Ch. 2 The History of the American Police

PERF

-Detailed policies on de-escalation, tactical decision making, and strategic withdrawal, PERF continued, could effectively reduce uses of force without endangering officers or members of the public. -The significance of the PERF reports lay in the fact that each one was based on a day long conference involving police chiefs, deputy chiefs, captains, social service providers, and academics. -In each case, police officials would report on innovations they implemented in their departments. -The recommendations grew out of actual police experience and did not represent abstract discussions. -The reports were a good indicator of reforms that were currently taking place in American policing. -The tragic developments in Ferguson touched off years of police related events that created a national crisis over policing and race relations to a degree not seen since the urban riots of the 1960s. -On July 17, 2014 NYC officers arrested Eric Garner, an African American on Long Island for selling illegal cigarettes. -Officers sat on him to hold him down and did not respond to Garner's cries, "I can't breathe!" -Garner died and the incident was recorded on cell phone video and broadcasted over national television. -In April 2015, in North Charleston, SC Walter Scott, an African American was shot in the back and killed by a white officer as Scott was running away. -The shooting was captured on cell phone video and showed lack of any justification for the shooting. -On April 19, 2015, Freddie Gray, a 25 year old African American, died after being arrested by Baltimore, Maryland, police a week earlier and then given a "rough ride" in a police van where he sustained serious neck injuries. -Gray's death touched off protests and then violence, arson, and looting. -The sequence of events has provoked several national responses. -Civil rights activists protesting deaths at the hands of the police organized around the slogan "Black Lives Matter." -The shootings exposed that the U.S. did not have a reliable database on the # of people shot and killed by the police each year. -The National Police Crisis had an enormous impact on public opinion. -It supported a burst of police reform legislation at state and municipal levels. -It heightened awareness among academic researchers of how nominally race neutral crime fighting policies can result in racial disparities in stops and arrests, with serious consequences for equal protection of the law and damage the trust and respect for the police among African Americans and Hispanic Americans. -In its Proactive Policing report, notably regarding hot spots policing, the National Academy of Sciences issued a caution "There are likely to be large racial disparities in the volume and nature of police citizen encounters when police target high risk people or high risk places, as is common in many proactive policing programs."

Technology Revolutionizes Policing: Part 2

-The patrol car first appeared just before WWI and by the 1920s was in widespread use across the country. -The police adopted it because they had to keep up with citizens and criminals who were now driving cars. -Police chiefs believed the patrol car would make possible efficient and effective patrol coverage. -Patrolling by car would allow officers to cover their beats more, passing any point more than once during a shift. -Following the principles of Peel, chiefs were convinced this would deter crime more effectively than foot patrol. -Patrol officers would be able to respond to crimes and arrest more criminals as a result. -American PD's converted from foot to motor patrol, and by the 1960s only a few major cities still relied heavily on foot patrol. -The patrol car had unintended consequences that created new problems. -It removed the officer from the street and reduced informal contact with law abiding citizens. -The police became isolated from the public, and in the 1960s African Americans saw the police as an occupying army. -The two way radio developed slowly as a result of improvements in radio technology, finally becoming widespread in the late 1930s. -This technology had two important consequences for routine policing. 1) Allowed departments to dispatch officers in response to citizen calls for service. 2) Revolutionized police supervision by allowing the department to maintain continuous contact with patrol officers. -The telephone was invented in 1877, but did not have a great impact on policing until it was linked with the patrol car and the two way radio in the mid 20th century. -Together, the three pieces of technology completed a new communications link between citizens and the police. -Citizens now easily call the police, the two way radio enabled the department to dispatch a patrol car immediately, and the patrol car allowed the officer to reach the scene quickly. -PD's encouraged people to call, promising an immediate response. -Gradually, citizens became socialized into the habit of "calling the cops" to handle even the smallest problems. -Over time, Americans developed higher expectations about the quality of life because they could now call someone to deal with all sorts of problems. -As a result, the call workload increased steadily. -When the rising number of calls overloaded the police, departments responded by adding more officers, more patrol cars, and more sophisticated communications systems. -These added resources encourage more calls and the process repeated itself. -Police departments found themselves the prisoners of 911 calls, with an ever-increasing workload. -In the 1980s, with the emergence of the idea of community policing, experts questioned the value of responding to each and every call for service. -Telephone generated calls for service altered the nature of police citizen contacts. -Previously, officers rarely entered private dwellings. -Patrolling on foot, they had no way of learning about problems in private areas. -Nor did citizens have any way of summoning the police. -The new technology made it possible for citizens to invite the police into their homes. -The result was a complex and contradictory change in police citizen contacts. -Whereas the patrol car isolated the police from people on the streets, the telephone brought police officers into people's living rooms, kitchens, and bedrooms. -There, officers became involved in the most intimate domestic problems: domestic disputes, alcohol abuse, parent-child conflicts, and other social problems. -As the technological revolution made it possible for people to easily call the police, it altered public expectations about the quality of life in their communities. -Beforehand, if there was any kind of disorder, a fight out on the street or a domestic disturbance in the apartment upstairs, there was no way they could summon the police to restore order. -As a result, they tolerated nuisances and possible threats. -But when calling the police became possible, people came to expect peace and quiet in their neighborhood, in the house next door, or in their apartment building. -This expectation is a routine part of American life today, but the unforeseen consequence was an enormous workload for the police as a direct result of the communications revolution in policing.

Progress and Resistance in Police Reform

-A major setback occurred when Attorney General Jeff Sessions, acting for President Trump, canceled the Justice Department's "pattern or practice" program in one of his first actions. -Since 1997, the program had investigated PD's for violations of people's constitutional rights, and in 40 judicially enforced consent decrees required "best practice" standards for use of force policies, the investigation of force incidents, EIS's, and other aspects of policing. -Although opposed in many cases by local officials and police unions, evaluations found in most cases the consent decrees ended police abuses and brought significant reforms.

Federal Investigations of Police Misconduct

-A riot erupted in Cincinnati, Ohio, in April 2001 after the 15th fatal shooting of an African American male in 5 years. -In response, the U.S. Justice Department brought a "pattern or practice" suit against the Cincinnati PD. -The authority of the Justice Department to investigate is based on Section 14141 of the 1994 Violent Crime Control Act, which authorizes the department to investigate law enforcement agencies when there is a pattern or practice of violations of civil rights (a pattern of excessive force or racial profiling). -Where violations are found to exist, investigations are settled through a consent decree, an MOA, or a settlement agreement, which requires the department to make reforms designed to end the civil rights violations. -The purpose of DOJ suits is not to bring criminal charges against individual officers but to require reforms that will bring about organizational change. -The first Justice Department case involved the Pittsburgh Police Bureau in 1997. -The required reforms included developing a new, state of the art use of force policy, a procedure for investigating force incidents, an EIS, an improved citizen complaint process, and training related to these matters. -Settlements include a court appointed monitor to oversee implementation of the required reforms. -The federal investigations and consent decrees have been controversial. -Critics charge they are an unjustified intrusion of the federal government into local police affairs, and an expensive burden on local communities. -Evaluations found they are an effective remedy for PD's with systemic abuse problems that seem incapable of reforming themselves. -LAPD officers were not just working harder, but they were working smarter. -In 2017 President Trump's administration canceled the program. -By then, the program had reached court enforced settlements with 40 law enforcement agencies.

The constable

-Also had responsibility for enforcing the law and carrying out certain legal duties. -Initially an elected position, the constable gradually evolved into a semiprofessional appointed office. -The office of constable became a desirable and often lucrative position.

The Professional Era, 1900-1960

-American policing underwent a dramatic change in the first half of the 20th century. -The two principal forces for change were an 1) Organized movement for police professionalism 2) The introduction of modern technology, the telephone, the two-way radio, and the patrol car.

police union

-An organization legally authorized to represent police officers in collective bargaining with the employer. -Police unions spread rapidly in the 1960s after officers were angry and alienated over Supreme Court rulings, criticisms by civil rights groups, poor salaries, and benefits.

Adverse Impacts of Professionalization

-As part of the new management style of professionalization, reformers enhanced the military ethos of police departments. -In the 19th century, PD's had some military style elements, uniforms and rank designations, but in practice they were extremely undisciplined, with politicians rather than the chief making important decisions. -Professional oriented reformers added parades, close order drills, military style commendations, and a new emphasis on police use of deadly force. -These changes left an unfortunate legacy for the future. -The command system became more centralized and authoritarian than in the old days. -Another unfortunate consequence of professionalization was rank and file police officers became the forgotten people. -Reformers placed all hopes on strong police chiefs and regarded the rank and file as clay that had to be remolded through better training and discipline. -As a result, officers retreated into an isolated and alienated police subculture that opposed most reforms. -The most dramatic expression of the new police subculture was the emergence of police unions. -As policing became a profession and officers thought in terms of the job as a career, they demanded better salaries and a voice in decisions affecting their jobs. -The problem reached crisis proportions during WWI, when increases in the cost of living eroded the value of police salaries. -This set the stage for the 1919 Boston police strike, the most famous events in police history. -Salaries for Boston officers had not been raised in nearly 20 years. -When their demand for a 20% raise was rejected, they voted to form a union. -Police Commissioner Edwin U. Curtis suspended union leaders, and 1,117 officers went out on strike, leaving only 427 on duty. -Violence and disorder erupted throughout the city. -The violence in Boston produced a national backlash against police unions, and unionization efforts in other cities evaporated quickly. -Police unionism did not revive until the 1960s, but the problem of an alienated rank and file remained. -Professionalism created new problems in police administration. -As departments grew in size and created new specialized units, they became increasingly complex bureaucracies, which required increasingly sophisticated management. -Managing police organizations continued to be a major challenge into the 21st century.

