body (belly button) Posterior/dorsal: anything towards the back of your body (butt, back) medial: closer to the midline of the body (center of the body) in the axial region. lateral: anything further away from the midline superior (cranial): towards the head (above and below) inferior (caudal): below the head (hip region) - Superficial: only on the surface or very close to the surface - Deep: found below the surface - Proximal: upper limb or extremitie. towards the attachment of trunk -Distal: lower limb or extremitie. further away from trunk - central: in the center (brain, nervous system) -Peripheral: outside the center - ispilateral: the same side - contralateral: the opposite side

Continued

Axilla or armpit (axillary) Brachium or arm (brachial) Antecubitis or front of elbow (antecubital) Antebrachium or forearm (antibrachial) Thoracis or thorax, chest Mamma or breast (mammary) Abdomen (abdominal) Umbilicus or naval (umbilical) Lower half facing Anterior/ventral Carpus or wrist (carpal) Palma or palm (palmar) pollex or thumb digits (phalanges) or fingers digital or phalangeal patella or kneecap (patellar) crus or leg (crural)

Upper half of body facing posterior/dorsal

Cephalon or head (cephalic) cervicis or neck (cervical) shoulder (acrominal) Dorsumor (back, dorsal) (shoulder to hand) -> upper limb olecranon or back of elbow (olecranal) lumbus or loin (lumbar) Lower half of body facing posterior/dorsal (Hip to foot) -> lower limb gluteus or buttock (gluteal) popliteus or back of knee (popliteal) sura or calf (sural) calcaneus or heel of foot (calcaneal) planta or sole of foot (bottom, plantar)

connective tissue

Characteristics 1. vascular 2. not on surfaces, underneath 3. support for cells, organs etc 4. cells are widely separtated by extracellular matrix 5. fibers: a) collagen (strong, flexible, bundles), b) elastin (thin, elastic, strong-ish), c) reticular (thin, highly branched, forms network, for filtering (lymph nodes, spleen) 6. types of cells: mesenchymal (stem cells -> fibroblasts, macrophages, other CT cells) Fibroblast: stellate (star-shaped), makes all CT matrix fibers Fibrocytes: maintain CT fibersMacrophages

Eukaryotic Cell

Characteristics of eukaryotic cell: 1. Contains internal cell membranes (creating membrane bound organelles & nucleus) 2. Internal membranes create microenvironments, this leads to a division of labor= more efficient cell 3. Large cell compared to prokaryotic cells

Cartilage connective tissue

Characteristics: Avascular, lacks direct blood supply (nourish diffusion) so it heals slowly. Made of collagen & chondroitin sulfate. Chondrocytes always found in a space called a lacuna. (lacunae pl)3 kinds of cartilage: a) hyaline cartilage: Glassy & smooth in appearance, most common. Nose, ends of long bones, fetal skeleton, between ribs and sternum. b). elastic cartilage: Most flexible. Collagen & many elastic fibers (can see in slide). Eg) Outer ear.c) fibrocartilage: Strongest, resists compression. More collagen. Pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs, knee meniscus.Chondrocytes lined up in rows.

Nervous

Characteristics: conduct impulses .1. Neuron: creates and sends impulses. Parts: dendrites, cell body (soma), axon 2. Neuroglia: support nourish neurons. Outnumber neurons 9:1

Bone

Characteristics:a. Most rigid CTb. ECM: Organic: collagen providing flexibility. Inorganic: calcium & phosphates -rigid c. Outer part of bones made of compact bone. d. Inner portion of bones is made of spongy bone .2. Compact bone histology: Osteon, central canal (artery& vein), lamellae, osteocyte, lacunae, canaliculi, Volkman'sCanal 3. Spongy (Cancellous, Trabecular) bone Blood cell formation: red marrow Trabeculae: bony spicules of bone forming networks.

Muscle tissue

Contains actin & myosin protein filaments: 2 most abundant microfilaments which permit contraction.Muscle tissue is able to contract. Skeletal muscle tissue : 1. multinucleated, yes on striations, voluntary (can control), shape of cells are long, unbranched, cylinder called a fiber, regeneration is possible, has myosatellite cells = stem cells, found attached to bones and flesh of skin. moves body, stabilizes body and joints, generates heart Cardiac muscle tissue: uninucleated, yes on striations, involuntary, shape of cell is short, branched, contractions are rhythmic, regeneration is not possible, has intercalated discs, located in heart only, functions to pump blood for circulation and maintain blood pressure smooth muscle: uninucleated, no on striations, involuntary, shape of cell is spindle shaped, tapered at the ends, rhythmic contractions, regeneration possible, located in walls of hollow organs, functions to move substances through these organs Ex: food through digestive tract, push blood in blood vessels.

