Ch. 4 The Greek World Expands, 400-150 b.c.e

The Macedonian homeland after Alexander's death

-did not possess the vast wealth of the new kingdoms carved from Alexander's conquests in Egypt and the Near East -also remained highly unstable from the time of Alexander's death until 276 B.C.E., when a general named Antigonus was finally able to establish his rule over the area and his own dynasty (known as the Antigonids)

Negative features of the Greek poleis in the early fourth century B.C.E.

-high taxes -increased debt slavery -homelessness

What did Hellenistic leaders do to increase commerce?

-hired geographers to map new trade routes -encouraged manufacturing -built new transportation infrastructure

Macedonian rule in Egypt was characterized by:

A revival of ancient Egyptian traditions while engaging in the wider Hellenistic world. Macedonian rule in Egypt, under the Ptolemaic dynasty, was characterized by a policy of cultural and religious tolerance, which allowed for a revival of ancient Egyptian traditions while engaging in the wider Hellenistic world. The Ptolemies recognized and respected the traditional Egyptian religion, and many of their rulers adopted traditional Egyptian titles and iconography. At the same time, they also introduced Greek culture and language to Egypt, which had a significant impact on the country's intellectual and artistic life. The Ptolemaic dynasty also established a great library in Alexandria, which became a center of learning and scholarship in the ancient world. Overall, the Ptolemaic dynasty sought to create a synthesis of Greek and Egyptian culture, rather than impose one on the other.

What factors encouraged scientific development in the Hellenistic world?

Cultural exchange and collaboration: The Hellenistic world was characterized by a rich mix of cultures, languages, and intellectual traditions. Scholars, philosophers, and scientists from different regions and backgrounds came together in urban centers to exchange ideas and collaborate on new projects, leading to cross-fertilization of knowledge and innovation. Patronage and funding: Hellenistic rulers, particularly the Ptolemies of Egypt, were major patrons of scientific research and development. They provided funding, resources, and support to scholars and scientists, allowing them to pursue their research and experimentation. Philosophical and scientific traditions: Hellenistic thinkers built on the legacy of earlier Greek philosophers, such as Aristotle, who emphasized observation, reason, and empirical investigation as key tools for understanding the natural world. This scientific tradition provided a foundation for the development of new ideas and discoveries. Access to new technologies and materials: Hellenistic scientists had access to new technologies and materials, such as paper, parchment, and the astrolabe, which allowed them to record and measure their observations with greater precision. Observational and experimental methods: Hellenistic scientists developed new methods of observation and experimentation, such as dissection, anatomy, and the use of lenses and mirrors, which allowed them to gain new insights into the workings of the natural world.

Hundreds of thousands of Greek people left Greece and settled in cities in Alexander's former empire. What was this transregional migration called?

Diaspora

Which leader supported the Stoic idea that kingship was a form of servitude, rather than an elite privilege?

Antigonus

What is "empirical" knowledge?

Information known through our senses

Measuring and Mapping: Astronomy, Geography, and Mathematics

Hellenistic scientists took a major interest in measurements and map-making, whether of the heavens (astronomy) or the earth (geography) and the forms occurring in nature (geometry) -The most renowned—and most wronged— of the Hellenistic astronomers was Aristarchus of Samos (310-230 B.C.E.), whose major discovery anticipated that of Copernicus by 1,700 years (he deduced that the earth and other planets revolve around the sun) -Unfortunately, however, this view was not accepted by many of his contemporaries or successors because it conflicted with the teachings of Aristotle and with the Greek conviction that humanity, and therefore the earth, must be at the center of the universe.

Ptolemaic scholars in Alexandria created the Septuagint. What does this work suggest about the Hellenistic world?

The Septuagint is a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, which was created in Alexandria during the Hellenistic period, likely in the 3rd century BCE. The fact that Ptolemaic scholars in Alexandria created the Septuagint is significant because it suggests several things about the Hellenistic world: -It highlights: the importance of cultural exchange and cross-cultural interaction in the Hellenistic world. The fact that Greek-speaking scholars in Alexandria were interested in translating the Hebrew Bible into Greek suggests a curiosity and openness to other cultures and traditions. -It demonstrates: the influence of Greek language and culture on the Hellenistic world. The fact that the Septuagint was written in Greek, rather than in Hebrew or Aramaic, reflects the widespread use and influence of Greek language and culture throughout the Hellenistic world. -It underscores: the role of Alexandria as a center of learning and scholarship during the Hellenistic period. The creation of the Septuagint by Ptolemaic scholars in Alexandria highlights the importance of the city as a center of intellectual and cultural activity. -It illustrates: the blending of different cultural and intellectual traditions in the Hellenistic world. The creation of the Septuagint involved the blending of Hebrew and Greek language and culture, which reflects the dynamic and eclectic nature of the Hellenistic world.

as Theban power grew, so did the

animosity of the other Greek poleis -In 371, Athens had supported Thebes against Sparta, its ancient enemy, but when the Thebans and Spartans squared off again in 362 at the Battle of Mantinea, the Athenians allied themselves with the weaker Spartans

According to Stoicism, evil does not exist. A. True B. False

True According to Stoicism, evil does not exist in the traditional sense. Rather, it is a lack of goodness or virtue, which is seen as the only true good. The Stoics believed that all things, including events and emotions, are ultimately indifferent and that what matters is how one responds to them with reason and virtue. This perspective helped the Stoics to develop a philosophy that emphasized personal responsibility and self-control in the face of external circumstances.