What exactly is "modern" about the type of policing created by Peel?

-The three core elements involve the 1) Mission 2) Strategy 3) Organizational structure of the police.

Why Study Police History?

-Because it can help us understand policing today. -Many people believe the police do not change. -That is a myth. -In fact, policing has changed tremendously, even in the past several years. -Help us understand how and why important changes occur. -Racial profiling is nothing new, it just did not have a name. -The problem of police community relations has a long history. -It is useful to understand why this problem continues despite many reforms intended to eliminate discrimination. -The patrol car revolutionized police work, and it is important to understand its positive and negative effects contributions.

One of the most promising areas of police reform involved forward-thinking police chiefs acting through their professional association, the Police Executive Research Forum (PERF).

-Between 2012 and 2020, PERF issued a series of reports on a wide range of issues that included de-escalation, police training, constitutional policing, and police use of force. -The 2015 report on police training offered devastating information on the overemphasis on officer use of force and neglect of communication skills. -It emphasized how training on officer in tactical decision making could prepare officers to continually assess and reassess difficult and potentially dangerous encounters and choose responses that would reduce the likelihood that they would use force. -The report emphasized training programs move away from lectures and employ reality based training involving officers in real life scenarios where they learn how to respond effectively to actual situations. -The training report highlighted strategic withdrawal, officers would not charge into a situation but where appropriate step back, disengage, and develop a reasonable strategy for handling the encounter. -The report emphasized withdrawal was not an act of cowardice but a smart response that would reduce the chances they would have to use force. -The 2016 PERF report Guiding Principles on Use of Force not only brought together the points covered in earlier reports (de-escalation, scenario-based training, etc.), but broke new ground for the police by critiquing the prevailing Supreme Court ruling of police use of force, Graham v. Connor (1989). -The problem with the Graham decision is that its "objectively reasonable" standard is too vague and fails to provide detailed guidance on how best to handle a dangerous or potentially dangerous situation.

The most important new development in policing in the 1980s and 1990s was the advent of community policing (COP) and problem-oriented policing (POP).

-Both represented a new vision of the role of the police in addressing crime and disorder. -Advocates of community policing hailed it as a new era in policing. -The U.S. Justice Department encouraged the growth of community policing through the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS Office), which distributed money to hire 100,000 new officers. -In the article "Broken Windows," Wilson and Kelling summed up the recent research on policing: 1) Patrol had limited deterrent effect on crime 2) Faster response times did not increase arrests 3) The capacity of detectives to solve crimes was limited. -This research suggested two important points: 1) The police could not fight crime by themselves, but were dependent on citizens. 2) The police could reduce fear of crime by concentrating on less serious quality of life problems (broken windows). -Community policing challenged the norms of traditional police professionalization, arguing PD's had become centralized bureaucracies, isolated from communities they served. -Community policing advocates argued PD's focused too much on crime control and neglected disorder issues. -The civil rights crisis of the 1960s indicated police had a serious problem in relation to the African American community. -The research revolution had a major impact. -The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment found adding more patrol officers did not reduce crime. -The Newark Foot Patrol Experiment found adding foot patrols did not reduce crime. -To develop effective strategies to address crime and disorder, community policing involved decentralizing policymaking to neighborhood level and developing partnerships with neighborhood residents. -The most ambitious community policing program was CAPS in Chicago, it was a citywide effort that included regular neighborhood meetings between police and residents for the purpose of identifying neighborhood problems and developing solutions. -An evaluation of CAPS found it resulted in greater citizen involvement with police, improved cooperation between police and other government agencies (sanitation) over neighborhood problems, a decline in neighborhood problems, and improved public perceptions of the PD. -Unfortunately, the CAPS program was cut back because of political pressures over a rise in violent crime in the city. -The concept of POP was developed by Herman Goldstein in a 1979 article. -It holds that instead of thinking in terms of global concepts such as "crime" and "disorder," the police should address particular problems; working with neighborhood partners and develop creative responses to each one. -Instead of crime fighters, officers should be problem solvers, planners, and community organizers. -In the first POP experiment, officers in Newport News, VA attacked crime in a deteriorated housing project by helping the residents organize to improve conditions in the project itself. -This included working with government agencies and private companies to fulfill their responsibilities regarding building conditions and sanitation. -The evidence on the success of community policing programs, however, is mixed. -Many PD's received federal funds for additional officers and established community policing programs without adopting core elements of community policing. -Many programs vanished when the federal funds ended. -The Center for POP publishes an extensive series of guides on how to address different problems and organizes an annual conference where the best POP programs are recognized as winners of the Herman Goldstein Award.

The Quality of Colonial Law Enforcement

-Colonial law enforcement was inefficient, corrupt, and affected by political interference. -Contrary to popular myth, there was never a "golden age" of efficiency, effectiveness, and integrity in American policing. -With respect to crime, the sheriff, the constable, and the watch had little capacity to prevent crime or apprehend offenders. -Sheriffs and the constables were reactive agencies, responding to reports of crime that citizens brought to them. -Watchmen patrolled, but they were too few in number to really prevent crime. -None of the three agencies had enough personnel to investigate more than just a few crimes. -Crime victims could not easily report crimes because there were no telephones in those days, and a victim had to seek out the sheriff. -The sheriff and watchmen were paid by fees for particular services. -As a result, they had greater incentive to work on their other responsibilities, housing prisoners in jail which offered more certain payment, than on criminal law enforcement. -Colonial agencies were ill-equipped to maintain order. -With few watchmen on duty, there was little they could do in response to crime or disorder. -Cities were in disorderly in those years with public drunkenness, clashes between different ethnic groups, and periodic riots. -The three law enforcement agencies of the time had no capacity to provide routine and emergency services to the public. -In practice, ordinary citizens played a major role in maintaining order through informal social control: a comment, a warning, or a stern rebuke to friends, neighbors, or strangers. -People suspected of adultery or drunkenness were often "tried" by their church congregations. -The severest penalty, expulsion from the congregation was an extreme in small homogeneous communities. -There was face to face contact and people shared the same basic values. -This system of informal social control broke down as communities grew into larger towns and cities where the population was increasingly diverse, constantly changing and moving, and people often did not know their neighbors. -If policing was ineffective in cities and towns, it was almost nonexistent on the frontier. -Organized government did not appear in many areas for decades. -As a result, settlers relied on their own resources, taking the law into their own hands. -The result was a tradition of vigilantism that left a terrible legacy that lasted into the 20th century. -Mobs drove out of town or killed people they did not like. -The lynching of African Americans was used to maintain the system of racial segregation in the post Civil War South. -Corruption appeared early in American policing. -The criminal law was more moralistic than today with restrictions on drinking, gambling, and sexual practices. -As a result, people bribed law enforcement officials to overlook violation of the law.

Wickersham Commission

-Created in 1929 by President Herbert Hoover as the first national study of the American criminal justice system. -Officially known as the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement.

The great innovation of Peel's new police was its mission of

-Crime prevention. -Before the London police, all law enforcement was reactive, responding to crimes that had been committed. -The strategy for achieving crime prevention was preventive patrol.

Simmering Racial and Ethnic Relations

-Despite the progress in professionalization, the reformers did almost nothing to improve relations with racial and ethnic minority communities. -They ignored the recommendations of the report on the 1919 Chicago race riot. -In 1943, another wave of racial violence swept the country, with serious disturbances in Detroit, NYC, and LA. -The Detroit riot threatened to disrupt production of tanks and other vehicles needed in WWII. -As was the case in the riots of the 1917-1919 period, officers failed to stop or arrest marauding whites who were attacking African Americans. -Thurgood Marshall, the NAACP's chief lawyer (future Supreme Court justice) denounced the Detroit police as a "gestapo," in a blunt reference to Nazi Germany. -The 1943 LA riot brought attention to conflict between the police and the Latino community. -Referred to as the Zoot Suit Riot, the violence was the product of many factors. -The population of LA was changing, with an increase in immigrants from Mexico. -In addition to discrimination in employment and housing, the Latino community experienced brutality and discrimination at the hands of the police. -WWII added another volatile element, with many U.S. Navy personnel on leave in the city. -The news media encouraged the idea that young Mexican Americans were responsible for an increase in crime and juvenile delinquency. -And because many Latino youth wore the so called zoot suit, it became both a stereotype and a symbol of the violence that erupted in 1943. -The riot broke out on June 3, 1943, and lasted for a week. -Although recommendations were made to improve police community relations, little was done in the years that followed. -The riots of the 1940s gave birth to the modern police community relations movements. -Some departments created special police community relations units and offered the first training programs on race relations. -The most significant progress occurred in CA, under the leadership of Governor Earl Warren (later became Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court). -Michigan State University began sponsoring a series of annual conferences on police community relations in cooperation with the National Conference of Christians and Jews. -Despite these efforts, little progress was made in improving relations between the police and the African American community. -Departments in major cities hired few African American officers, even though African American communities continued to grow because of migration from the South. Departments also did little to control officer use of force, deadly force, and allegations of "police brutality" grew. -These problems finally erupted in a series of riots in the 1960s.

The first American police officers

-Did not wear uniforms or carry weapons -They were identified only by a distinctive hat and badge. -Weapons did not become standard police equipment until the late 19th century in response to rising levels of crime and violence.

J. Edgar Hoover

-Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation from 1924 to 1972. -Although Hoover increased the size and scope of the bureau's capabilities, he is best known for systematically misusing his power and exaggerating the bureau's effectiveness.