Dense connective tissue

Dense regular: Bundles of collagen run parallel: strength in one direction (Tendons, ligaments, aponeurosis) 2. Dense irregular: Bundles run in different directions: strength in different directions eg) Dermis of skin

Layers

Epidermis (COME LETS GET SUN BURNED!) 1. Stratum Basale- Also called germinativum because it's the "germ" layer. Germ= reproductiona) New cells created here- active mitosis 15-30 days to go from bottom to top. As cells move towards the top layer of skin, they become keratinized and die. b) Melanocytes: produce melanin (several forms yellow, red , brown, black) i) long processes that pass melanin to upper regions of skin. ii) Function of melanin: - block UVB radiation: UV can damage DNA AND can break down folic acid (B vitamin). Folic acid is important for normal nervous system development for embryo. - Disease of damaged DNA= cancer - If folic acid is not present in pregnant woman, the embryo may not develop at all or have neurological problems iii) Exposure to radiation stimulates melanocytes to produce more melanin= tanning. What happens on a molecular/cellular level when your tan fades? iii) Evolution of skin color People who evolved near the equator where sun more intense = darker skinned people to protect from UV radiation's damage to DNA and folic acid People who evolved near the poles where the sun less intense = lighter skinned people. Less melanin allows for more UV radiation to hit skin cells where Vitamin D is created. A lack of vitamin D can lead to weak bones (Ca+2 absorption less efficient). Disorder albinism. Little or no production of melanin; no pigment in hair, skin, eye,

Ch 3 outline tissues

Epithelium Characteristics 1. Cellularity: completely made of cells: cells tightly packed bound with specialized junctions. 2. Polarity: two surfaces different. Apical surface: (top) free surface Basal surface: (bottom) connected to underlying connective tissue (CT) via carbohydrates & proteins called the basement membrane. Basement membrane is also called basal lamina. 3. Attachment: epithelial cells attached to CT underneath 4. Avascular 5. Arranged into sheets or layers. One or more layers 6. Innervated: nerve endings very close to lining: detect substances/irritation 7. Regenerate. (contain stem cells) B. General Functions 1. Physical protection 2. controls permeability 3. provide sensation 4. produce secretions- all glands made of specialized epithelial cells. C. Classification 1. SHAPE: Squamous (flat fried eggs shape), cuboidal (cube shape) , columnar (rectangular shaped) 2. LAYERS: Simple, Stratified (double layered), Pseudostratified (columnar with cilia)

Mitosis

Function: replace or regenerate cells, growth, found in somatic cell (body cells) that aren't involved in reproduction, # of cell division: 1, # of daughter cells created: 2, Compared to parent cell: Genetically Identical to parent cell = clones of parent, How many chromosomes in daughter cells?Each daughter cell is diploid (2n); the same as the parent, The means it has the normal 2 sets of chromosomes Meiosis: Function: Create genetically different gametes (sperm or egg), found in gonads (testicles & ovaries) where sperm and egg are created, # of cell division: 2 (meiosis I and meiosis II), # of daughter cells: 4, compared to parent cell: Genetically different from parent cell & different from each other, How many chromosomes in daughter cells?Each daughter cell is haploid (n), which means is only has half the normal number of chromosomes.

Ch 4 integumentary system (avascular)

Functions 1. protection: cushions & insulates deeper body organs, protects from bumps, scrapes, chemicals & invadingorganisms. Epidermis is water proof (reduce loss or gain of water) 2. Body temp. regulation: capillary networks & sweat glands regulate heat loss. 3. Excretion: excretes urea, salts, water 4. Produces vitamin D: epidermal cells use UV to create this vitamin which is necessary for Ca+2 absorption. 5. Sensory reception: skin filled with man sensory receptors (temp/pain/pressure/touch etc)

