Ch. 29

After the Montgomery bus boycott of ___-___, Martin Luther King Jr.'s philosophy of militant ___ caused others to confront the enrolled system of racial segregation in the South. King's goal was ___ and ___. Although he was inspirational and courageous, he was also contradictory and even hypocritical, as the FBI discovered by subjecting him to relentless ___ ___ and even ___. King was not a genius, but his shortcomings pale into insignificance when compared to his achievements.

1955-1956, nonviolence, integration, equality, electronic surveillance, blackmail

In all, ___ "freedom schools" taught thousands of children math, writing, and history. They also tutored African American adults about the complicated process of ___ ___. In response, the KKK, local police, and other white racists harassed, arrested, and assaulted many of the volunteers. In June 1964, Klan members abducted and murdered three young civil rights works: ___ ___ ___, ___ ___, and ___ ___. Their decomposed bodies were found two months later in a ___ ___. While searching for the missing men, authorities found the bodies of eight African American males in rivers and swamps.

41, voter registration, James Earl Chaney, Andrew Goodman, Michael Schwerner, cattle pond

In early 1963, in conjunction with the celebration of the hundredth anniversary of ___ ___'s ___ ___, MLK defied President Kennedy's wishes by organizing a massive series of demonstrations in ___. Alabama was now led by George Wallace, a racist governor. King knew that weeks of ___ ___ would result in thousands of arrests and would likely provoke violence, but a hard-won victory, he felt, would "break the back of segregation all over the nation."

Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation, Birmingham, public demonstrations

Kennedy worked to increase the registration of ___ ___ voters across the nation. His response to the growing ___ ___ movement was ambivalent. Like Eisenhower, Kennedy believed racial unrest needed to be handled with ___ rather than ___. To him, racial justice was less an urgent moral crusade than a potential barrier to his election. He understood the injustices of bigotry and segregation, but he needed the votes of ___ whites to win the presidency.

African American, civil rights, caution, boldness, southern

Among the bills was the ___ ___ ___ Act of 1966, which allocated $1 billion for programs in impoverished mountain areas. The ___ and ___ ___ Act of 1965 provided $3 billion for urban renewal projects in inner-city ghettos. In 1966, to help fund low-income families with their rent payments, the Department of ___ and ___ ___ was established.

Appalachian Regional Development Act of 1966, Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965, Department of Housing and Urban Development

On ___ ___, some 250,000 people, many of them schoolchildren brought in on buses, marched arm-in-arm down the ___ in Washington, D.C., chanting "___ ___!" and singing "___ ___ ___." The ___ on ___ for Jobs and Freedom was the largest political demonstration in American history. Standing on the steps of the ___ ___, MLK began to speak. He started awkwardly, but noticing his nervousness, someone urged him to "tell 'em about the dream." As King finished, there was a startling hush, then a deafening ovation. The crowd spontaneously joined hands and began singing, "___ ___ ___."

August 28, Mall, Equality Now!, We Shall Overcome, March on Washington, Lincoln Memorial, We Shall Overcome

Johnson's successes aroused a conservative Republican counterattack. Arizona senator ___ ___, a wealthy department-store owner, emerged as the leader of the right wing of the Republican party. He was one of only six Republican senators to vote against the ___ ___ Act of ___. In his best-selling book ___ ___ ___ ___ ___, he had called for ending the income tax and drastically reducing federal entitlement programs such as Social Security. As a candidate, Goldwater frightened many voters when he urged wholesale bombing of ___ ___ and even suggested using atomic weapons. He criticized Johnson's war on poverty as a waste of money, told students that the federal government should not provide any assistance for ___, and opposed the nuclear test ban treaty.

Barry Goldwater, Civil Rights Act of 1964, The Conscience of a Conservative, North Vietnam, education

___: failed CIA operation that, in April 1961, deployed a band of Cuban rebels to overthrow Fidel Castro's Communist regime

Bay of Pigs

___: twenty-seven-mile-long concrete wall constructed in 1961 by East German authorities to stop the flow of East Germans fleeing to West Berlin

Berlin Wall

The Soviets responded on August 13, 1961. They stopped all traffic between East and West Berlin and began erecting the twenty-seven mile-long ___ ___ to separate East Berlin from West Berlin, where thousands of refugees were fleeing communism each week. For the United States, the wall became a powerful ___ weapon in the Cold War.

Berlin Wall, propaganda

A few hours later, Freedom Riders on a second bus were beaten after entering whites-only waiting rooms at the bus terminal in ___, ___. The ___ had encouraged the beatings. Alabama's ___ complained that the Freedom Riders were violating their customs. The next day, the Freedom Riders wanted to continue their trip, but the ___ ___ refused.

Birmingham, Alabama, police, governor, bus drivers

As King and other activists led demonstrators through Birmingham streets on May 7, the all-white police force led by "___" ___ used snarling dogs, tear gas, electric cattle prods, and high-pressure fire hoses on the protesters. Millions of Americans were outraged when they saw the ugly confrontations on ___.