The Police Crises of the 1960s

-In the 1960s, the U.S. experienced a series of upheavals: 1) Supreme Court decisions expanding the scope of individual rights 2) New militancy on the part of the civil rights movement 3) Urban riots between 1964 and 1968 4) Student protests against the Vietnam War 5) Emergence of a "youth subculture" that challenged established standards about freedom of expression, sexuality, and drugs.

The Police and the Supreme Court

-Ernesto Miranda was an ordinary career criminal. -Between ages 14 and 18, was arrested 6 times and imprisoned 4 times. -On March 2, 1963, he raped a woman in Phoenix, AZ. -His arrest 11 days later set the stage for one of the most famous Supreme Court decisions in American history. -In Miranda v. Arizona (1966), the Court overturned his conviction and ruled that under the 5th and 6th Amendments officers had to advise suspects of their right to remain silent and their right to an attorney before being interrogated. -The Miranda decision was only one of several famous cases in which the Supreme Court established constitutional standards for the police and for other parts of the CJS. -In Mapp v. Ohio (1961), the Court held that evidence gathered in an illegal search and seizure could not be used against the defendant. -These decisions provoked political controversy. -Civil libertarians hailed the decisions as long overdue affirmations of the constitutional rights of Americans. -The police and their supporters claimed the Court "handcuffed" them in the fight against crime. -Conservative politicians accused the Court of favoring the rights of criminals over the rights of victims and law abiding citizens. -The Supreme Court's decisions related to the police had an enormous impact on searches and seizures and interrogations. -Most important, they provoked PD's to develop new training and supervision procedures for officers, to ensure that they complied with the law and would not lose criminal cases. -Departments began raising the entry level requirements for becoming an officer. -The Court's decisions prompted law enforcement leaders to develop a system of accreditation for agencies. -The Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies (CALEA) published its first set of Standards for Law Enforcement Agencies in 1983. -PD's began the process of developing written policies to guide officers in the exercise of discretion. -Administrative rulemaking first addressed police use of deadly force and then was extended to cover the handling of domestic violence incidents, high speed pursuits, the use of physical force, and more areas of routine police work.

Corruption and Politics

-George W. Plunkitt represented everything that was wrong with American policing in the 19th century. -A district leader for Tammany Hall, the social club that controlled NYC politics for generations, he is a famous because he explained in writing how corruption worked: -Tammany Hall "always stood for rewardin' the men that won the victory." -Jobs in the police department were one of the major rewards he and other political leaders had to offer. -Tammany Hall received bribes from saloon keepers, gamblers, and prostitutes.

New Directions in Police Administration, 1930-1960: The Wickersham Commission Bombshell

-In 1931, the Wickersham Commission report Lawlessness in Law Enforcement created a national sensation with its blunt conclusion that "the third degree the inflicting of pain, physical or mental, to extract confessions or statements is extensively practiced." -Officers routinely beat suspects, threatened them with worse punishment, and held them illegally for protracted questioning. -The report cited a suspect who was held by the ankles from a third story window and another who was forced to stand in the morgue with his hand on the body of a murder victim as methods to coerce suspects to confess. -The chief of police in Buffalo openly declared he would violate the Constitution if he felt he had to, in order to get a confession. -The Wickersham Commission had been created by President Herbert Hoover in 1929 to study a wide range of issues in the American CJS, and the report on police lawlessness was one of its 14 reports in 1931. -The report had an enormous long term impact on policing. -It inspired a new generation of police administrators, which included protégés of August Vollmer, who made new efforts to professionalize the police.

What went wrong with American policing?

-In a provocative comparative study, Miller argues the London police became highly professional, while the American police were completely unprofessional. -The difference was the commissioners of the London Metropolitan Police were free from political interference and able to maintain high personnel standards. -As a result, London Bobbies won public respect. -By contrast, lack of adequate supervision in America meant police misconduct was tolerated, resulting in public disrespect. -American officers began to carry firearms in response to increasing citizen violence. -The role of the police included serving as a social welfare institution. -Precinct stations provided lodging to the homeless. -The police professionalized, concentrating on crime, and care for the poor became the responsibility of what were then newly created professional social work agencies.

The President's Task Force

-In response to the growing National Police Crisis, President Obama in 2014 created the President's Task Force on 21st Century Policing. -The task force was an unprecedented event; there had never before been a president level commission or task force devoted exclusively to the police. -The 1968 Kerner Commission, appointed to study the riots of the 1960s, had devoted only two chapters to policing in its lengthy report. -The task force conducted public hearings in 3 cities and heard testimony from police officials, academic experts, civil rights advocates, and social service providers with expertise on policing. -The Final Report in May 2015 made 54 recommendations and included action items for improving policing. -The task force's Final Report opened by declaring that "Building trust and nurturing legitimacy" is the "foundational principle" for its recommendations covering every aspect of policing. -In appointing the task force, President Obama warned of the "distrust that exists between too many PD's and too many communities," adding "too many young people of color do not feel as they are being treated fairly." -With its emphasis on legitimacy and procedural justice, the report altered the national conversation about police reform. -To achieve legitimacy, the report argued the police needed to incorporate procedural justice into its basic operations related to interactions with members of the public, and in dealing with its officers inside the department. -Based on research and theory in social psychology, procedural justice holds when interacting with organizations and authority figures (police, employers, school officials, etc.), people's attitudes are influenced more by the perception of how they are treated than by the substantive outcome. -In policing, this means in a traffic stop, the perception of the driver is more influenced by if the officer treated him/her with respect than whether or not the officer issued a traffic ticket. -Evaluations found positive results in the behavior of police officers with improved training. -With respect to crime fighting, the task force argued aggressive anti crime policies had negative effects on the public. -Most important, it argued aggressive programs of stops and frisks or arrests focused on crime or drug hot spots and alienated African Americans and/or Hispanics. -A study of traffic stops in the Kansas City metropolitan area by Charles Epp confirmed this view, finding African Americans resented "suspicion" based stops where the reason for the stop was not driving behavior (speeding or running a red light) but the officer's belief that there was something suspicious about the driver and/or passengers.

By 1995, there were enough agencies that a professional association was established, the National Association for Civilian Oversight of Law Enforcement (NACOLE).

-In the 1990s, a new form of citizen oversight appeared: the police auditor or inspector general. -Civilian review boards that reviewed individual citizen complaints. -Police auditors examined PD policies, procedures, and recommended changes that would improve the quality of policing and reduce citizen complaints. -The Special Counsel to LA Sheriff's Department created in 1993 (abolished in 2014) issued semiannual reports that covered every aspect of policing: use-of-force trends, civil suits against the department, foot pursuits, the deployment of canines, training. -In 2013, NYC created an inspector general for the NYPD. -Based on the auditor model of oversight, the inspector general had the authority to investigate any issue within the NYPD. -In 2015 it issued a report that found serious problems with how officers reported use of force incidents and made a set of recommendations for improvement.

New Law Enforcement Agencies

-In the years before WWI, two important new law enforcement agencies appeared in the U.S.: 1) State police 2) Bureau of Investigation -Several states created state level law enforcement agencies in the 19th century, but they remained unimportant. -The Texas Rangers were established in 1835. -The PA State Constabulary, created in 1905, was the first modern state police force. -It was not typical of other state agencies -It was a highly centralized and militaristic agency that concentrated on controlling strikes. -Business leaders felt local police and militia were unreliable during strikes. -Organized labor bitterly attacked the Constabulary, denouncing its officers as "cossacks." -Among the other new state police, half were highway patrols, limited to traffic enforcement, and the other were general law enforcement agencies. -Although business interests wanted PA style agencies, organized labor in several states was able to limit their powers or block their creation altogether. -The Bureau of Investigation was established in 1908 by executive order of President Theodore Roosevelt. -Until then, the federal government had no full time criminal investigation agency. -Private detective agencies were used under contract on an as needed basis. -The new Bureau of Investigation was immediately involved in scandal, however, when some agents were caught opening the mail of a U.S. senator who had opposed creating the bureau. -Greater abuses occurred in 1919 and 1920, in which bureau agents conducted massive roundups of thousands of alleged political radicals. -The raids involved violations of due process, as people arrested were held without bail in overcrowded jails, unable to contact family or lawyers. -Many were immigrants soon deported. -More scandals followed in the 1920s, as the bureau hired people with political connections as "dollar a year" men. -The bureau was finally cleaned up and put on a professional basis when J. Edgar Hoover was appointed director in 1924. -Hoover kept a low profile for about a decade, shrinking the bureau in size and raising personnel standards. -He followed the orders of Attorney General Harlan Fiske Stone and ended political spying by the bureau. -But in 1935, he changed abruptly, launching a "war on crime" that was accompanied by an aggressive public relations campaign that greatly exaggerated the image of the FBI.

Professionalization Continues

-Influenced by August Vollmer, CPD took the lead in professionalization from the 1920s through the 1960s. -Vollmer's protégés became police chiefs throughout the state, spreading the reform agenda. -The first undergraduate law enforcement program was established at San Jose State College in 1931. -CA also developed a system of regional training for police officers in the late 1930s. -O. W. Wilson, Vollmer's most famous protégé, emerged as the leader of police reform from the late 1930s through the early 1960s. -He served as chief of police in Wichita, Kansas, from 1928 to 1939, Dean of the University of CA School of Criminology from 1950 to 1960, and Superintendent of the Chicago police from 1960 to 1967. -Wilson made his greatest impact through his two textbooks on police management: the International City Manager's Association's Municipal Police Administration and his own Police Administration (1950). -The latter book became the informal "bible" of police administration, influencing a generation of police chiefs. -Wilson's book contained no discussion of police discretion, police use of both deadly and physical force, or patterns of discrimination in arrest. -Wilson's major contribution to police management involved the efficient management of personnel, particularly patrol officers. -In 1941, he developed a formula for assigning officers on the basis of a workload formula that reflected reported crime and calls for service in each area of the city. -This formula, refined and updated through new technology, is still used by police departments today. -Unfortunately Wilson's preoccupation with patrol allocation, which influenced the entire police profession, drew attention away from issues of officer conduct on the street and how to control both discretion and misconduct.