What did mystery religions, like the cult of Dionysus and the cult of Isis, have in common with Stoicism and Epicureanism?

a distance from political participation and a focus on individual experiences rather than communal duty

The earliest surviving accounts of Alexander's life were written about 400 years after his death, Roman writers Plutarch and Arrian are the authors of the

earliest extant accounts of Alexander's life -Though their accounts were based on works by Alexander's contemporaries, this distanced perspective presents obvious problems in developing an accurate understanding of his life.

What best describes the relationship between the Greek poleis in the fourth century B.C.E.?

fractious because there was often tension and conflict between them, with each city-state competing for resources, power, and influence -While alliances and cooperation did occur, these were often fragile and subject to change based on shifting political circumstances -Additionally, many poleis had different political systems and ideologies, which could lead to misunderstandings and disagreements. The fractious nature of the relationship between the poleis is also evident in the numerous wars and conflicts that occurred during this period, such as the Peloponnesian War and the Corinthian War.

The first problem of Philip's reign was the

fragility of Macedonia's northern borders -Through a combination of warfare and diplomacy, he subdued the tribes of the southern Balkans and incorporated their territory into his kingdom, losing an eye in the process. -His success in this had much to do with his reorganization of Macedonian warriors into a hoplite infantry along Theban lines

Although the third century BCE was a prosperous and relatively peaceful one in Egypt...

future pharaohs would face regular and dangerous revolts from the native populations of the countryside -There was little interest in improving the lives of the Egyptian peasantry whose bread-winning labors made their rulers rich.

When Alexander succeeded his father in 336 B.C.E, he could not begin to carry out his plans of conquest until

he had put down the revolts that erupted immediately after Philip's death—notably at Thebes, which he punished by destroying its famous walls -Two years later, he was crossing the Hellespont at the head of a hoplite army to challenge the Great King of Persia, Darius III

Philip's goals

his northward expansion was designed to secure his frontiers and the resources necessary to support an invasion of Persia, not of Greece -From 348 B.C.E. on, he was actually trying to forge an alliance with Athens, whose fleet could facilitate such an invasion by sea; in return, Philip promised to support Athens' old claim to hegemony over Greece. But the Athenians took the advice of an orator called Demosthenes, and refused to cooperate with Philip. This miscalculation would prove disastrous -Philip's inability to reach an understanding with Athens, despite strenuous diplomatic efforts, ultimately led to war, which sent the Athenians scrambling to ally with Thebes and a number of smaller poleis. Their fate was sealed at the battle of Chaeronea in 338 B.C.E., when an army led jointly by Philip and Alexander (who was 18) won a narrow victory, decimating the Athenian forces and destroying the Theban Sacred Band.

The most important contribution of the Hellenistic era to subsequent historical developments was

its role as an intermediary between the nascent empire of Rome and the older civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece -The example set by Alexander was one that the Romans would emulate -the economic and political infrastructures that were put in place after his conquests would form the framework of Roman imperial government -The Romans would also take advantage of the common language and cultural expectations that bound the far reaches of the Greek-speaking world together.

Alexandria was not only populous, it was

magnificent and spacious—which Rome never was -Its wide streets were paved and laid out in an orderly grid -had splendid public buildings and parks, the great Museum, and the famous library containing half a million books -the storehouse and showcase of Greek culture.

Despite the overall growth of the Hellenistic economy,

not everyone enjoyed prosperity -Agriculture remained the major occupation and primary source of wealth -small farmers in particular suffered severely from exploitative taxation

Like the Ptolemies, the Seleucids presented two faces to their subjects:

one looking to ancient Near Eastern tradition, another looking to Greece.

After the Corinthian War, the Spartans

punished the most dangerous of their rivals, Thebes, by occupying the city for four years -The Theban and Spartan armies met at Leuctra in 371 B.C.E.

Beginning in the reign of King Philip II, Macedonia came to control

the Greek mainland -Then, under Philip's remarkable son, a united Greek and Macedonian army extended Greek culture and Greek governance from Egypt to the frontiers of India.

By 300 BCE, a common Hellenistic culture encompassed

the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia, transcending political and geographical boundaries -fueled by the hundreds of thousands of adventurers who joined the Greek diaspora ("dispersion") and whose emigration reduced the population of the Greek mainland by as much as fifty percent in the century between 325 and 225 B.C.E.

