Ch. 4

Groupthink

According to Irving Janis, groupthink is a specialized form of conformity. It occurs only in highly cohesive groups that operate in an environment where there is a feeling of security. Groupthink is characterized by extreme conformity that gets in the way of any critical analysis. The circumstances under which groupthink occurs tend to coincide with (1) directive leadership, (2) group homogeneity in terms of ideals and background, and (3) isolation from outside influences.

Kingdon's Garbage Can Model

According to the revised garbage can model, the decision-making process can be understood in the context of three separate "streams" that operate independently. Specifically, the problem, political, and policy streams steer the decision-making process. Policy advocates increase their chances of influencing the agenda-setting process given the convergence of the problem, political, and policy streams. That is, the policy window widens

Decision-Making Alternatives

Herbert Simon (1947/1997) was somewhat critical of the rational model given his belief that people's cognitive limitations make it impossible to consider the full range of decision-making alternatives and the information corresponding to each alternative. This concept is known as bounded rationality. Decision-makers are, therefore, limited to a few courses of action and ultimately choose the one that is most satisfactory or "good enough."

Bounded Rationality/Satisficing

Herbert Simon was somewhat critical of the rational model given his belief that people's cognitive limitations make it impossible to consider the full range of decision-making alternatives and the information corresponding to each alternative. This concept is known as bounded rationality. Decision-makers are therefore limited to a few courses of action and ultimately choose the one that is most satisfactory or "good enough." Simon terms this satisficing.

Participatory Model

Participatory decision-making assumes that a diverse group of individuals (or individuals representing a diverse set of interests) will act in a consultative capacity. Typically, those people affected by a particular problem or a potential course of action are afforded the opportunity to provide input. This input is documented through public meetings or hearings, advisory boards, and citizen advocacy groups.

Incrementalism

The incremental decision-making model suggests that: (1) realistically, only a few policy alternatives can be considered at one time, and (2) these policies do not differ radically from existing policies. Incrementalism is often criticized, given that it perpetuates and condones the status quo. In more extreme cases, it allows failing government agencies and programs to continue and even expand. One response to incrementalism is the use of sunset provisions.

Political Model

The political decision-making model assumes that intra-organizational coalitions compete for influence. The political model is thought to be tantamount to office "game playing." Game players are skillful at pleasing their superiors, becoming sycophants for the sole purpose of gaining power. The game player's energy is most concerned with building alliances and consolidating power, which will be used to exert influence over future decisions.

Rational Model

The rational decision-making model is grounded in economic principles. Relative value, effectiveness, and incremental comparisons should determine which decision alternative is chosen. Relative value refers to the "opportunity cost" of a particular policy decision. Effectiveness deals with evaluating a decision in terms of achieving a common purpose.

Balance Sheet

a statement of the assets, liabilities, and capital of a business or other organization at a particular point in time, detailing the balance of income and expenditure over the preceding period.

Elite Theory

assumes that a select few are afforded the privilege of making decisions. Being one of the elite may center on an individual's knowledge level, education, or status within a public organization. C. Wright Mills' concept of decision-making within the arenas of government is one of executive rather than congressional determinations. Elites fill the very top positions of president, vice president, cabinet members, department and bureau heads, agency and commission heads, and the White House staff.

Cost-Benefit Analysis

serves as a primary tool of the rational decision maker. CBA is predicated on comparing the primary and secondary costs of a program or policy, and comparing those costs to direct and indirect benefits. Both costs and benefits are expressed in monetary terms. Typically, results are expressed in terms of a benefit-cost ratio, which is equal to the benefits of a program divided by its costs. If the benefit-cost ratio is greater than one, it can be said that the benefits of a program outweigh its costs