O.W. Wilson

-Leader of the police professionalization movement from the late 1930s through the end of the 1960s. -Developed a formula for efficient management of personnel by assigning patrol officers on the basis of a workload formula that reflected reported crime and calls for service.

The watch

-Most closely resembled the modern day police. -Patrolled the city to guard against fires, crime, and disorder. -At first there was only a night watch. -As towns grew, they added a day watch. -Following the English tradition, all adult males were expected to serve as watchmen as part of their civic duty. -Many men tried to avoid this duty by outright evasion or by paying others to serve in their place. -Eventually, the watch evolved into a paid professional force.

Peel introduced the idea of

-Officers patrolling fixed "beats" on a continuous basis to maintain a visible police presence throughout the community that would deter crime. -The principle of the deterrent effect of patrol remained the core of policing until it was tested in the 1972 to 1973 Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment. -To organize police operations, Peel borrowed from the military. -This included a hierarchical organization, uniforms, rank designations, and an authoritarian system of command and discipline. -This "quasi-military" style still exists in certain respects in American police administration. -Police officers on the street were subject to few controls over critical issues as use of force, with chiefs exercising little effective control over their conduct. -The mission of the modern police represented a new concept in social control.

A Burst of Legislative Reform

-The National Police Crisis stimulated an unprecedented wave of accountability related reform on the part of state legislatures and city councils. -A national survey by the Vera Institute found in 2015-2016, 2 years following Ferguson, state legislatures and the District of Columbia passed 79 laws. -The laws covered a wide range of police issues: mandating de-escalation policies and training for all law enforcement agencies in the state; mandating data collection and the pubic release of the data on traffic stops; and creating independent investigations for officer involved shootings and other incidents of serious misconduct. -Sharon Fairly found growth and change in citizen oversight of the police in American cities. -The burst of legislative reform at state and municipal levels reflected the impact of the Ferguson and post Ferguson events on public opinion, which heightened public awareness about police problems and supported reform efforts at both the state and city levels.

Police unions spread in the 1960s and by 1970s were a powerful force in American policing.

-Officers were angry and alienated over Supreme Court rulings, criticisms by civil rights groups, poor salaries and benefits, and arbitrary disciplinary practices by police chiefs. -Associations of officers had existed for many decades. -A police union, however, involves a legally recognized collective bargaining agent that has authority to negotiate a binding contract with the city over wages and working conditions. -Unions had an impact on police administration. -They won improvements in salaries, fringe benefits, and pensions for officers, and grievance procedures that allowed an officer to challenge unfair treatment. -Far more controversial were contract provisions related to departmental investigations of alleged officer misconduct and disciplinary procedures. -The police union contract provided that an officer involved in a shooting incident could not be questioned by supervisors for 48 hours. -Some union contracts require or permit the purging of officer disciplinary records after a specified # of years. -Critics of the police charged that provisions protected officer misconduct. -Police unions exercised political power. -Police unions opposed citizen oversight of the police and other reforms designed to improve police community relations. -In 2014, the NYC Patrolmen's Benevolent Association attacked the mayor of NYC, Bill de Blasio, accusing him of not supporting the police and blaming him for the recent fatal shooting of two officers.

The National Police Crisis, 2014-Present

-On August 9, 2014, Officer Darren Wilson of the Ferguson, Missouri, PD shot and killed Michel Brown, an unarmed 18 year old African American. -The shooting touched off angry protests, which were met with a heavy military style response by the police and then escalated into violence and looting. -National news channels broadcast almost nonstop coverage of the events.

Immigration, Discrimination, and Police Corruption

-On December 3, 1882, the NYC police arrested 137 people for violating the "Sunday Closing Law." -The crackdown was a reversal of traditional practice. -Laws requiring businesses to close on Sunday had been on the books since the colonial period but were usually ignored. -The new enforcement effort and the controversy that lasted for many years afterward illustrates the connection among immigration, ethnic and religious discrimination, and police corruption. -Almost all of those arrested that Sunday in 1882 were Jewish small businessmen: butchers, barbers, bakers, and so forth. -They worked on Sunday because their religious beliefs required them to close on Saturday to observe the Jewish Sabbath. -Complying with the state law meant they would be closed two days a week, while their non Jewish competitors only had to close for one day. -Future U.S. president Roosevelt, who served as NY police commissioner from 1895 to 1897, advocated strict enforcement. -The Tammany Hall political machine, dominated by Irish Catholics, by contrast, generally ignored the law when it was in power. -This did not mean that Jewish businessmen were free from discrimination, however. -Tammany Hall politicians extorted a $5 fee from street peddlers to avoid being arrested. -Officers marked the peddlers' street carts of those who did not pay with chalk, indicating to other officers that they were fair game for arrest. -At the same time, police brutality against Jews by Irish Catholic officers was "not uncommon," -Cultural conflict over religious holidays was at the heart of arbitrary enforcement of the laws, corruption, police brutality, and deeper ethnic and religious conflict in city politics. -This was no "golden age" of good law enforcement.

The Failure of Police Reform

-On February 14, 1892, Rev. Charles H. Parkhurst, minister of the Madison Square Presbyterian Church in NYC, stood before 800 of his parishioners and delivered an indictment of the corruption that pervaded the city and its police department. -He called the mayor and all the police captains a "lying, perjured, rum-soaked and libidinous lot." -Gambling, illegal liquor sales, and prostitution were everywhere, protected by a system of payoffs that, in effect, licensed crime. -Parkhurst's call to action launched another attempt to root out corruption and to reform the police in NYC. -Similar events occurred in other cities. -Reformers came gained control of city hall and the police, and then lost control, leaving no significant changes in policing. -They concentrated on changing the formal structure of control of police departments, usually by creating a board of police commissioners appointed by the governor or the legislature. -This struggle for control reflected divisions along political parties, ethnic groups, and urban and rural perspectives. -NY created the first state controlled police commission in 1857. -The battle for control of the police was endless. Cincinnati underwent ten major changes in the form of police control between 1859 and 1910. -Reformers failed to improve the quality of policing because they had no vision of how a police department might be better organized and managed. -They sought to replace "bad" people (their political opponents) with "good" people (their own supporters). -They did not have new ideas about police administration, and they did not make lasting changes in recruitment standards, training, or supervision. -They gave no attention to use of excessive force or race discrimination, two issues that are of paramount concern today. -Roosevelt, later president of the United States (1901-1909), was a beneficiary of Rev. Parkhurst's reform campaign in NYC. -He was appointed one of the four commissioners of the police in 1895, and for two years he conducted a flamboyant campaign to clean up the police department. -He walked the streets at night, searching for officers, often in vain. -The ones he found were sleeping in their favorite "coops" (secluded hiding places) or standing in front of saloons. -He saw reform as a personal crusade, not an effort in organizational change. -He resigned in 1897, accomplishing nothing. -Roosevelt was elected vice president of the U.S. two years later, and in 1901 after President William McKinley was assassinated, he was suddenly president.

Police and Race Relations

-On July 2, 1917 in Illinois, a car filled with white males drove through the African American neighborhood and fired guns into a group on a street corner. -When the next car appeared, African Americans fired at it, killing an officer. -Soon, the entire city was engulfed in one of the worst race riots in the early twentieth century -The early years of the police professionalization movement coincided with conflict between the police and African American communities across the country. -All of the riots involved bands of whites attacking African Americans. -The underlying cause of the Louis riot was tensions arising from employers hiring African Americans to replace striking white workers. -The Chicago riot erupted when a young African American crossed an invisible boundary line that racially segregated the beach on Lake Michigan. -In all the riots, officers stood by not arresting marauding whites. -In 1922, the Chicago Riot Commission recommended steps to improve police community relations, but nothing was done to either hire more African American officers or eliminate race discrimination in police work. -Even when some departments outside the South hired a few African American officers, they assigned them to the black community. -Most southern police departments hired no African American officers at all, while some put them in a second class category, assigning them only to the black community and not allowing them to arrest whites. -Conflict between the police and the African American community remained a serious problem in all parts of the country, but it did not receive any serious attention until the riots of the 1960s, which created a national police community relations crisis.

Racial Profiling and Discrimination

-On May 8, 1992, Robert Wilkins was driving on Interstate 95 in Maryland with 3 members of his family. -They were returning to D.C. from the funeral of a family member in Chicago. -They were stopped by an officer of the Maryland State Police who told them to get out of the car and asked for permission to search the car. -Wilkins, an attorney and graduate of Harvard Law School, informed the officer that without an arrest of the driver, a search would be illegal. -The officer ignored this advice and made the 4 members stand in the rain while they waited for the agency's drug dog to arrive. -The dog found no trace of drugs and Wilkins was given a $105 speeding ticket. -Wilkins believed the traffic stop was illegal and that he was stopped only because he is African American. -This traffic stop led to a lawsuit (Wilkins v. Maryland) that sparked national controversy over the practice of racial profiling, or called "driving while black." -Civil rights leaders charged the police stopped African American drivers solely on their race and not on any suspected criminal activity. -Observers argued racial profiling on interstate highways, was a result of the "war on drugs" and officers stereotyped African Americans and Hispanics as drug dealers. -States passed laws requiring law enforcement agencies to collect data, and in 2015 the President's Task Force on 21st Century Policing recommended local departments collect and analyze their data on stops and arrests. -The most common effort to curb racial profiling is through administrative rulemaking and adoption of a department policy on when race or ethnicity can and cannot be used in police actions (stops, frisks, arrests). -A 2001 report by the Police Executive Research Forum presented a model policy on the use of race or ethnicity in policing, such as in stops or arrests. -The model policy prohibits use of race or ethnicity when its the sole basis for a police action. -Race or ethnicity may be used as one factor in combination with specific and credible evidence about a criminal suspect. -Police cannot stop someone simply because he/she is African American. -But they can stop a suspect on the basis of a detailed description, based on credible sources, that includes height, weight, apparent age, dress (baseball cap or no hat), grooming (beard or no beard), and also race or ethnicity.