The Hellenistic world was prosperous owing to..

the freedom of long-distance trade, the development of international finance, and the enormous growth of cities. -Alexander's conquests had opened up a vast trading area stretching from Egypt to the Persian Gulf (dominated by Greek-speaking rulers and well-established merchant communities) {These conquests also stimulated the economy by putting into circulation hoards of Persian gold and silver coins, jewelry, and other commodities acquired through plunder}

As public funding for performances dried up in the fourth century, drama disappeared from the Greek poleis. Drama continued, but since private patrons funded performances...

the plays moved away from political and social criticism

By the middle of the fourth century, the Greek poleis had become so embroiled in military, political, and socioeconomic turmoil that they barely noticed

the powerhouse on their northern frontier

Seleucus

- Throughout its history, the Persian dynasty founded by him (known as the Seleucids) struggled with the problem of holding the disparate parts of their realm together -Their hold on the easternmost provinces was especially tenuous, but Seleucus solved part of this problem by ceding much of the Indus Valley to the great Indian warrior-king Chandragupta in exchange for peace and a squad of war elephants -By the middle of the third century B.C.E., the Seleucids had also lost control of Bactria, where a series of Indo-Greek states were emerging with a uniquely complex culture of their own.

Menander

-(342- 292 B.C.E.), his work survives today only in fragments -directly inspired the comedians of the later Roman theater, which in turn inspired medieval and then early modern playwrights like Shakespeare -he was known for his "New Comedy" style, which focused on everyday life and characters rather than the political satire and commentary of earlier Greek comedy. His plays dealt with themes such as love, family, and social relationships, and they were popular during his lifetime and beyond

Corinthian War

-(395 to 387 BCE), The war was triggered by Sparta's attempts to impose its hegemony over the other Greek states following its victory in the Peloponnesian War. -The war began with a series of successful military campaigns by the allied Corinthian, Theban, and Argive forces, which captured several important Spartan-held territories in the Peloponnese. However, the alliance began to fracture over issues of leadership and strategy, and Sparta was eventually able to regain the upper hand. The war ended inconclusively in 387 BCE with the signing of the Treaty of Antalcidas, which confirmed Sparta's dominance over the Greek city-states and effectively ended the alliance between Corinth, Thebes, and Argos. -The Corinthian War was significant for its impact on the balance of power in ancient Greece, as well as for the military and political strategies used by the various states involved. The war is also notable for the role it played in setting the stage for the rise of Macedon under Philip II and his son Alexander the Great, who would go on to conquer much of the known world.

Antigonus

-After Alexander the Great died in 323 BCE, his vast empire was divided among his generals, who became known as the diadochi. These generals fought for control of Alexander's empire, with each one attempting to carve out their own kingdom or empire. -Antigonus was one of these diadochi, and he was initially appointed satrap of Phrygia, a region in modern-day Turkey, by Alexander. After Alexander's death, Antigonus supported the regency of Perdiccas, but he later broke with him and joined forces with other diadochi, including Seleucus, to fight against him. -Antigonus was a skilled military commander, and he won several significant victories in the wars of the diadochi. In 306 BCE, he declared himself king of Asia, and he attempted to establish a new empire that would reunite Alexander's former empire under his own rule. -was influenced by a philosophical outlook called Stoicism and viewed kingship as a form of noble servitude, an office to be endured rather than enjoyed {This perspective, combined with his modest resources, convinced him not to compete with the Seleucids and Ptolemies for dominance. Instead, Antigonid policy was to keep these other two powers at war with one another and away from the Macedonian sphere of influence} -he and his successors thus pursued a strategy more reminiscent of Philip II than of his son. They secured the northern frontiers, maintained a strong, standing army, and kept the fractious Greeks at heel -Antigonus was opposed by several other diadochi, including Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus. These diadochi formed a coalition against Antigonus, and in 301 BCE, they defeated him in the Battle of Ipsus. Antigonus was forced to flee to his stronghold in Syria, where he continued to resist his enemies. -In 301 BCE, Antigonus was killed in the Battle of Gabiene, where he led an army against the forces of Seleucus. Despite his defeat, Antigonus left a lasting legacy on the region. His son, Demetrius, went on to establish the Antigonid dynasty, which ruled over parts of Greece and Asia Minor for several centuries.

What ensued after Alexanders death?

-Alexander's own son and heir was born to Roxane after his death -it was decided that the baby, Alexander IV of Macedonia, should rule jointly with Alexander's half-brother, Philip, the son of Philip II by one of his lesser wives, who may have been both mentally and physically disabled {This solution did not last, and eventually both the child and his uncle were murdered, as was Perdiccas}

Plato

-Born in Athens to an aristocratic family around 429 B.C.E. -joined Socrates' circle as a young man and witnessed at first hand the persecution, trial, and death of his mentor. For the next fifty years, to the time of his own death around 349 B.C.E., he shunned direct political involvement and strove instead to vindicate Socrates by constructing a philosophical system based on his precepts (but Socrates had taught through dialectical conversation and by example; he mistrusted writing and resisted developing a coherent set of principle) -his mission was to transmit Socrates's legacy in a way that captured the liveliness and charm of the Socratic method, but within a more structured framework. He did this in two ways: -first by founding an informal school called the Academy (which had no buildings, tuition, or set curriculum) -and later by writing a series of dialogues that wrapped weighty philosophical content in a witty and accessible dramatic format, with Socrates as the central character.