Bull Connor, television

Long thwarted by southern Democrats in Congress, the ___ ___ Act of ___ finally became law on July 2. It guaranteed equal treatment under the law for all Americans and outlawed discrimination in public places on the basis of race, sex, or national origin. It also prohibited discrimination in the buying, selling, and renting of housing, as well as the hiring and firing of employees.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Johnson managed legislation through ___ better than any president in history. In 1964, he set about doing just that, taking advantage of widespread public support to push through Congress Kennedy's stalled measures for ___ ___ and ___ ___. The ___ Act of ___ provided a 20 percent reduction in tax rates. It was intended to give consumers more money to spend so as to boost economic growth and create new jobs, and it worked. Unemployment fell from 5.2 percent in 1964 to 4.5 percent in 1965 and 3.8 percent in 1966.

Congress, tax reductions, civil rights, Revenue Act of 1964

___: thirteen-day U.S.-Soviet standofff in October 1962, sparked by the discovery of Soviet missile sites in Cuba; the crisis was the closest the world has come to nuclear war since 1945

Cuban missile crisis

In reality, the operation had little chance of succeeding. When the rag-tag force of right-wing ___, transported on American ships landed before dawn at the ___ of ___ on Cuba's south shore on April 17, 1961, Castro's forces were waiting for them. Kennedy panicked when he realized the operation was failing and refused desperate pleas from the rebels for "promised" support from U.S. warplanes.

Cubans, Bay of Pigs

In his 1960 speech accepting the ___ presidential nomination, John F. Kennedy showcased the muscular language that would characterize his campaign and his presidency: "We stand today on the edge of a ___ ___ - the frontier of unknown opportunities and perils - a frontier of unfulfilled hopes and threats."

Democratic, New Frontier

When ___ ___, an African American college student and SNCC leader in Nashville, Tennessee, heard about the violence in Birmingham, she recruited new riders. On May 17, Nash and ten other students took a bus to ___, where they were arrested. While in jail, they sang "___ ___." Eugene "Bull" Connor, the city's racist police chief, grew so frustrated at heir joyous rebelliousness that he drove them in the middle of the night to the Tennessee state line and dropped them off to walk. Instead of going back to Nashville, the students returned to ___.

Diane, Nash, Birmingham, freedom songs, Birmingham

___: key legislation in President Johnson's "War on Poverty" which created the Office of Economic Opportunity and programs like Head Start and work-study

Economic Opportunity Act of 1964

The ___ ___ Act of ___ was the primary weapon in the "War on Poverty." It created an Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) to administer eleven new community-based programs, many of which still exist. They included a ___ ___ training program for inner-city youths ages 16 to 21; a ___ ___ educational program for disadvantaged preschoolers; a Legal Services Corporation to provide legal assistance for low-income Americans; financial aid programs for low-income college students; grants to small farmers and rural businesses; loans to businesses that hired the chronically unemployed; the Volunteers in Service to America program (VISTA) to combat inner-city poverty; and the Community Action Program, which would allow the poor in organizing and directing their own neighborhood programs. In 1964, Congress approved the ___ ___ ___, a program to help poor people afford to buy groceries.

Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, Job Corps, Head Start, Food Stamp Act

On Sunday, March 7, some 600 African American and white civil rights protesters assembled near the ___ ___ ___ to begin a 54-mile march to the state capitol in ___. Before reaching the bridge, however, the marchers were assaulted by 500 state troopers and local police. In what came to be known as "___ ___," the violence was televised for all to see. A federal judge agreed to allow the marchers to continue once President Johnson agreed to provide soldiers and federal marshals for their protection.

Edmund Pettus Bridge, Montgomery, Bloody Sunday

President Kennedy was not impressed by the Freedom Riders. To him, they were threatening to ___ him and the United States on the eve of his summit meeting with Soviet leader ___ ___. The activists finally forced the president o provide another bus, which enabled them to renew the journey to ___ ___. When the new group of riders reached ___, the capital of Alabama, they too were attacked. The next night, civil rights activists, including MLK, gathered at a Montgomery church to honor the Freedom Riders. But their meeting was interrupted by a rampaging mob of whites armed with rocks and firebombs.

Embarrass, Nikita Khrushchev, New Orleans, Montgomery

___: activists who, beginning in 1961, traveled by bus through the South to test federal court rulings that banned segregation on buses and trains

Freedom Riders

Most of the recruits for what came to be called "___ ___" were idealistic white college students, many of whom were ___. Mississippi's white leaders prepared by doubling the state police force and stockpiling arsenal. In mid-June, the volunteer activists met at an Ohio college to learn about southern racial history, nonviolent civil disobedience, and the likely abuses they were to suffer. On the final evening of the training session, Moses pleaded with anyone who feared heading to ___ to go home; several did. The next day, the remaining volunteers boarded buses and headed south, fanning out across the state.

Freedom Summer, Jewish, Mississippi

On June 11, 1963, Alabama governor ___ __ theatrically blocked the door at the University of ___ as African American students tried to register for classes. Wallace finally stepped aside in the face of insistent federal marshals.