Creation of the Modern Police: London, 1829

-On September 29, 1829, the first officers with the new London Metropolitan Police stepped out on the streets of London, England, and modern policing was born. -Robert Peel is the "father" of modern policing. -An important political leader in England, he saw a serious decline in public order and fought to improve law enforcement. -By the early 1800s, the old system of law enforcement collapsed under the impact of urbanization and industrialization. -London suffered from poverty, disorder, ethnic conflict, and crime. -The 1780 Gordon Riots, a clash between Irish immigrants and English citizens, triggered a debate over how to provide better public safety. -Peel persuaded Parliament to create the London Metropolitan Police in 1829. -It is recognized as the first modern police force, and officers are known as "Bobbies" in honor of Peel.

A Lack of Personnel Standards

-PD's in the political era had no personnel standards as we understand them today. -Officers were selected on the basis of their political connections. -Men with no formal education, in bad health, and criminal records were hired. -There were a few female matrons for the jail, but no female sworn officers until the early 20th century. In NYC. a $300 payment to the Tammany Hall political machine was a requirement for a job on the police force. -In most departments, recruits received no formal preservice training. -They were handed a badge, a baton, and a copy of the department rules, and then sent out on patrol duty. -Cincinnati created one of the first police academies in 1888, but it lasted only a few years. -NYC established a School of Pistol Practice in 1895 but offered no training in any other aspect of policing until 1909. -Police officers had no job security and could be fired at will. -In some cases, almost all the officers were fired after an election. -In 1886, after elections brought a different political party into power in Cincinnati, 238 of the 289 patrol officers were immediately fired and replaced by political favorites. -Nonetheless, it was an attractive job because salaries were higher than those for blue collar jobs. -Jobs on the police force were a major form of patronage, which local politicians used to reward their friends. -Consequently, the composition of departments reflected the ethnic and religious makeup of the cities. -When Irish Americans began to win political power, they appointed their friends as police officers. -After the Civil War, some African Americans were appointed police officers in northern cities where the Republicans, the party of Abraham Lincoln, were in power.

Why did police corruption last so long?

-Plunkitt explained the people "knew just what they were doin'." -They liked the rewards they received and were not offended by the illegal activity -Police corruption was epidemic in the 19th century. -The police took payoffs for not enforcing laws on drinking, gambling, and prostitution. -The money was then divided among officers at all ranks. -Corruption extended to personnel decisions. -Officers paid bribes for promotion. -Corruption served important social and political ends. -Protestant Americans saw sobriety as a badge of respectability and self-discipline. -They sought to impose their morality on working-class immigrant groups, especially the Irish and Germans, by limiting or outlawing drinking. -For blue collar immigrants, the neighborhood saloon was not only a place to relax but also the base of operations for political machines. -The attack on drinking was an attack on working class social life and political power. -Working class immigrants fought back by gaining political control of the police, and simply not enforcing the laws on drinking.

The Slave Patrol

-Policing in the southeastern states where slavery existed had this distinctive institution. -Because the white majority was concerned about slave revolts and runaway slaves, they created this new form of law enforcement. -The slave patrols were the first modern police forces in the U.S.

The "Political Era" in American Policing, 1830s-1900

-Politics influenced every aspect of American policing in the 19th century, and the period from the 1830s to 1900 is often called the "political era" -Robert Fogelson called PD's in this era "adjuncts of the political machine." -Inefficiency, corruption, and lack of professionalism were the result.

The Achievements of Professionalization

-Professionalization progressed slowly but did achieve important gains in terms of the quality of policing. -Reform was slow in departments and inefficiency, corruption, and low personnel standards remained. -The greatest failure of progressivism was its inattention to controlling officer conduct on the street. -There was no discussion of reform literature of police use of force, both deadly force and physical force; discrimination against African Americans or Hispanics; or abusive treatment of the unemployed or radical political groups. -Standards for officer recruitment and training remained low. -Despite these failures, the professionalization movement reformers achieved important successes. -The idea of professionalism was established as the goal for modern policing. -Reformed departments also became models for other cities.

Administrative Rulemaking and the Control of Police Discretion

-Progress in the control of police discretion continued from 1970s to the present. -The control of deadly force was one of the most important reforms. -James Fyfe's research found a written policy restricting the use of firearms, requiring a report of each weapons discharge, effectively reduced the # of weapons discharges and the # of people shot by the police. -As a result, the # of citizens shot and killed by the police dropped substantially between 1970 and mid 1980s. -The administrative rulemaking model for controlling police discretion, the basis for the new rules on the use of deadly force was soon applied to other aspects of policing. -The administrative rulemaking model was first developed by Kenneth C. Davis in his book, Police Discretion. -The model called for a written policy providing clear guidance on what actions were and were not permitted and the factors officers should take into account when exercising their discretion. -The model requires officers to complete a use of force report after each incident and for all reports to be reviewed by high ranking command officers. -Rising public concern about domestic violence led to a revolution in police policy in that area as well. -Women's groups sued the police in NYC, Oakland, and other cities for failing to arrest men who committed domestic assault. -These suits produced departmental policies prescribing mandatory arrest in cases where there was a felonious assault. -Departments adopted written policies regarding high speed vehicle pursuits, limiting pursuits involving people suspected of minor crimes, limiting the # of police cars in any pursuit, and directing officers to take into account the risks to bystanders caused by the presence of pedestrians or unsafe road conditions due to bad weather.

The Police Professionalization Movement

-Robert Peel was the father of the modern police -August Vollmer was the father of American police professionalism. -Vollmer launched an organized effort to professionalize the police. -Police reform was part of a much broader political movement known as progressivism between 1900 and 1917. -Progressive reformers sought to regulate big business, eliminate child labor, improve social welfare services, and reform local government, as well as professionalize the police. -Vollmer served as chief of police in Berkeley, California, from 1905 to 1932 and defined the reform agenda that continues to influence policing today. -He is most famous for advocating higher education for police officers, hiring college graduates in Berkeley and organizing the first college level police science courses at the University of CA in 1916. -He is also the father of modern criminal justice education. -Vollmer served as a consultant to many local police departments and national commissions. -In 1923, he took a year's leave from Berkeley to serve as chief of the LA PD. -He wrote the 1931 Wickersham Commission Report on Police, which summarized the reform agenda of modern management for police departments, including higher recruitment standards for officers.

Patrol Work in the Political Era

-Routine police patrol in the political era was hopelessly inefficient. -Officers patrolled on foot and were spread very thin. -The telephone did not exist and so it was impossible for citizens to call about crime and disorder. -With no patrol cars, officers could not have responded quickly, if at all, anyway. -As a result, supervision was weak or nonexistent. -Sergeants also patrolled on foot and could not keep track of the officers under their command. -Many reports from those years indicate that officers easily evaded duty and spent much of their time in saloons and barbershops, where they could also escape from bad weather, rain, snow, and extreme heat. -The first primitive communications systems involved a network of call boxes that allowed patrol officers to call precinct stations. -Officers learned to sabotage them, leaving receivers off the hook, or lying about where they actually were. -The lack of an effective communications system made it impossible for citizens to contact the police. -In the event of a crime or disturbance, a citizen had to go out into the street and find an officer.

American policing is a product of its English heritage.

-The English colonists brought a CJS as part of their political and cultural baggage. -This heritage included the English common law, the high value placed on individual rights, the court systems and forms of punishment, and different law enforcement agencies. -Formal law enforcement agencies emerged in England in the 13th century and over the years evolved in an unsystematic fashion. -Responsibility for law enforcement and keeping the peace was shared by the constable, the sheriff, and the justice of the peace. -Private citizens retained much of the responsibility for law enforcement, pursuing offenders on their own and initiating criminal cases. -This approach was brought to America and persisted into the 19th century.

Police Unions in the National Spotlight

-The National Police Crisis brought new public scrutiny of police unions and their role in inhibiting police accountability. -Never before had there been such media attention given to police union contracts and union political activity. -Unions learned in the 1960s that politically they could influence mayors and city council members by playing the "crime card," the implied threat they would accuse them during elections of limiting police authority and causing crime to increase. -A national survey of union contract provisions found a pattern of objectionable provisions: 48-hour waiting periods before an officer alleged to have committed misconduct could be interviewed by a supervisor; prohibiting non sworn law enforcement personnel from interviewing officers in misconduct cases; and provisions allowing officers to purge their personnel files of previous misconduct cases after a certain period of time. -In many states, meanwhile, police unions had been very effective in securing laws that kept police disciplinary actions and files confidential, thereby keeping the details of much police misconduct secret.

Local Police and the War on Terrorism

-The terrorist attacks on the two towers of the World Trade Center in NYC and the Pentagon in D.C. on September 11, 2001, had a profound effect on American policing. -They introduced a new concern about homeland security terrorism. -One consequence was to divert police attention and resources away from traditional police priorities and recent community policing experiments. -Departments undertook special training for terrorist-related disasters (bomb threats) in cooperation with other law enforcement agencies in the area. -The wars in Afghanistan and Iraq caused the mobilization of military reserve units and National Guard units, which included some police officers, and caused temporary loss of officers for PD's. -Departments took advantage of the federal government's 1033 program, which made available military equipment at no cost.