Diogenes the Cynic

-Diogenes of Sinope was a Greek philosopher who lived in the 4th century BCE and is best known for his founding of the Cynic school of philosophy. The Cynics emphasized the rejection of conventional social and moral norms and the pursuit of a simple, self-sufficient life. -Diogenes himself lived a famously austere and unconventional life, often sleeping in public places and begging for his food. He is said to have carried a lamp during the day, claiming to be looking for an honest man. -Central to Diogenes' philosophy was the idea that humans should live in accordance with nature and reject the trappings of civilization. He believed that humans had become too dependent on material possessions and social status, and that true happiness could only be found by living a simple and self-sufficient life. -Diogenes also believed in the importance of personal integrity and honesty. He famously lived by his own values and principles, even when they were unpopular or unconventional. For example, he once publicly masturbated in response to the teachings of a famous philosopher who emphasized the importance of sexual self-control. -Diogenes was also known for his wit and sense of humor, often using satire and irony to criticize the excesses of his society. He is said to have once been asked what he wanted from the king, and he famously replied, "Stand out of my sunlight." -Although Diogenes' ideas were not always well-received in his own time, his philosophy has had a lasting impact on Western thought. His emphasis on simplicity, self-sufficiency, and personal integrity continues to resonate with many people seeking a meaningful and authentic life.

Hipparchus (second century B.C.E.)

-Euclid's successor -laid the foundations of both plane and spherical trigonometry

Architecture and Sculpture

-Hellenistic architecture drew on Greek models, but it was also influenced by standards and tastes more characteristic of Egypt and Persia -Two examples (both of which no longer survive) are the great lighthouse of Alexandria, which rose to a height of nearly 400 feet and which was daringly composed of three diminishing stories topped by eight slender columns supporting the light; and the citadel of Alexandria, built of stone and covered with blue-tinted plaster, described by a contemporary as seeming to float in mid-air. -Sculptors now prided themselves on faithfully reproducing facial furrows, muscular distensions, and complex folds of drapery -Awkward human postures offered the greatest technical challenges, to the degree that sculptors might prefer to show people stretching themselves or balancing on one leg in ways that hardly ever occur in real life.

Alexander's Death

-In late May of 323 B.C.E., he began to show signs of what may have been malarial fever (some ancient sources suggest he was poisoned) -his closest friend and longtime lover, Hephaistion, had died the year before at Ecbatana, leaving Alexander without his most able and vigilant bodyguard. -he ignored the advice of his doctors and continued to play the part of a Homeric hero, drinking late and exerting himself incautiously -His condition worsened, and he died on June 10 or 11, 323 B.C.E., in the palace built by the Chaldean king Nebuchadnezzar in Babylon, the ancient capital of Hammurabi, he was not yet thirty-three years old

Eratosthenes of Alexandria (c. 276 - 196 B.C.E)

-In the field of geography—and in a host of other pursuits, too—the most original thinker -Not only did he accurately calculate the circumference of the earth (within a tiny margin of error, less than 200 miles), he also developed a system of latitude and longitude -was the first to suggest the possibility of reaching eastern Asia by sailing west -he founded the science of chronology by attempting to establish the dates of major events reaching back to the siege of Troy -Students of history are forever in his debt.

What profoundly affected the Greek world's economic and social infrastructure?

-Incessant warfare, combined political struggles -Many ordinary people were driven from their homes or reduced to slavery. Country towns had been ravaged, some repeatedly, as had farmlands throughout Greece. -Even arable land was exhausted and less productive than it had been earlier. As a result, prices rose around 50 percent while standards of living declined because wages remained more or less stagnant. Taxes increased. -In Athens, the wealthiest citizens now became the sponsors of public theaters and buildings, as well as the patrons who maintained roads and warships. -Unemployment was widespread, especially among the growing population of the cities, which were swollen with refugees from the political collapse of the countryside and colonies -During wartime, men might find employment as rowers or soldiers in the service of their city; but when their city was at peace, many turned instead to mercenary service

Archimedes of Syracuse (287-212 BCE)

-It was he who discovered the law of floating bodies, or specific gravity, now known as "Archimedes' principle -also established the principles of the lever, the pulley, and the screw, and he invented both a compound pulley and a propeller