George Wallace, University of Alabama

___: term coined by President Lyndon Johnson in his 1965 State of the Union address, in which he proposed legislation to address problems of voting rights, poverty, disease, education, immigration, and the environment

Great Society

The scope of Johnson's ___ ___ programs exceeded Roosevelt's ___ ___ in part because of the nation's booming ___ during the mid-1960s. However, the Great Society and war on poverty never lived up to Johnson's grandiose goals, in part because the ___ ___ soon took priority and siphoned away funding, and in part because neither Johnson nor his congressional supporters understood the stubborn complexity of ___ ___. In many respects, the Great Society generated its own demise by inspiring a ___ ___ backlash that would gain political control during the eighties.

Great Society, New Deal, prosperity, Vietnam War, chronic poverty, conservative Republican

Lyndon B. Johnson, whose war on poverty and ___ ___ programs outstripped Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal in their scope and promises. Johnson's administration resulted in a blizzard of new federal programs as many social issues that had been ignored or postponed for decades: ___ ___ for minorities, ___ for women, ___ rights, ___ ___, ___ ___ to the poor. In the end, however, Johnson promised too much. The Great Society programs fell victim to unrealistic hopes, poor execution, and the nation's deepening involvement in Vietnam. The deeply entrenched assumptions of the cold war led the nation into the longest, most controversial, and least successful war in its history to that point.

Great Society, civil rights, equality, gay, medical insurance, federal aid

Lyndon Johnson misread his lopsided victory in 1964 as a mandate for massive changes. In May 1964, he announced his intention to develop an array of programs intended to create a "___ ___" that would end poverty and racial injustice and provide liberty. Johnson viewed the ___ government as the magical lever for raising the quality of life for all Americans.

Great Society, federal

Within two months, similar sit-ins occurred in more than 100 cities. 3,600 people were arrested nationwide, but the sit-ins worked because by the end of July 1960, officials in ___ lifted the whites-only policy.

Greensboro

The ___ ___ Act of ___ increased federal grants to universities, created scholarships for low-income students, provided low-interest loans for students, and established a National Teachers Corps. The momentum generated by the Higher Education and Medicare acts helped carry 435 more Great Society bills through Congress.

Higher Education Act of 1965

The ___ and ___ ___ Act of ___, was legislation that Johnson signed in a ceremony on Liberty Island in New York Harbor. It abolished the discriminatory annual quotas based upon an immigrant's national origin and treated all nationalities and races equally. In place of quotas, it created hemispheric ceilings on visas issued.

Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965

The Great Society programs, did however, include several triumphs. ___ mortality dropped, college ___ rates soared, ___ has virtually disappeared, and far fewer elderly Americans live below the poverty line and without access to health care. The federal guarantee of ___ rights and ___ rights remains in place even today. ___ and ___ have become two of the most appreciated government programs. Consumers now have a federal agency protecting them. ___ ___ programs providing preschool enrichment activities for poor students have produced long-term benefits. The federal ___ ___ program has improved the nutrition and health of children living in poverty. Finally, scholarships for low-income college students have been immensely valuable providing access to higher education.

Infant, completion, malnutrition, civil rights, voting rights, Medicare and Medicaid, Head Start, food stamp

In the fall of 1962, ___ ___, an African American student and air force veteran whose grandfather had been a slave, tried to enroll at the all-white University of ___ in ___. ___ ___, the governor of Mississippi, refused to allow Meredith to register for classes. Attorney General ___ ___ then dispatched federal marshals to enforce the law. When the marshals were assaulted with bricks, bottles, and steel pipes by a white mob, President Kennedy sent ___ ___ troops. Their arrival ignited ___ that left two dead and dozens injured. Once the violence subsided, Meredith was registered at the university.

James Meredith, University of Mississippi, Ross Barnett, Robert Kennedy, National Guard, rioting

Malcolm X dismissed ___ and other mainstream civil rights leaders, and his militant speeches inspired thousands of mostly ___ African Americans to join the Nation of Islam.

King, urban

On May 14, a mob of white racists in rural Alabama, many of them members of the ___ ___ ___, surrounded the ___ bus carrying the Freedom Riders. After throwing a ___ into the bus, the Klan members barricaded the door. The riders were able to escape, only to be battered with metal pipes and clubs.

Ku Klux Klan, Greyhound, firebomb

Growing federal support for civil rights cam from a drawling white southerner who succeeded John F. Kennedy in the White House: ___ ___ ___, the towering Texan known as ___. He inherited a political deadlock between the White House and a congressional alliance of Democratic and Republican conservatives that had blocked most of Kennedy's legislative proposals. Johnson had been kept out of the inner circle of power in the Kennedy White House. The Kennedy brothers despised Johnson and excluded him from key decisions.

Lyndon Baines Johnson, LBJ

More than 3,000 demonstrators were arrested, including ___. While in jail, he was inspired to write a "___ from ___ ___," a stirring defense of "___ ___ ___" that has become a classic document of the civil rights movement. King's efforts prevailed when Birmingham officials finally agreed to end their segregationist practices. Throughout 1963, whites in the ___ ___ continued to defy efforts at racial integration, while blacks and white liberals organized demonstrations in cities and towns across the nation.