By the 1990s, police departments had become increasingly data-driven, with computer technology facilitating the analysis of large datasets on crime, disorder, and officer conduct.

-The capacity to analyze large datasets led to a series of innovations in police strategy labeled "smart policing" or proactive policing, including hot spots policing and focused deterrence programs. -COMPSTAT, pioneered by NYPD, is a computerized data system with timely data on criminal activity by precinct or sector. -The major focus of COMPSTAT is to hold police managers, typically captains, accountable for crime and disorder in their areas of command. -At regular COMPSTAT meetings, crime patterns in managers' respective areas are reviewed, and are expected to explain what they are doing to address the crime problems that exist. -The response may include variations of POP, hot spots policing, or other innovative approaches. -Hot spots policing developed out of research indicating particular crimes are concentrated in certain areas. -The hot spots phenomenon was first identified by Lawrence Sherman's analysis of 911 calls in Minneapolis in the 1980s. -After hot spots are identified, police managers can develop strategies to reduce crime in those areas. -Those strategies include intensive patrol or POP. -An early intervention system is a computer based system for police accountability. -An EIS contains 5 to more than 20 indicators of officer performance. -They include all uses of force, all citizen complaints, disciplinary histories, use of sick leave and overtime, and other indicators. -Analysis of the data identifies those officers with a higher than average number of problematic indicators compared with peer officers working the same shift (uses of force). -Some identified are referred for intervention designed to help officers improve their performance. -An EIS does not involve discipline. -Interventions include counseling by the officer's immediate supervisor; retraining on police actions identified by the EIS data; referral to professional counseling for substance abuse, anger management, or other issues. -Following intervention, officers are tracked to determine if their performance has improved.

The Police and Civil Rights

-The civil rights movement entered a new militant phase on February 1, 1960, when 4 African American college students conducted a sit in at a lunch counter in Greensboro, NC challenging discrimination in public accommodations. -That now famous event sparked similar direct action challenges to racial segregation in other aspects of American life. -Civil rights groups challenged racially discriminatory practices by the police. -As civil rights protests rose, the white officer in the black ghetto became a symbol of white power and authority. -Studies of deadly force found that officers shot and killed African American citizens 8 times as often as white citizens. -Because of employment discrimination African Americans were underrepresented as officers. -Tensions between the police and the African American community escalated in the early 1960s, as civil rights groups protested unjustified shootings by officers, use of excessive force, inadequate police protection in their neighborhoods, the lack of effective citizen complaint procedures, and racial discrimination in the hiring of officers. -On July 16, 1964, James Powell, an African American, was shot and killed by a white off duty NYC officer. -The shooting sparked 6 days of protests that included looting and violence in Harlem, the center of the African American community in NYC. -The riot was the first of many over the next 4 years, in what became known as the "long hot summers." -The rising tensions exploded in a nationwide wave of riots between 1964 and 1968. -Riots were sparked by incidents involving the police, as was the case in NYC in 1964. -The 1965 riot in the Watts district of LA was sparked by a simple traffic stop. -After riots in Detroit and Newark in 1967, Americans feared a complete collapse of law and order in big cities. -President Lyndon Johnson responded by appointing the Kerner Commission to study the riots and make recommendations for reform. -The commission counted more than 200 violent disorders in 1967 alone. -In response to the crisis, many PD's established special police community relations (PCR) units. -PCR programs included speaking to community groups and schools, "ride along" programs that allowed citizens to view police work from the perspective of the officer, and neighborhood storefront offices to facilitate communication with citizens. -A Justice Department report found these programs had little impact on day to day police work and did little to improve police community relations. -Civil rights leaders demanded the creation of citizen review boards to investigate citizen complaints of excessive force. -Few of these demands were successful in the 1950s and 1960s. -The Philadelphia Police Advisory Board, created in 1958, was abolished in 1967 as a result of pressure from the police union. -In NYC the police union in 1966 succeeded in abolishing a citizen dominated Civilian Complaint Review Board for the police department. -By the end of the 1960s, even though the riots had stopped, relations between the police and minority communities remained tense.

The Police in the National Spotlight

-The crime rate in America increased in 1963, and the combination of crime and riots provoked a reexamination of the police. -The American Bar Foundation had conducted the first ever field observations of police work in 1955-1957. -The observations found things about policing that are now taken for granted: that police officers exercised broad discretion and that most police work involved noncriminal activity. -The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice conducted a study of the -, including the police, and sponsored some important police research. -The commission's Task Force Report: The Police (1967) included an analysis of the complexity of the police role and the that only a small part of police work was devoted to criminal law enforcement. -The commission sponsored Albert Reiss and Donald Black's study of police patrol work, which produced findings on police discretion and use of force. -The main commission report, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society (1967), endorsed much of the traditional agenda of professionalization: higher recruitment standards, more training, and better management and supervision. -In an important departure, it called for controls over police discretion through administrative rulemaking. -The Kerner Commission report in 1968 found "deep hostility between police and ghetto communities as a primary cause of the disorders." -It recommended PD's take steps "to ensure proper individual conduct and to eliminate abrasive practices," that more African American officers be hired and PD's improve their procedures for handling citizen complaints. -Both the Kerner Commission and the President's Crime Commission found procedures handling citizen complaints were inadequate. -Many departments had no formal process for receiving and investigating complaints. -In many instances, people seeking to file complaints were turned away, or threatened with arrest. -The Kerner Commission questioned traditional assumptions about police professionalization. -It noted "many of the serious disturbances took place in cities whose police are among the best led, best organized, best trained, and most professional in the country." -It pointed out the patrol car removed the officer from the street and isolated the police from ordinary citizens. -Traditional "tough" law enforcement practices, aggressive preventive patrol, did damage to community relations with regard to the African American community. -This insight set a rethinking about the police role that culminated in the development of community policing in the 1980s. -The President's Crime Commission and the Kerner Commission both expressed concern about the low personnel standards for officers. -A 1965 police chief's survey found 85% of officers received no preservice police academy training. -Chief William Parker of LAPD illustrated the commission's point about how aggressive crime fighting aggravated police community relations. -Parker was recognized for turning the LAPD into what was then regarded as the most professional department in the country. -Parker took command of a corrupt LAPD in 1950 and asserted control over it. -He instituted high personnel standards, modern management principles, and aggressive anticrime approach to policing. -Like J. Edgar Hoover, Parker was a master of public relations. -Working with Jack Webb, he helped the TV program Dragnet become one of the top rated programs, and it projected an image of the LAPD as professional and efficient. -Parker's style of policing came at a price. -The aggressive law enforcement tactics aggravated conflict with minority communities and LAPD's disciplinary system overlooked officer use of excessive force. -Martin Schiesl argues LAPD officers "under the direction of strong-willed chiefs, confused professional obligations with unrestrained use of power and undermined civil liberties of racial minorities and politically active groups." -Civil rights groups protested, but Parker tolerated no criticism and accused the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) of supporting the "criminal element." -The LAPD generated controversy as a result of the 1991 beating of Rodney King and in 1999 with the Rampart scandal involving its anti gang unit. -In both cases, LAPD was accused of tolerating excessive use of force against racial and ethnic minorities, and of failing to discipline its officers. -In 1973, the American Bar Association published its Standards Relating to the Urban Police Function. -The Standards recommended administrative rulemaking involving policy guidelines to control the exercise of police discretion. -Rulemaking by PD's caught on and in the years ahead departments developed written policies over use of deadly force, high-speed pursuits, and the handling of domestic violence incidents.

The Research Revolution

-The crises of the 1960s spurred expansion of research on the police. -This led to the growth of criminal justice & criminology as an academic discipline. -The research revolution produced a body of knowledge about all aspects of policing: patrol work, the exercise of discretion, officer use of force, criminal investigation, police officer attitudes. -This research had an impact on policy, providing a basis for community policing, hot spots policing, focused deterrence, and other innovations. -The federal government funded the new police research through the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) (1968-1976) and later through the National Institute of Justice. -In 1970, the Ford Foundation established the Police Foundation with a grant of $30 million. -The foundation sponsored important police research, the Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment. -The Police Executive Research Forum, a professional association of big city police managers, emerged as the leader in research and innovation in policing. -Some of the research undermined traditional assumptions about policing. -The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment (1972-1973), the most important experiment of policing, tested effect of different levels of patrol on crime. -Researchers found increased patrol did not reduce crime and reduced patrol did not lead to an increase in crime or public fear of crime. -These findings had a profound effect on thinking about the police and laid the foundation for the development of community policing a few years later. -Other studies questioned the value of rapid police response to crimes, finding that it did not result in more arrests. -Few crime calls involve crimes in progress, and many crime victims do not call police immediately. -In these situations, no offender is present when the police arrive. -The Rand Corporation study of criminal investigation shattered traditional myths about detective work. -Most crimes are solved through information by the first officer on the scene, using information from victims or witnesses. -Follow up detective work, of the kind portrayed in the movies and on TV, is unproductive and involves routine paperwork. -With respect to officers' attitudes and behavior, William Westley identified a distinct police subculture, hostility toward the public, group solidarity, and secrecy. -Jerome Skolnick followed up on this insight and found policing has a distinct working environment, dominated by danger and the exercise of authority. -The pressure to achieve results in the form of arrests and convictions, moreover, encourages officers to violate legal procedures. -Subsequent studies altered the original view of the police subculture. -Officers' attitudes are shaped by the organizational culture of the police department, and the introduction of more women, African Americans, Hispanics, and lesbian and gay people made the police workforce more diverse than ever before. -These changes brought new ideas and perspectives about policing into PD's. -A 2001 national survey by the Police Foundation found African American officers were more critical of their departments than white officers. -James J. Fyfe's study of police use of deadly force in NYC found a restrictive shooting policy that specifies when an officer can and cannot shoot effectively reduces the number of shootings. -The research revolution in policing continues today, with an impact on innovations in policing.