Epicurus

-Lived from 341-270 BCE, his teachings emphasized the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain as the ultimate goals of human life. However, this idea of pleasure was not the immediate or fleeting pleasure of hedonism, but rather the long-term happiness and tranquility that come from living a virtuous and simple life. -Epicurus believed that the universe was composed of atoms and void, and that everything in the world could be explained in terms of the movements and interactions of these atoms. He also believed that the gods were distant and uninvolved in human affairs, and that there was no afterlife. -According to Epicurus, the key to happiness was to live a life of simplicity and moderation, and to avoid unnecessary desires and fears. He believed that the pursuit of material possessions and social status only led to anxiety and suffering, and that true happiness could only be found by living a peaceful and contented life. -Epicurus also believed that friendship was essential to human happiness, and that it was important to cultivate close relationships with like-minded individuals who shared one's values and beliefs. He believed that by living a simple, virtuous life and cultivating close relationships with others, humans could achieve a state of tranquility and contentment that would lead to lasting happiness. -Overall, Epicurean philosophy emphasized the pursuit of long-term happiness and tranquility through the cultivation of simplicity, virtue, and close relationships with others. While his ideas were not always widely accepted in his own time, Epicurus' teachings have had a lasting influence on Western philosophy and continue to be studied and debated by scholars today.

What came out of Alexandria?

-Many breakthroughs in astronomy, mechanical engineering, and physics -the study of medicine advanced greatly under Ptolemaic rule (freed from the taboos of their homeland, Greek researchers were permitted to perform autopsies on the bodies of dead criminals and vagrants, making it possible for anatomy to become a scientific discipline in its own right) -texts of Greek poetry, drama, history, and philosophy were copied and preserved in the forms in which we know them -Hebrew scriptures were translated into Greek for a wider audience

Aristotle's teachings

-Metaphysics: Aristotle believed that there is a hierarchy of being, with the most perfect and immutable beings at the top, and less perfect and more changeable beings at lower levels. He also believed in the principle of non-contradiction, which states that something cannot both be and not be at the same time. -Ethics: Aristotle believed that the ultimate goal of human life is happiness (eudaimonia), and that this can be achieved through living a virtuous life. He identified several virtues, including courage, wisdom, and justice, and believed that virtues are acquired through practice and habituation. -Politics: Aristotle believed that humans are political animals and that the ideal political system is one that promotes the common good. He identified three types of government (monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy) and argued that the best form of government is a mixed regime that combines elements of all three. -Biology: Aristotle was one of the first philosophers to study biology systematically. He believed that all living things have souls and that they can be classified into different categories based on their characteristics. -Logic: Aristotle developed a system of logic that is still used today. He believed that all knowledge can be acquired through observation and deduction, and that arguments can be evaluated based on their premises and conclusions.

Alexander's completed conquest of Asia Minor

-One by one, the cities of Syria and Palestine surrendered after Alexander made a powerful statement by destroying the wealthy Phoenician capital at Tyre -Following the example of Cyrus the Great, whose tactics he came increasingly to emulate, Alexander had developed a policy of offering amnesty to cities that submitted peacefully—but dealing mercilessly with those that resisted -The fortified city of Gaza, the last Persian stronghold on the Egyptian border, provides an example: its commander, Batis, not only refused to surrender but seemed determined to fight to the death, inflicting severe losses on the troops besieging his city and seriously wounding Alexander himself

Alexander's Final Campaigns

-Over the ensuing five years, Alexander campaigned in the far reaches of the Persian Empire, in the mountainous regions that had been only loosely yoked together with the more settled lands of Mesopotamia -in the mountains of Bactria, Alexander and his army experienced the hardest fighting of their long campaign. Indeed, they never succeeded in getting more than a tenuous hold on the territory, despite Alexander's marriage to Roxane, daughter of a Bactrian chieftain -Thereafter, Alexander moved down through what is now Pakistan to the Indus Valley, meeting stiff resistance from its warlords but eventually defeating their leader, Porus, at the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 B.C.E. {This was to be the last major battle of his career, and the one in which his famous warhorse, Bucephalus, was killed. And it was here in India that Alexander's exhausted army refused to go on, thousands of miles and eight years from home} -He was forced to turn back, and rather than attempting to recross the mountains of the Hindu Kush or the foothills of the Himalayas, he pressed southward to the shores of the Arabian Sea—what was then known as Ocean, and the end of the world -The ensuing march through the Gedrosian Desert, combined with a decade of continuous fighting, weakened him and his army considerably.

Ptolemaic Egypt

-Ptolemaic Egypt was a period of ancient Egyptian history that began with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE and ended with the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE. It was named after the Ptolemaic dynasty, a Greek-speaking dynasty that ruled Egypt during this period. The Ptolemaic dynasty was founded by Ptolemy I Soter, one of Alexander the Great's generals, who became the satrap (governor) of Egypt after Alexander's death. -Under Ptolemaic rule, Egypt became a major center of Hellenistic culture and learning, and Alexandria, the capital of Egypt, became one of the most important cities in the ancient world. The Ptolemies were also known for their patronage of the arts and sciences, and they established the famous Library of Alexandria, which was one of the largest and most important libraries in the ancient world. -During the Ptolemaic period, Egypt was a prosperous and wealthy kingdom, thanks in part to its position as a major center of trade and commerce. The Ptolemies also established a complex bureaucracy to govern the kingdom, which included both Greek and Egyptian officials. The Ptolemaic dynasty was characterized by its political intrigues and struggles for power, both within the ruling family and among the various factions of Egyptian society. The Ptolemies also faced challenges from neighboring kingdoms, such as the Seleucid Empire, which ruled over much of the eastern Mediterranean region. -The end of the Ptolemaic period came with the Roman conquest of Egypt, which was led by Julius Caesar and marked the end of ancient Egyptian civilization as an independent kingdom.