continued

Golgi apparatus: 3-5 layers of flattened sacs, sort, process, pack, ships materials via vesicles, lysosomes created here d. Lysosomes: inside sacs has a ph 5 & hydrolytic enzymes, Digestion of macromolecules & pathogens, autophagy- recycling of old organellese - Mitochondria: mtDNA, double membrane organelle,site of cell respiration= production of ATP,Quantity in a cell is correlated with activity eroxisomes 5i. peroxisomes: oxidases that neutralize free radicals. Free radicals are very harmful to the cell, Peroxisomes detoxify alcohol, formaldehyde, phenol and other harmful compounds. Catabolism of fatsiii. What organ's cells would have a lot of peroxisomes?? Liver - cytoskeleton: Network of fibers that shape, ability to move, ability to rearrange its chromosomes & for organelles to move inside the cell. i) Microtubules: thick cylinders of protein- used in motile structures of cell. Cilia: in humans, movement of substances across the cell's surface. Flagella: long whip like appendage to move cells. On sperm only ii) Intermediate filaments: Shapes the cell iii) Microfilaments:Movement of cell: muscle cells have 2 microfilaments actin& myosin. h. centriole/centrosomeOrganelle moves chromosomes during mitosis & meiosis

Accessory structures

Hair a) Found all over body except palms, soles, lips, nipples, & external reproductive organs. b) Hair is formed from epidermal tissue, but located in dermis of skin. c) Hair follicle: entire structure that generates hair: Bulb: epithelial cells that create hair.(around papilla - CT with blood supply) Root: from bulb to where hair is organized Shaft: The majority extends beyond the skin. - Certain hair follicle cells continuously divide producing new cells that form a hair. As these cells are pushed farther away from the dermis, loose nourishment, become keratinized & die. The part of hair in the dermis is called the root.Hair Structure: Medulla: contains soft keratin- flexible Cortex: hard keratin- rigid Cuticle: thin, tough outer layer of hard keratin. Tightly packed, overlapping like scales. 2. Sebaceous gland: - Produces sebum, an oil that is slightly acidic. Empties into the hair root.Sebum provides lubrication for hair & skin. Also inhibits microbes due to low pH. 3. Arrector pili: Smooth muscle attached to each hair root. Contractions cause "goosebumps" or hair to stand on end. 4. Root hair plexus: nerve fibers at base of each hair follicle to feel movement of each hair. 5. Nails - Keratinized cells: Lunule: contains nail matrix- where nail grows from 6. Pacinian Corpuscle (Lamellated corpuscle)Senses deeper pressure. Located in dermis of skin.

Composition of the Body

Hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon: 98% of our body. 1.5% nitrogen remaining are the trace elements. trace elements: necessary in very small amounts Ex: iodine, calcium, iron. Molecular composition: 66% water, 20%proteins, 10% lipids, 3% carbs, 1% other

Ch 2 The cell

Microscopy & Cytology (study of cells) - Light Microscope 1. Beams light through sample, so sample must be thin! 2mm of tissue will contain millions of cells. 2. Artifact: minor distortions in preserved tissues during making of the slide (layers being pulled apart, holes, staining mistakes) 3. Know units: cells measured in micrometer (μm), which is 10^-6 of a meter.

Organelles

Nucleus: What body cell hasn't a nucleus? red blood cells - Double membrane, nuclear pore, nucleolus, nucleoplasm. - Contains chromatin (DNA in loose form). Chromosomes are DNA strands tightly coiled. Ribosome i. Two protein subunits & (ribosomal RNA) rRNA. ii. Function: Protein synthesis c. Endoplasmic Reticulum. Rough & Smooth i. RER: membrane studded with ribosomes. Protein synthesis. Proteins synthesizedhere are to be secreted from the cell. ii. SER: synthesis of lipids & detoxification. Which organ's cells would have a large amount of SER?Liver cells

continued

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium function: protection, secretion (mucus) location: lining of nasal cavity, trachea, and bronchi; portions of male reproductive tract - One layer of cells but appears to be stratified. Tall columnar cells are also protective respiratory system- contains cilia to move substances away from lung via ciliary escalator stratified squamous function: provide physical protection against abrasion, pathogens, and chemical attack location: surface of skin, lining of oral cavity, throat, esophagus, rectum, anus, and vagina - protective. Deep cells may be cuboidal, but look to top cells for shape. New cell made at basal layer. a. Keratinized (dry- skin) b. Non-keratinized (wet- mucous membranes)

Sections and planes

Sagittal (medial) plane: something that is going to bisect one organ or the body and divide it into left and right portions Midsagittal: cutting down the middle of something and making exact left and right Parasagittal: off the midline, not equal portions Transverse (horizontal) plane: plane going through body and diving into superior and interior portions Frontal(coronal) plane: cutting body/organ into anterior&posterior portions Oblique sections: diagonal from horizontal or sagittal plane. Sectional planes longitudinal section: catching most of opening cross section: short span/width diameter lumen: empty space