SUMMARY: FROM PAST TO PRESENT

-The history of the American offers valuable perspective on policing today. -Most of today's problems are rooted in the past, particularly racial and ethnic discrimination and patterns of excessive use of force. -At the same time it is clear American policing has made progress, whether we view it from a 50-year or 100-year perspective. -The American police went off the track from the beginning in the 1830s. -PD's have always been controlled by local governments, and from the start political influence governed all their operations. -As a result, they were inefficient with respect to controlling crime and disorder and corrupt. -There were no standards for recruitment and training, and no department policies or procedures to control police officer conduct. -The result was a pattern of ineffective patrol duty and excessive force directed at the poor, unpopular political groups, and racial and ethnic minorities. -A nationwide professionalization movement arose around 1900 and slowly began to impose new and higher standards for the management of departments and the supervision of officers. -While some departments made good progress on these issues, by 1960 most were still poorly managed, inefficient with respect to crime and disorder, and many were corrupt. -The tumultuous events of the 1960s stimulated major reforms. -Most important were decisions by the U.S. Supreme Court that imposed constitutional standards for searches, interrogations, and other basic police operations. -American policing entered a new era in the 1970s and 1980s. -An emerging body of research on the police provided an important knowledge base for meaningful reforms with respect to crime and disorder, the control of police shootings, and other critical incidents. -In 1975, the Kansas City Preventive Patrol Study raised questions about the effectiveness of routine police patrol. -The findings sparked a burst of creative thinking and experimentation involving partnerships between police departments and the research community. -The result was a series of important innovative efforts, community policing, POP, hot spots policing, focused deterrence, and more. -The first 20 years of the 21st century saw a burst of reforms unprecedented in American policing. -Despite these important gains, many problems from the past persist today. -The most important issue is the troubled relations between the police and the African American community. -This is only one part of the nation's larger race problem. -The National Police Crisis that began in August 2014 following the fatal shooting of Michael Brown, a young African American man, by a white police officer in Ferguson, Missouri, involved a wave of protests across the country. -The saving virtue of the crisis was that it also sparked a burst of police reform that included a focus on procedural justice and the legitimacy of the police, along with new efforts to control police shootings and major changes in police training.

J. Edgar Hoover and the War on Crime

-The most important figure in American law enforcement in the 1930s was the director of the Bureau of Investigation, J. Edgar Hoover. -He cleaned up the scandal ridden bureau after being appointed in 1924, but in the early 1930s underwent a dramatic transformation. -Capitalizing on public fears about a national crime wave, he promoted himself as the nation's "top cop" and changed the name of the bureau to the FBI in 1935. -In 1930, he won control of the new UCR system, and a set of new federal laws in 1934 gave the FBI authority over bank robberies and the power to arrest criminals who crossed state lines in order to avoid prosecution. -The following year, the FBI opened its National Academy, which trained bureau agents and, by invitation, some local officers. -Hoover developed a mastery of public relations, and skillfully manipulated the media to project an image of the FBI agent as the paragon of professionalism: dedicated, honest, well trained, and relentlessly efficient. -He exaggerated the FBI's role in several famous cases (John Dillinger and Pretty Boy Floyd) and manipulated crime data to create an exaggerated impression of the bureau's effectiveness. -He concentrated on small time bank robbers, ignoring organized crime, white collar crime, and violations of federal civil rights laws. -Some of Hoover's reputation was deserved. -FBI agents were better educated and trained than local officers. -Hoover's FBI had an impact on local police. -The emphasis on education and training established a new model for personnel standards. -The introduction of the UCR, the development of the Ten Most Wanted list, and the creation of the FBI crime lab all served to emphasize the crime fighting role of the police, at the expense of order maintenance and service to the public. -Hoover was hostile to civil rights and this reinforced the failure of city PD's to address the growing police community relations problem in America. -There was an ugly political underside to Hoover's expanded role for the FBI. -Beginning in 1935, at the request of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, he resumed political spying by the bureau, compiling secret files on individuals and political groups he disliked. -This included all radicals, left wing groups, liberals, civil rights leaders and groups. -The result was the longest running violation of the civil liberties of Americans in U.S. history. -The most notorious case involved his secret attempt to destroy Martin Luther King Jr. as a civil rights leader. -Hoover's misuse of power did not become known until after his death in 1972, and it was not fully exposed until the investigations of the Senate Church Committee in 1975-1976.

The sheriff

-The most important law enforcement official in America. -Appointed by the colonial governor. -Had a role that included law enforcement, collecting taxes, supervising elections, maintaining bridges and roads, and other miscellaneous duties.

Changes in policing continued to accelerate from the 1970s to the present.

-The principal changes include the: 1) Changing demographic profile of officers 2) Deeper understanding of the complexity of the police role 3) How departments should address crime and disorder 4) Stricter standards about how officers should exercise their powers of arrest, stops, and use of force. 5) Relations between the police and the African American community have continued to be filled with conflict, exploding into a national crisis from 2014 to the present.

The Changing Police Officer

-The profile of the American officer changed beginning in the 1970s. -Sklansky described policing as "not your father's police department." -The employment of African American and Hispanic officers increased. -Underrepresentation of African American officers on big city PD's was one of the major complaints raised by civil rights groups in the 1960s. -By the 1990s, African American officers were a majority in Detroit, Washington, and Atlanta. -Charles Ramsey, an African American, chief of Washington, D.C. PD from 1998 to 2007 and commissioner of Philadelphia police from 2008 to 2016. -Art Acevedo, a Hispanic and former commander with the CA Highway Patrol, became chief of police in Austin, TX. -Felicia Shpritzer made history in breaking barriers against women in policing. -She joined the NYC PD in 1942 and following the model by Alice Stebbins Wells served 20 years in the juvenile unit. -In 1961, she and 5 other female officers applied for promotion. -Their applications were rejected and were not allowed to take the promotional exam. -They sued and in 1963 the courts declared the NYPD policy illegal and ordered the department to allow them to take the exam. -The following year, 126 policewomen took the exam. -Shpritzer and 1 other woman passed. -The other woman, Gertrude Schimmel, became the first female captain in the NYPD in 1971 and was deputy chief when she retired in 1981. -Shpritzer retired as a lieutenant in 1976. -Traditional barriers to women in policing collapsed under the impact of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which barred discrimination on the basis of sex, and the women's movement. -Departments eliminated requirements, minimum height & special strength tests, that discriminated against female applicants. -Female officers were assigned to routine patrol duty for the first time in 1968. -Evaluations of female officers on patrol in D.C. and NYC found their performance as effective as male officers. -Penny Harrington broke another barrier in 1985 when she was appointed chief of the Portland, Oregon PD. -She was the first woman to head a large PD. -Elizabeth Watson was appointed chief of the Houston, TX PD in 1990. -PD's began to recruit college students. -In early 1960s, the typical officer had only a high school education. -The federal government encouraged the development of college criminal justice programs. -Preservice training improved dramatically. -The length of training increased from 300 hours in the 1960s to more than 1,000 hours by the 1990s. -Departments added field training programs, in which a new officer partnered with a veteran officer, designated a field training officer, for a number of weeks. -Police academy curricula added units on race relations, domestic violence, and ethics. -NY and CA introduced mandatory training for officers in 1959, and eventually every state had a training and certification requirement. -Despite these changes, police training remained inadequate in important respects. -A powerful 2015 report by the Police Executive Research Forum found police training had serious deficiencies. -An increasing # of states adopted procedures for decertifying officers who had been found guilty of misconduct. -Decertification meant the person was not eligible to work as a sworn officer in the state. -Although this did not prevent him or her from working as a sworn officer in another state, if the hiring department did not bother to do a thorough background check.

The Research Revolution: An Assessment

-The research revolution in policing that began in the 1960s challenged basic assumptions about policing. -The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment found that adding more patrol officers does not reduce crime. -By undermining the assumption about police patrol that went back to Robert Peel and the first modern police department in 1829, it forced police experts to think about what police can do to control crime. -The resulting crisis over police effectiveness sparked a series of innovations, including community policing, POP, hot spots policing, focused deterrence, and others, that have been important developments in policing over the past 40 years.

The Police and the Public

-There was never a "golden age" of American policing in which the police were friendly, knowledgeable about their neighborhoods, and enjoyed good relations with the public. -There were so few officers that they could not possibly have known many people on their beats. -The turnover rate among officers was high, and the population was even -Many officers drank on duty and used excessive physical force. -When Theodore Roosevelt, an appointed police commissioner in New York City (future president of the U.S.), walked the streets at night to observe officers at work, he often had trouble finding even one. -As a result, citizens were disrespectful to the officers they encountered. -Juvenile gangs made a sport of throwing rocks at the police or taunting them. -People arrested fought back, causing officers to use excessive force. -The composition of neighborhoods changed continually under the pressure of immigration. -Officer assignments were not stable. -When the NYPD was established, officers were required to live in their precincts. -This policy was ignored and then abolished in 1857. -The pressure of providing police services forced department to assign officers where they were needed in new and growing neighborhoods. -Police citizen relations characterized by ethnic and religious tensions. -The NYPD became Irish Catholic and officers were hostile to or brutal toward the new Italian and Jewish immigrants. -Long before the introduction of the police car in the 20th century, American urban policing was highly impersonal and marked by police, citizen conflict. -The idea of the friendly "neighborhood cop" is pure myth.