When the young Alexander of Macedonia set out for Persia in 334 B.C.E, he brought along two favorite books. What were those two books?

-The first was a copy of the Iliad, which his teacher Aristotle had given him {an epic poem written by the ancient Greek poet Homer, and it is considered one of the foundational works of Western literature. The poem tells the story of the Trojan War, a legendary conflict between the Greeks and the Trojans that took place in the 12th century BCE. At the center of the poem is the warrior Achilles, who is enraged when his honor is insulted by the Greek king Agamemnon and withdraws from battle, leading to a string of losses for the Greeks. The poem also features other important characters, including the Trojan prince Hector and the Greek hero Odysseus} -The second was the Anabasis, "The Inland Expedition," by an Athenian called Xenophon (ZEN-oh-fon, 430-354 B.C.E) {a historical account written by the ancient Greek soldier and historian Xenophon, and it is considered one of the most important works of ancient Greek literature. The Anabasis tells the story of a group of Greek mercenaries who are hired by Cyrus the Younger, a Persian prince, to overthrow his brother, King Artaxerxes II, and take control of the Persian Empire. Although the Greeks are initially successful, Cyrus is killed in battle and the Greek army is left stranded in Persia, thousands of miles from home} -Some historians also say it was the Odyssey {an epic poem written by the ancient Greek poet Homer, and it is considered one of the foundational works of Western literature. The poem tells the story of the Greek hero Odysseus and his ten-year journey home to Ithaca after the Trojan War. Along the way, he faces a series of obstacles, including battles with mythical creatures like the Cyclops and the Sirens, as well as confrontations with angry gods like Poseidon and Athena. Meanwhile, back in Ithaca, his wife Penelope and son Telemachus fend off suitors who are trying to take over his throne}

The Republic (book)

-The longest and most famous of Plato's dialogues is now known by its Latin title -In Greek, it is the Politeía, the first treatise on political philosophy written in the West. -In it, Plato argues—through the character of Socrates—that social harmony and order are more important than individual liberty or equality -He imagines an ideal polis in which most of the people—farmers, artisans, traders—are governed by a superior group of "guardians" chosen in their youth for their natural attributes of intelligence and character. These prospective guardians would serve the polis first as soldiers, living together without private property. Those found to be the wisest would then receive more education, and a few would ultimately become "philosopher- kings." These enlightened rulers would in turn choose the next generation of guardians

Aristotle

-The practical application of philosophy would be the preoccupation of Plato's own student -(384-322 B.C.E.)the son of a physician, learned from his father the importance of observing natural phenomena -receptive to Plato's training, his own philosophical system was geared toward understanding the workings of the world through the rational analysis of empirical knowledge—that is, information about reality gained through sensory experience -In contrast to Plato, who taught that everything we see and touch is an untrustworthy reflection of some intangible ideal, Aristotle advocated the rigorous investigation of real phenomena, in order to uncover the natural order of the universe and of human beings' place within it

What did artists and sculptors shift their focus to?

-The shift from archaic to classical art: In the early stages of Greek art, which is known as the Archaic period (8th-6th centuries BCE), artists focused on creating stylized figures with rigid poses and exaggerated features. However, during the Classical period (5th-4th centuries BCE), artists shifted their focus to creating more naturalistic and idealized figures with lifelike poses and expressions. This period is marked by some of the most famous works of Greek sculpture, such as the Parthenon frieze and the statue of Zeus at Olympia. -The shift towards depicting more human emotion: As artists began to focus on creating more naturalistic figures, they also began to explore the expression of human emotion in their art. In particular, the Hellenistic period (4th-1st centuries BCE) saw a shift towards more dramatic and emotional representations of human figures. This period is characterized by works such as the Laocoön and His Sons sculpture, which depicts a scene from Greek mythology with highly expressive figures. -The emphasis on beauty and perfection: Throughout Greek art, there was a strong emphasis on creating works of beauty and perfection. This was especially evident in the focus on creating idealized figures of humans and gods, as well as in the use of mathematical proportions and balance in sculpture and architecture. This emphasis on beauty and perfection helped to define the Greek aesthetic and has had a lasting influence on Western art.