MLK, Letter from Birmingham Jail, nonviolent civil rights, Lower South

___: civil rights demonstration on August 28, 1963, on the National Mall, where Martin Luther King Jr. gave his famous "I Have a Dream" speech

March on Washington

During the campaign, Kennedy won the hearts of many African American voters by helping to get ___ ___ ___ ___. out of a ___ jail after he had been unjustly convicted of "___" in an all-white restaurant. In November, Kennedy and his running mate, Lyndon B. Johnson, won one of the closest presidential elections in history. Nixon won more ___ than Kennedy, but the ___ captured 70 percent of the African American vote.

Martin Luther King Jr., Georgian, trespassing, states, Democrats

___ and ___: health care programs designed to aid the elderly and disadvantaged, respectively, as part of President Johnson's Great Society initiative

Medicare and Medicaid

The act that finally emerged created not just a ___ health insurance program for the elderly but also a ___ program of federal grants to states to cover medical expenses for the poor of all ages.

Medicare, Medicaid

Several of Johnson's programs that were meant to address problems actually worsened them. ___, for example, removed incentives for hospitals to control costs, so medical bills skyrocketed - for everyone. In addition, ___ ___ fraud occurred as people took selfish advantage of a program intended to ensure healthy nutrition. Overall, Great Society programs helped reduce the population living in ___, but it did so largely by providing federal ___ payments, not by finding people decent ___. In 1966, ___-class resentment over the cost and excesses of the Great Society programs generated a conservative backlash that fueled the ___ resurgence in Congress.

Medicare, food stamp fraud, poverty, jobs, middle-class, Republican

Americans had rediscovered poverty in 1952 when social critic ___ ___ published a powerful expose, The Other America, in which he revealed that more than 40 million people were mired in an invisible culture of poverty. Poverty led to poor ___ conditions, which in turn led to problems such as poor ___, poor ___ at schools or work, ___ and ___ abuse, unwanted pregnancies, and single-parent families.

Michael Harrington, housing, health, attendance, alcohol, drug

Over the next thirteen days, Kennedy and the ___ ___ ___ (___) considered several possible responses ranging from doing nothing to invading ___. The NSC fastened on two options: 1. a surgical ___ ___ on the missions followed, if necessary, by an invasion, of 2. a ___ ___ of Cuba in which U.S. warships would stop Soviet vessels and search them for missiles. Although most of the military advisers supported the ___ option, Kennedy chose the ___ because he had been burned by overconfident military advisers during the Bay of Pigs operation and was not going to let it happen again. He also feared that an American attack on Cuba would give the Soviets an excuse to take control of ___ ___.

National Security Council, NSC, Cuba, air strike, naval blockade, first, second, West Berlin

Weeks after the Bay of Pigs invasion, Kennedy met Soviet premier ___ ___ at a summit conference in ___, ___ (___ ___). He bragged about the superiority of ___, and threatened to take control of all of ___, the divided city inside Communist East Germany.

Nikita Khrushchev, Vienna, Austria, Vienna Summit, communism, Berlin

What Kennedy would have done in Vietnam has remained a matter of endless discussion, because on ___ ___, ___, while riding in an ___ car through ___, ___, he was shot and killed by ___ ___ ___, a twenty-for-year-old ex-___ turned ___. Oswald, who had lived for a time in the ___ ___, idolized ___ ___ and despised the United States and its ___ system. As he fled the scene, he also shot and killed a Dallas ___.

November 22, 1963, open car, Dallas, Texas, Lee Harvey Oswald, Marine, Communist, Soviet Union, Fidel Castro, capitalist, policeman

King launched his "___ ___'s ___" in December 1967, for radical new measures "to provide jobs and income for the poor." Yet as he and others stressed, the war in ___ was taking funds away from federal programs serving the poor, and African American soldiers were dying in disproportionate numbers in Southeast Asia. The black power movement also motivated African Americans to take greater pride in their racial ___ by pushing for ___ ___ studies in schools and colleges, the celebration of ___ cultural and artistic traditions, the organizing of inner-city voters to elect African American mayors, laws forcing landlords to treat African Americans fairly, and the creation of grassroots organizations and community centers. It was ___ ___ who insisted that blacks call themselves African Americans as a symbol of pride in their roots and as a spur to learn more about their history.

Poor People's Campaign, Vietnam, heritage, African American, African, Malcolm X

In April 1960, 200 student activists convened in ___, ___ ___, to form the ___ ___ ___ ___ (___ - pronounced snick). The goal of what they called "___ ___" was to intensify the effort to dismantle segregation. SNCC expanded the sit-ins to include "___-___s" at all white-churches and "___-___s" at segregated public swimming pools. In many communities, demonstrators were pelted with rocks, burned with cigarettes, and even killed by white racists.