The Impact of the Police on Crime and Disorder

-There were too few officers on patrol and patrolling on foot they were unable to cover much territory or respond quickly to crimes. -Nor was there any way for crime victims to efficiently contact the police. -Cities become more orderly as the 19th century progressed. -The growth of order was a result of a natural adaptation to urban life. -The daily routine of urban life reporting to work every day at the same hour cultivated habits of self discipline and order. -The police were used to suppress labor unions or union organizing efforts, from the 19th century through the mid-1930s when the Wagner Act guaranteed workers the right to organize unions "of their own choosing." -The police were used to harass labor unions and break strikes. -American labor relations during these years were violent. -Management fought unions, and strikes led to violence. -In some communities, those with coal and steel industries, strikes were like a civil war. -In some cities the police were friendly to organized labor, mainly because they came from the same blue collar communities, and refused to serve the interests of businessmen. -In the end, although the modern police were created to deal with the problems of crime and disorder, their impact on crime was minimal at best. -The police became a social and political problem themselves, with political influence and rampant corruption. -The roots of today's police problems were planted in the 19th century. -There were no controls over officer conduct, and discrimination and brutality went unchecked..

Technology Revolutionizes Policing

-Today, people routinely pick up the telephone to call the police when a crime, neighborhood disorder, or some other problem occurs. -They expect the police to arrive quickly and often complain when it takes 20 minutes for an officer to get there. -It was not always this way. -There was a time when people could not just call the police, and there was no way for the police to get to the scene of a crime or disorder quickly. -Technology revolutionized policing as a result of the introduction of the patrol car, the two-way radio, and the telephone. The result was a complete transformation of routine patrol work, the dynamics of police citizen contacts, public expectations about the police, and the supervision of officers

The First Modern American Police

-Were established in the U.S. in the 1830s and 1840s. -As in England, the old system of law enforcement broke down under the impact of urbanization, industrialization, and immigration. -In the 1830s, a wave of riots struck American cities. -Abraham Lincoln, a member of the Illinois state legislature in 1838, warned of the "increasing disregard for law which pervades the country." -Riots were clashes between different ethnic groups: Irish or German immigrants vs. native born English Protestants, or Irish vs. German immigrants. -Other riots were economic in nature: angry depositors vandalized failed banks. -Moral issues produced violence, people objecting to medical research on cadavers attacked hospitals, staged several "whorehouse riots," attempting to close down houses of prostitution. -Pro slavery whites attacked abolitionists and free Black citizens in northern cities.

The Reform Agenda of the Professionalization Movement

1) Define policing as a profession. 2) Eliminate political influence from policing. 3) Appoint qualified chief executives. 4) Raise personnel standards. 5) Introduce principles of modern management. 6) Create specialized units.

The First American Police Officer in 1838.

1) He received no training 2) Patrolled on foot 3) Had no two way radio 4) Could not be dispatched through a 911 system 5) Carried no weapon. 6) Little education 7) Received no formal preservice training 8) Had no manual of policies or procedures.

The study of police history can do the following:

1) Highlight the fact of change. 2) Put current problems into perspective. 3) Help us understand which reforms have worked. 4) Alert us to the unintended consequences of reforms.

Americans borrowed most of the features of modern policing from London:

1) Mission of crime prevention 2) Strategy of visible patrol over fixed beats 3) Quasi-military organizational structure. -The structure of political control of the police was very different. -The U.S. was a more democratic country than Britain. -American voters, only white males with property, until the latter part of the 19th century exercised direct control over all government agencies. -London residents, by contrast, had no direct control over their police. -As a result, American PD's were immersed in local politics, a situation that led to serious problems. -The commissioners of the London police, freed from political influence, were able to maintain high personnel standards.

The police officer in 1950

1) Probably had a high school education 2) Was definitely male, because there were no women on patrol for another 18 years 3) Had only a few African American or Hispanic colleagues, if any. 4) In only some departments did he receive any police academy training before going out on the street, but never any in service training. 5) The department gave him a very short police manual, but it contained no policies on when to use deadly force, how to handle domestic violence incidents, or when to do a high-speed pursuit. 6) Did not have to worry about any Supreme Court rulings on search and seizure, or interrogating criminal suspects. 7) Did not worry too much about being disciplined if he beat up someone with his billy club.

-The professionalization movement developed a specific agenda of reform

1) Reformers defined policing as a profession. -This meant the police should be public servants with a professional obligation to serve the entire community on a nonpartisan basis. 2) Reformers sought to eliminate the influence of politics on policing. 3) They argued for hiring qualified chief executives to head PD's, people who had proven ability to manage a large organization. 4) Reformers tried to raise personnel standards for rank and file officers. -This included establishing minimum recruitment requirements of intelligence, health, and moral character. 5) Professionalism meant applying modern management principles to police departments. -This involved centralizing command and control and making efficient use of personnel. -Until then, police chiefs exercised little real control. -Captains in neighborhood precincts and their political friends had the real power. -Reformers used the new communications technology to control both middle management personnel and officers on the street. 6) Reformers created the first specialized units devoted to traffic, juveniles, and vice. -Previously PD's had only patrol and detective units. -Specialization increased the size and complexity of the police bureaucracy, increasing the challenge of managing departments.

When the first English colonists in America created their own law enforcement agencies, they borrowed from their English heritage; The three important institutions were the

1) Sheriff 2) Constable 3) Watch

Law Enforcement Institutions in Colonial America

1) Sheriff 2) Constable 3) Watch 4) Night watch 5) Day watch 6) Slave patrol

Conflicting Pressures on the Police, 1960 to Present

1) Supreme Court rulings on search and seizures, interrogations 2) High crime rates; fear of crime; political reaction 3) Civil rights protests, riots, police community relations crisis 4) Research and innovation 5) Traditional professionalization (recruitment standards, patrol management) 6) Affirmative action (race and gender) 7) Administrative control of discretion on deadly force, domestic violence, pursuits 8) Community policing and POP 9) Citizen oversight of the police 10) Police unions 11) The national police crisis, 2014 to present

The Technological Revolution in Policing

1) TelephoneCitizens: -Can easily call the police. 2) Two-way radio: -Police are dispatched to calls quickly. -Patrol officers are under constant supervision. 3) Patrol car -Police respond quickly to citizen calls. -Patrol coverage is efficient. -Patrol officers are isolated.

Juvenile units led to a historic innovation:

1) The first female sworn officers. -Until then, policing had been an all male occupation. -The Portland police hired the first policewoman, Lola Baldwin, as a juvenile specialist in 1905. -Alice Stebbins Wells became the leader of the policewomen's movement. -She joined the LAPD t in 1910, and active at the national level. -She organized the International Association of Policewomen in 1915 and gave many talks around the country about the role of policewomen. -The first policewomen did not perform regular patrol duty, did not wear uniforms, did not carry weapons, and had only limited arrest powers. -Policewomen were qualified to work with children and should not handle regular police duties. -Female officers did not work on regular patrol duty until 1968.

Americans were uncertain about modern police forces for several reasons.

1) The idea of a continual law enforcement presence on the streets brought back memories of the hated British colonial army. 2) People were afraid their political opponents would control the police and use them to their advantage. 3) Police departments are expensive and taxpayers simply did not want to pay for a public police force. -Many of the first American police departments were expanded versions of the watch system.

Three Eras of American Policing

1) The political era: 1830s-1900 2) The professional era: 1900-1960s 3) The era of conflicting pressures: 1960s-present

Contributions of the English Heritage to American Policing

1) Tradition of limited police authority. 2) Tradition of local control. 3) Decentralized and fragmented police system.

The English heritage contributed three enduring features to American policing.

1) Tradition of limited police authority. -The Anglo American legal tradition places a high value on individual liberty and on limited government authority. -In the U.S., these limits are embodied in the Bill of Rights. 2) Tradition of local control of law enforcement agencies. -Almost every other country in the world has a centralized system of policing, with a single national police force, or possibly three national forces with distinct responsibilities. -England has 43 separate police forces. 3) A consequence of local control, is a highly decentralized and fragmented system of law enforcement.

The Supreme Court wrote use of force would be objectively reasonable based on 3 things

1) the seriousness of the situation 2) whether there was an immediate threat to the officer or someone else 3)whether the person was resisting arrest -PERF argued these factors led to results that were "lawful but awful;" they complied with the Court's criteria but involved unnecessary, and in some situations outrageous, uses of force.

President's Crime Commission

A comprehensive study of the entire criminal justice system conducted from 1965 through 1967.

administrative rulemaking

A legal concept for the process of controlling discretion through written departmental policies.

early intervention system (EIS)

A management information system that systematically compiles and analyzes data on problematic police officer behavior, citizen complaints, police officer use-of-force reports, and other indicators to identify officers with recurring performance problems.

community policing

A model of policing that stresses a two-way working relationship between the community and the police, in which the police become more integrated into the local community and citizens assume an active role in crime control and prevention.

political era

A period in U.S. history when the police derived much of their legitimacy and authority through political patronage.

English heritage

Brought by colonists and included English common law, high value on individual rights, the court systems, forms of punishment, and different forms of law enforcement.

professionalization movement

Developed a specific agenda of reform defining policing as a profession which has an obligation to serve the entire community on a nonpartisan basis; sought to remove the influence of politics on policing.

racial profiling

The practice of making police stops solely on the basis of one's race or ethnicity and not because of criminal activity.