Stoicism and Epicureanism

-The two strains of philosophy that dominated the Hellenistic world both originated in Athens around 300 B.C.E -Their promoters were Epicurus (c.342-270 B.C.E.) and Zeno (fl. after 300 B.C.E.) and their teachings had several features in common

How did Alexander's empire and the Hellenistic kingdoms lay the groundwork for Rome?

-The widespread use of the Greek language and Greek culture already tied together regions that would be conquered by Rome -Hellenistic political infrastructure and trade networks formed the foundation of imperial Rome -The Hellenistic philosophy of Stoicism significantly influenced the values of the Roman Republic.

Epamonidas of Thebes

-a Greek general of Thebes and statesman of the 4th century BCE -transformed Thebes by leading it out of Spartan subjugation into a preeminent position in Greek politics called the Theban Hegemony

What was proskynesis?

-a Persian custom of showing reverence or respect to a superior by kneeling or prostrating oneself before them. It was practiced during the Achaemenid Empire (550-330 BCE), which was the first Persian Empire, and was later adopted by Alexander the Great when he conquered Persia in 330 BCE. -According to ancient accounts, proskynesis involved kneeling and touching one's forehead to the ground before the king or another high-ranking official. It was a form of submission and a way of acknowledging the superior's power and authority. The practice was not universally accepted, and there were some Greeks who objected to performing proskynesis, as they saw it as a violation of their cultural norms. -Alexander the Great's adoption of proskynesis caused controversy among his Greek followers, who were not accustomed to the practice. Some accounts suggest that Alexander's demand for proskynesis led to a rift between him and his closest companions, including the philosopher Diogenes, who famously refused to perform the gesture when Alexander visited him. Ultimately, the practice did not survive beyond the Hellenistic period, as it was viewed as too foreign and excessive by subsequent Greek and Roman rulers.

Xenophon of Athens (r. 430-394)

-a prominent figure in ancient Greece, who made significant contributions to various fields, including history, philosophy, and military strategy. He was born in Athens around 430 BC and was a contemporary of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. -began his military career as a mercenary, serving in various conflicts throughout Greece and Asia Minor. He participated in the Peloponnesian War and fought for Cyrus the Younger during his failed campaign against the Persian Empire. Xenophon chronicled this campaign in his work, the Anabasis, which is considered one of his most important works and a valuable historical account of the time. -Aside from his military career, Xenophon was also known for his philosophical writings. He studied under Socrates and was greatly influenced by his teachings. Xenophon's philosophical works often focused on topics such as morality, ethics, and politics. Some of his most well-known works in this area include the Memorabilia, which is a collection of Socratic dialogues, and the Cyropaedia, which is a fictionalized account of the life of Cyrus the Great. -Xenophon's literary talents were not limited to philosophy and history. He also wrote poetry, including an epic poem called the "Hiero," which was a tribute to the ruler of Syracuse. In addition, he wrote on topics such as horsemanship and hunting. -Xenophon's works were highly regarded in ancient Greece and continue to be studied today for their historical and philosophical value. His writings provide valuable insights into the political and social structures of ancient Greece and offer a glimpse into the mindset of the people who lived during that time.

Until the fourth century, Macedonia (or Macedon) had been a

-a relatively small and backward kingdom located to the north of Greece. The Macedonian people were considered barbarians by many Greeks, as they spoke a different language, had different customs and beliefs, and did not participate in the same cultural and intellectual pursuits as the Greeks. -Macedonia was initially ruled by a series of tribal chiefs, but by the fifth century BC, the Argead dynasty had established itself as the ruling family. The Argeads, however, were still considered to be outsiders by the Greeks and were not recognized as legitimate rulers of the Greek city-states. -Macedonia was not considered to be a significant power in the Greek world during this time, and it was often caught in conflicts between the Greek city-states. The Macedonians also had to contend with attacks from neighboring tribes and kingdoms. -Despite these challenges, the Macedonian kings were able to consolidate their power and expand their territory through a series of military campaigns. They adopted Greek military tactics and equipment, and also introduced new innovations of their own, such as the Companion Cavalry, which was composed of elite mounted warriors. -However, despite these military successes, Macedonia was still not seen as a major power in the Greek world. It was only with the rise of Philip II that Macedonia emerged as a dominant force that would shape the course of Greek and world history.

Alexander vs. Darius III

-after a series of extraordinary victories, beginning in northwest Anatolia, near the epic field of Troy, and continuing down the Ionian coastline, in 333 B.C.E. Darius was persuaded to engage Alexander personally, at the head of a force that significantly outnumbered that of his opponent -The two men fought against each other in several major battles, including the Battle of Issus in 333 BCE and the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BCE. In both battles, Alexander emerged as the victor. -In the Battle of Issus, Alexander employed a tactic known as the "hammer and anvil," where his army attacked from the side while his cavalry charged through the center of the Persian army, splitting it in two. Darius was forced to flee the battlefield, leaving his family and much of his treasure behind. -In the Battle of Gaugamela, Alexander faced a much larger Persian army but was able to use his superior tactics and discipline to defeat them. He employed a similar tactic to the Battle of Issus, but this time his cavalry feigned a retreat, drawing the Persians into a trap and allowing Alexander's infantry to surround and defeat them.