Raleigh, North Carolina, Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, SNCC, the movement, kneel-ins, wade-ins

Goldwater' captured only Arizona and five states in the Lower South. Goldwater's success in the Lower South, however, accelerated the region's shift to the ___ party, and his candidacy proved to be a turning point in the development of the national ___ movement by inspiring a generation of young activists and the formation of conservative organizations that would transform the dynamics of American politics during the 1970s and 1980s.

Republican, conservative

In 1960, the presidential election featured two candidates: Vice President ___ ___ and Massachusetts senator ___ ___ ___. As Eisenhower's partner over successive terms, ___ was assured the Republican nomination in 1960. Some 70 million people tuned in to the debate and saw an obviously uncomfortable ___ perspiring heavily and looking pale. By contrast, ___ looked tanned and confident. He offered crisp answers that made him appear to be qualified. The morning after the debate, his approval ratings skyrocketed.

Richard Nixon, John F. Kennedy, Nixon, Nixon, Kennedy

In early 1964, ___ "___" ___, an African American New Yorker who had resigned from the ___ to head the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee office in Mississippi, decided it would take an army to force the state to give voting rights to African Americans. He set about recruiting an army of black and white volunteers who would live with African Americans, teach them in "___ ___," and help them register to vote.

Robert "Bob" Moses, SCLC, freedom schools

On November 1, Vietnamese generals, with the approval of U.S. officials, took control of the ___ government. They murdered ___ and his ___. The rebel generals, however, soon fell to ___ one another, leaving Vietnam even more vulnerable to the ___ insurgency. Thereafter, unstable ___ ___ essentially became an American ___. The United States put the ___ in power, gave the orders ,and provided massive financial support, much of which was diverted into the hands fo corrupt ___.

Saigon, Diem, brother, fighting, Communist, South Vietnam, colony, generals, politicians

As tensions with the Soviet Union ended a new crisis was growing in Southeast Asia. Throughout the fifties, U.S. officials increasingly came to view the preservation of ___ ___ as the critical test of American willpower in the Cold War. Yet the situation the had worsened under the corrupt leadership of President ___ ___ ___ and his family. He had backed away from promised social be economic reforms, and his repressive tactics, directed not only against Communists but also against the Buddhist majority and other critics, played into the hands of his enemies.

South Vietnam, Ng Dinh Diem

Although widely covered in the media, the black power movement never attracted more than a small minority of African Americans. Still, it forced King and other mainstream African American leaders and organizations to shift their focus from the rural ___ to inner-city ___ in the North and West. Legal ___ to restaurants, schools, and other public accommodations, King pointed out, meant little to people mired in chronic ___. They needed ___ and decent ___.

South, ghettos, poverty, jobs, housing

Building upon the success of "Freedom Summer," MLK organized an effort in early 1965 to register the 3 million unregistered African American voters in the ___. On February 6, the White House announced that it would urge Congress to enact a ___ ___ bill.

South, voting rights

___: interracial organization formed in 1960 with the goal of intensifying the effort to end racial segregation

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

___ ___, a father of eight children living in a tar-paper shack in rural Kentucky, became a "poster father" for the War on Poverty, though, as it turned out, his life benefited little from Johnson's programs.

Tom Fletcher

The resulting ___ ___ Act of 1965 was one of the most momentous legislative accomplishments of the twentieth century. It ensured all citizens the right to vote. It authorized the attorney general to send federal officials to register voters in areas that had long experienced racial discrimination. In states or counties were few than half the adults had voted in 1964, the act banned the various ways, like literacy tests, that local officials used to keep racial minority groups from voting.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

In this respect, the ___ ___ Act was even more important than the ___ ___ Act because it empowered African American voters in the South, thereby transforming the white-dominated politics in the region and making possible the election of African American public officials. Yet by enabling southern African Americans - most of whom preferred ___ candidates - to vote, it also helped turn the once-solidly ___ South in a ___ stronghold, as many white voters switched parties.

Voting Rights Act, Civil Rights Act, Democratic, Democratic, Republican

Ministers made frantic appeals to the ___ ___. Kennedy responded by urging the Alabama ___ to intervene. After midnight, national guardsmen arrived to disperse the mob. The Freedom Riders continued into ___, where they were jailed. They never made it to New Orleans. Still, the resistance of the Freedom Riders, and of federal judges whose rulings supported integration efforts, prompted the ___ ___ ___ (___) in September 1961 to order that all interstate transportation facilities be integrated. The Freedom Riders kindled the growth of ___ ___ groups.

White House, Mississippi, Interstate Commerce Commission, ICC, civil rights

___ ___ remained violently opposed to racial equality. In Birmingham in September 1962, Dr. King was speaking at the annual meeting of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference when a white member of the American ___ party jumped to the stage and ___ him in the face. King simply dropped his hands and allowed the man to punch him again. "___ ___ ___," King yelled. "___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___." His self-control was remarkable. His home was bombed ___ times, and he was arrested ___ times.