Serous membranes (serosa) & serous cavities

Serosa have 2 membranes: 1. Parietal layer: outer layer, walls 2. Visceral layer: layer within organs Serous fluid: produced by the membranes, reduces friction between the two membranes, allows viscera to move and change shape within cavityeg) lungs expand & contract or stomach enlarging & churning food Special terms: - Pleura (pleura= lungs)Visceral pleura & parietal pleura; pleural cavityb) - Pericardium (cardio=heart)Visceral pericardium & parietal pericardium; pericardial cavityc) - Peritoneum (abdominal cavity)Visceral peritoneum & parietal peritoneum

Epithelial types and functions

Simple squamous: one layer of fat cells, thin and delicate. not very protective and placed in areas of body that are areas of diffusion: substances can pass through readily. location: capillaries, lungs, serous membranes function: diffusion/secrete & reduces friction (serous and synovial membranes) simple cuboidal: location: glands, ducts(secretion), kidneys function: secretion/absorption. cuboidal: glands, ducts (secretion), kidneys columnar: digestive organs (stomach, small intestinalie, large intestine) Cilia (longer) : made of microtubles, move substances across surface (fallopian tube, bronchi) Microvilli (shorter) : increase surface area of apical ends of epithelial cells

Body regions

Upper half of body facing anterior/ventral Bucca or cheek (buccal) Cervicis or neck (cervical) Nasus or nose (nasal) Oculus or eye (orbital or ocular) Auris or ear (otic) Cephalon or head (cephalic) Cranium or skull (cranial) facies or face (facial) Oris or mouth (oral) Mentis or chin (mental)

continued

What is the difference in skin darkness & color between people?? a) type of melanin: brown eumelanin dark brown eumelanin pheomelanin (yellow to red) b) amount of melanin produced. Everybody has the same amount of melanocytes, but the amount of melanin they create differs. Typically, between 1000 and 2000 melanocytes are found per square millimeter of skin. c) melanin is eventually digested & broken down. Dark skinned people's skin has slow or no digestion of melanin so it remains in skin. d) Other coloration factors for skin carotene= yellow blood=red thickness of corneum (palms and soles of feet lighter in color) cyanosis: blue coloration of skin due to lack of oxygenated blood. c) Merkel cells found in hairless areas of the body (eg) palms. Responds to light touch, shapes and textures.

other glands

apocrine (sudodiferous) (in anal, groin, & armpit regions). - Begin to secrete at puberty&the fatty substance s& proteins it secretes are decomposed by our bacteria & odor may be sex attractants- pheromones. (sometimes has milky or yellow color). Empties into hair root b. eccrine (merocrine): sweat- water, salts & some organics. Empties onto surface of skin.***** sweat glands have myoepithelial cells to help squeeze the gland & discharge its secretions. c. ceruminous glands: modified sweat glands to make a wax. Cerumen = ear wax

Organ systems

integumentary system: skin -skeletal system: bones and joints -muscular system: skeletal muscle -Nervous system: brain, spinal cord, nerves - endocrine system: system produces hormones, glands -Cardiovascular system: heart and blood vessels - Lymphatic system: lymph nods, screening system, immune system, balances fluids in the body -respiratory system: lungs, upper respiratory, throat, laryinx -Digestive system: stomach, liver, intestinali, anus - Urinary system: kidney, bladder - reproductive system: ovary, vagina, penis

continued

stratified cuboidal: function: protection, secretion; absorption location: lining of some ducts (rare), larger glands - larger glands (salivary, mammary, large sweat glands) stratified columnar epithelium: function: protection, secretion location: small areas of the pharynx, epiglottis, anus, mammary gland, salivary gland ducts, and urethra - rare (male urethra, some glands) protection, secretion Transitional epithelium: function:permits expansion and recoil location: urinary bladder, renal pelvis, ureters - named after function- permits expansion & recoil . Basal cells : cuboidal/columnar, surface cells domed (un stretch) or squamous (stretch). Lines bladder, ureters & part of urethra

continued

tarsus or ankle (tarsal) Digits (phalanges) or toes (digital or phalangeal) hallux or great toe pelvis (pelvic) manus or hand (manual) Inguen or groin (inguinal) Pubis (pubic) Femur or thigh Pes or foot (pedal)