White segregationists, Nazi party, punched, Don't touch him, We have to pray for him, three, fourteen

The Kennedy administration used a frontier as the label for their proposed domestic program because they believed that Americans had always been ___, eager to conquer and exploit new frontiers.

adventurous

Kennedy sent even more weapons, money, and military advisers to South Vietnam to help shore up the government (they were called ___ to avoid the impression that U.S. soldiers were doing the fighting.) The ___ ___ were winning the fight because ___ proved to be corrupt and dictatorial.

advisers, Viet Cong, Diem

Kennedy's performance in foreign relations was mixed. Soon after his inauguration, Kennedy learned that a secret CIA operation, which had been approved by Eisenhower, was training 1,500 anti-___ ___s on Guatemala, Texas, and Florida to invade their homeland in hopes of triggering a mass uprising against Castro. US military leaders assured Kennedy that the invasion plan (Operation ___) was feasible; CIA analysts predicted that news of the invasion would inspire anti-Castro Cubans to rebel against their Communist dictator.

anti-Casto Cubans, Operation Trinidad

___: militant form of civil rights protest focused on urban communities in the North and led by Malcolm X that grew as a response to impatience with the nonviolent tactics of MLK

black power movement

What came to be known as "___ ___" began to compete with the integrationist, nonviolent philosophy espoused by King and the ___. The most visible spokesman for the ___ ___ ___ was ___ ___, born in 1925 in Omaha, Nebraska, As Malcolm Little. His parents were supporters of Marcus Garvey's crusade for black nationalism in the 1920s, and his childhood home was burned to the ground by white racists. His father was killed wen Malcolm was six, perhaps the victim of white supremacists. After her husband's death, Louise Little suffered a breakdown and was institutionalized for the rest of her life. Young Malcolm was placed in ___ ___ but became an unruly rebel. By age nineteen, Malcolm, now known as ___ ___, had become a thief, drug dealer, and pimp. He joined a small Chicago-based religious sect, the ___ of ___ (___), whose members were called ___ ___. The organization had little to do with Islam and everything to do with its domineering leader, ___ ___, and the cultlike devotion he required.

black power, SCLC, black power movement, Malcolm X, foster care, Detroit Red, Nation of Islam, NOI, Black Muslims, Elijah Muhammad

Black militancy did not end with Malcolm X, however. By 1966, "___ ___" had become a rallying cry for many young militants. When ___ ___ became head of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), he ousted whites from the organization.

black power, Stokely Carmichael

In 1961, civil rights leaders decided to focus on integrating public transportation: ___ and ___. Their goal was to force the Kennedy administration to engage the cause of civil rights in the ___. On May 4, the New York-based ___ of ___ ___ (CORE), led by ___ ___, sent a group of eighteen black and white ___ ___, as they were called, on two public buses traveling from Washington, D.C., through the Lower South to New Orleans. They wanted to test a federal court ruling that banned racial segregation on ___ and ___, and in ___.

buses, trains, South, Congress of Racial Equality, James Farmer, Freedom Riders, buses, trains, terminals

Johnson, by comparison to Barry Goldwater, portrayed himself as a responsible ___ (having moderate political views or policies). He chose as his running mate ___ ___ of Minnesota, a prominent liberal senator who had long promoted civil rights. Johnson won the presidential election of 1964.

centrist, Hubert Humphrey

The most important developments in domestic life the during the sixties occurred in ___ ___. Despite the Brown v. Board of Education ruling in ___, many public schools across the South remained segregated and unequal in quality.

civil rights, 1954

That night, President Kennedy hastily arranged televised speech, he announced that he would soon submit to Congress a major new ___ ___ bill that would remove ___ as a consideration in "American life or law." Four hours later, an African American civil rights activist, ___ ___, was shot to death in his driveway in Jackson, Mississippi. Such aroused the nation's indignation and made civil rights America's most pressing social issue. Yet ___ ___ in the House of Representatives would block Kennedy's civil rights bill for months.

civil rights, race, Medgar Evans, southern Democrats

The civil rights movement gained momentum when four brave African American college students sat down and ordered ___ and ___ at an "all-white" ___'s ___ ___ in ___, ___ ___, on ___ ___, ___. The clerk refused to serve the, explaining that African Americans had to eat ___ or take their food ___. The ___ ___, as the students came to be called, waited ___ minutes and then returned the next day with ___ more students. They sat for hours, fruitlessly waiting to be served ,but hey returned every day for a ___, patiently tolerating being jeered at, jostled, and spat upon by white hooligans.

coffee, doughnuts, Woolworth's lunch counter, Greensboro, North Carolina, February 1, 1960, standing, outside, Greensboro Four, 45, 24, week

Yet much of the glamour surrounding Kennedy was ___. Despite his athletic interests and robust appearance, he suffered from ___'s ___ (a withering of the ___ ___), ___ disease, chronic ___ pain resulting from a birth defect, and fierce fevers. He took powerful prescription medicines or injections daily to manage a degenerative ___ disease, to deal with ___, to help him ___, and to control his ___. Like FDR, Kennedy and his associates ___ his physical ailments, as well as his relationships with actress ___ ___ and ___ ___, the girlfriend of a Chicago mob boss.

cosmetic, Addison's disease, adrenal glands, venereal disease, back, bone, anxiety, sleep allergies, hid, Marilyn Monroe, Judith Exner

Debate remains about whether Oswald acted alone or as part of a conspiracy, and he did not live long enough to tell his story. As he was being transported to a ___ ___, ___ ___, a Dallas nightclub owner distraught over Kennedy's death, shot and killed the handcuffed Oswald as a nationwide television audience watched.

court hearing, Jack Ruby

Kennedy had a difficult time launching his New Frontier domestic program because of his narrow ___ ___, in which he faced a congressional roadblock in the form of conservative southern Democrats who joined with Republicans to oppose his efforts to increase federal aid to ___, provide ___ ___ for the aged, and create a cabinet-level department of ___ affairs and ___ to address inner-city poverty.

election victory, education, medical insurance, urban affairs, housing

The effort to overthrow the Cuban government was a complete ___. It humiliated Kennedy and elevated Castro in the eyes of the world. After the failed invasion, Kennedy never again trusted his trigger-happy ___ and ___ leaders.

failure, military, intelligence

In Kennedy's campaign speeches, he said that he wanted to develop a ___ policy that would break out of the confining assumptions of the ___ ___.

foreign, Cold War

Eighteen days after the March on Washington, four Klansmen in Birmingham detonated a bomb in an African American church, killing ___ young girls.

four

Johnson's first priorities among his Great Society programs were federal ___ ___ and aid for young people to pursue higher ___ - liberal proposals that had first been suggested by President Truman in 1945. The steadfast opposition of the physicians making up the ___ ___ ___ (AMA) had stalled a comprehensive medical-insurance program. Now that Johnson and the Democrats had the votes to pass the measure, however, the AMA joined Republicans in supporting a bill serving those over age ___.

health insurance, education, American Medical Association, 65

Kennedy's shocking assassination and funeral enshrined the president in the public imagination as a ___ leader cut down in the prime of his life. He came to have a stronger reputation after his ___ than he enjoyed in ___. After the nation buried its fallen president, it welcomed a new and very different one, ____ ___.

martyred, death, life, Lyndon Johnson

Legislators approved increasing the ___ ___, a ___ Act that earmarked nearly $5 billion for new public housing projects in poverty-stricken inner-city areas, the ___ ___, created in ___ to recruit idealistic young volunteers who would provide educational and technical service abroad, and the ___ for ___, a financial assistance program to Latin American countries intended to blunt the appeal of communism in those nations.

minimum wage, Housing, Peace Corps, 1961, Alliance for Progress

On October 16, 1962, Kennedy learned that photos taken two days earlier by U.S. spy planes showed some forty Soviet ___ ___ and twenty-five ___ ___ in Cuba. Although the Soviet actions had violated no law or treaty, Kennedy decided that the missiles had to be removed.

missile sites, jet bombers

To protect Communist Cuba from another American-backed invasion and to show critics at home that he was not afraid of the Americans, Nikita Khrushchev approved the secret installation of Soviet ___ on Cuba. The Soviets felt they were justified in doing so because Kennedy, after the Bay of Pigs invasion, had ordered that U.S. missiles with nuclear warheads be installed in Turkey, along the Soviet border.

missiles

Kennedy delivered a televised speech announcing that the U.S. was establishing a quarantine of Cuba to prevent Soviet ships from delivering more ___ to Cuba. Nikita Khrushchev replied that Soviet ships would ignore the quarantine and accused Kennedy of an act of aggression. On October 24, five Soviet ships, presumably with more missiles aboard, stopped well short of the quarantine line. Two days later, Khrushchev, knowing that the United States still enjoyed a ___to ___ advantage in nuclear weapons, offered a deal. The Soviets would agree to remove the ___ already in Cuba in return for a ___ ___ by the United States never to invade Cuba and a secret agreement to remove U.S, missiles from ___. Kennedy ___. In the aftermath of the ___ ___ ___, tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union subsided in part because of several symbolic steps: an agreement to sell the Soviet Union surplus American ___, the installation of a hotline telephone between ___ and ___ to provide instant contact between the heads of governments and the removal of U.S. missiles from ___, ___, and ___.

missiles, 5 to 1, missiles, public pledge, Turkey, agreed, wheat, Washington, Moscow, Turkey, Italy, Britain

Kennedy's greatest legislative success was in convincing Congress to commit $40 billion to put American on the ___ within ten years. It would happen in ___. What spurred the start of the program was the news that the Soviets had launched the first manned space flight in 1961.

moon, 1969

Where MLK spoke to white American's ___ ___, Carmichael and other firebrands spoke to the ___ of the young African American underclass. Soon Carmichael moved on to the ___ ___ party, a group of leather-jacketed African American revolutionaries founded in Oakland, California, that promoted incendiary strategies and cultural pride.

moral conscience, rage, Black Panther

Muhammad dismissed whites as "devils" and championed black ___, racial pride, and self-respect. By 1953, a year after leaving prison, Malcolm Little was calling himself ___ ___ in tribute of his lost African name, and he became a full-time NOI minister famous for electrifying speeches attacking white racism and black powerlessness.

nationalism, Malcolm X

The first thing Kennedy did upon returning to the White House was to request an estimate of how many Americans might be killed in a ___ ___ with the ___ ___. The calculation was ___ ___. Kennedy, desperate not to appear weak, asked Congress for additional spending on ___ and called up members of the Army Reserve and National Guard to protect ___ ___. He also ordered an armed military convoy to travel from West Germany across East Germany to ___ ___ to show the Soviets that he would protect the city with force.

nuclear war, Soviet Union, 70 million, defense, East West Berlin, West Berlin

Kennedy began discussions with Soviet and British leaders to reduce the risk of ___ ___. The discussions resulted in the ___ ___ ___, ratified in September 1963, which banned the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere. It was the first joint agreement of the Cold War and an important move toward relations with the Soviet Union.

nuclear war, Test Ban Treaty

During late 1963 and throughout 1964, the civil rights movement grew in scope, visibility, and power. White officials kept African Americans from voting by charging them expensive ___ ___, forcing them to take difficult ___ ___, making the ___ process inconvenient, and intimating them.

poll taxes, literacy tests, application

Those who dismissed Johnson as a traditional southern conservative failed to appreciate his genuine concern for the ___ and his embrace of ___ ___. His commitment to civil rights was in part motivated by ___, in part by his desire to bring the ___ into the mainstream of American life, and in part by his life experiences. His first teaching job after college was at an elementary school in Texas serving ___-___ children.

poor, civil rights, politics, South, Mexican-American

Racism in America was not limited to the South. By the mid-sixties, about 70 percent of the nation's African Americans were living in urban areas, and many young African Americans in the large cities were losing faith in the strategy of Christian nonviolence promoted by King. Inner-city ___ and frustration cried out for its own social-justice movement.

poverty

Like FDR, President Kennedy celebrated ___ ___ but did little to promote it until forced to do so. He was reluctant to challenge conservative southern Democrats on the explosive issue of ___. Both he and his brother ___, "___", the attorney general and his closest adviser, had to be dragged into actively supporting the civil rights movement. After appointing ___ ___, a white law professor and experienced campaigner for racial equality, as the special presidential assistant for civil rights.

racial equality, segregation, Robert, Bobby, Harris Wofford

Many others helped Johnson convince Congress to pass the Civil Rights Act - Senator Hubert Humphrey, congressional committee chairs, labor unions, church leaders, and civil rights organizations. Their collective efforts produced what is arguably the single most important piece of legislation in the twentieth century. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 dealt a major blow to the deeply entrenched system of ___ ___ while giving the ___ government new powers to bring lawsuits against organizations or businesses that violated constitutional rights. It also established the ___ ___ ___ ___ to ensure that employers treated job applicants equally, regardless of race, gender, or national origin.

racial segregation, federal, Equal Employment Opportunities Commission

Like Kennedy, Johnson was one of the most complex and inexplicable men to occupy the White House. Unlike the wealthy Kennedy, Johnson was a ___-___-___ story. LBJ's ego and insecurities were as massive as his vanity and ambition. Ruthless and often bullying, needy and warmhearted, he was a contradictory whirlwind of workaholic energy and inspiring hopes. He wanted to be the greatest American president, the one who did the most good for the most people by promising to "help every child get an ___, to help every... [African American] and every American citizen have an equal opportunity, to help every family get a decent ___, and to help bring healing to the sick and dignity to the old."

rags-to-riches, education, house

The Berlin Wall demonstrated the Soviets' willingness to challenge American ___ in Europe. In response, Kennedy and Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara embarked upon the most intensive ___ ___ in history, increasing the number of nuclear missiles ___, adding 300,000 men to the armed forces, and creating the U.S. ___ ___ (___ ___), an elite group of commandos who specialized in guerrilla warfare.

resolve, arms race, fivefold, U.S. Special Forces, Green Berets

The sixties were year of ___ turbulence and ___ activism, tragic ___ and painful trauma, ___ conflict and ___ rebellion. Assassins killed four of the most important leaders of the time: ___ ___ ___, ___ ___, ___ ___ ___ ___., and ___ ___ ___.

social, liberal, assassinations, cultural, youth, John F. Kennedy, Malcolm X, Martin Luther King Jr., Robert F. Kennedy

More than most African American leaders, Malcolm X expressed the emotions and frustrations of the inner-city African American ___ ___. Yet at the peak of his influence, and just as he was moderating his militant message, he became embroiled in a conflict with ___ ___ that proved fatal. NOI assassins killed Malcolm X in Manhattan on February 21, 1965.

working poor, Elijah Muhammad

John F. Kennedy was the ___ person and first ___ ___ elected president. In his inauguration speech, he accepted the responsibility of "____ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___" and focused almost entirely on ___ ___.

youngest, Roman Catholic, defending freedom in its hour of maximum danger, foreign affairs