What did Epaminondas do after defeating the spartans in 371 BCE?

-after the Battle of Leuctra, Epaminondas led the Theban army on a campaign through the Peloponnese, including Messenia, where he freed the helots (serfs) who had been living under Spartan control. This act of freeing the helots was in line with Epaminondas' belief in social and political equality, and it was one of the many social reforms he implemented during his time in power -After defeating the Spartans at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BCE, Epaminondas and the Thebans went on to establish the Theban Hegemony, a period of Theban dominance in Greece. Epaminondas led the Thebans in a series of successful military campaigns against other city-states, including Athens and Arcadia, consolidating Theban power and extending Theban influence over much of Greece. -During this period, Epaminondas also implemented a number of political and social reforms aimed at promoting equality and justice within Theban society. He worked to establish a democratic government in Thebes, where all citizens had a say in the affairs of the city, regardless of their social status. He also encouraged the growth of the middle class and promoted the education of all citizens, not just the ruling elite. -One of Epaminondas' most notable achievements during this period was his creation of the Arcadian League, a confederation of city-states that included both Thebes and Athens. This alliance was designed to counter the growing power of Sparta and served as a model for future pan-Greek alliances.

Zeno of Citium

-lived from 335-263 BCE, was born in Cyprus in the early 4th century BCE, and he studied philosophy under several different teachers before founding his own school in Athens in the early 3rd century BCE. -Zeno's philosophy was deeply influenced by the ideas of earlier philosophers, including the Cynics and the Megarians. He believed that the ultimate goal of human life was to live in accordance with nature, and that this could be achieved through the cultivation of wisdom, courage, self-control, and justice. -Central to Zeno's philosophy was the concept of logos, which he believed was the underlying rational order of the universe. He believed that humans had the ability to understand and align themselves with this order, and that doing so would lead to a life of virtue and inner peace. -Zeno also believed that the universe was deterministic, meaning that everything that happens is the result of a chain of cause and effect that can be traced back to the beginning of time. He believed that humans should accept this deterministic worldview and focus on what they can control, namely their own thoughts, emotions, and actions. -According to Zeno, the key to achieving inner peace and happiness was to cultivate a sense of detachment from the external world and to focus on the development of one's own character. He believed that humans should strive to be virtuous and to act in accordance with reason, even in the face of difficult circumstances. -Zeno's philosophy was highly influential in the ancient world, and it was adopted by many later philosophers, including the Roman statesman Seneca and the emperor Marcus Aurelius. Stoicism continues to be studied and practiced today, and its emphasis on rationality, self-control, and virtue continues to resonate with many people seeking a meaningful and fulfilling life.

Alexander in Egypt

-marched in unopposed, in fact he was welcomed as a liberator {Egypt had been governed as a Persian satrapy since 525 B.C.E., when Cambyses, son of Cyrus the Great, had deposed the last pharaoh of the reigning dynasty} -Now Alexander himself was hailed as pharaoh and given the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, becoming the latest in a succession of rulers reaching back three thousand years to the time of King Narmer -At the oracle's desert oasis of Siwa, Alexander was reportedly told that he was "son of Ammon" and a god himself, a pronouncement that gave weight to a story already in circulation among his men, that he had been fathered not by Philip but by Zeus. Alexander, ever mindful of historical precedent and the historical significance of his own actions, seems to have decided at this point that Egypt should be the capital of his new empire. Persia had been the goal, and it still remained to be conquered, piece by piece; but it was in Egypt that he would build his shining new city of Alexandria -In the end, he had time only to lay out a plan for the streets and central spaces before he marched north to a reckoning with Darius at Gaugamela. When he finally returned, he was in his sarcophagus.

The Seleucid heartland now became

-northern Syria -parts of Anatolia -Mesopotamia -western half of Persia still a great, wealthy kingdom, but far less than what Alexander had left.

The Greeks relations with the Antigonids

-restive under the Antigonids, and two emergent powers within the Greek world served as rallying points for those who resented "barbarian" rule -the Aetolian League and the Achaean League, were a departure in Greek political organization. Unlike the defensive alliances of the classical period, each of these two leagues represented a real political unification, with some centralization of governance (So impressive was this degree of cooperation and unification that James Madison, John Jay, and Alexander Hamilton employed the Achaean League as one of their models in advocating federalism in the United State)

The Ptolemies

-ruled for the next 300 years, until Egypt became a Roman province in 30 B.C.E. -This dynasty, the thirty-second since the unification of the Upper and Lower Nile in the fourth millennium B.C.E., would be the last -The male heirs of the line all took the name Ptolemy (hence the term "Ptolemaic Egypt") -Many of their sisters were called Cleopatra, the name of Alexander's own sister and a dynastic name among Macedonian royal women

Herophilus of Chalcedon (c.335-c.280 B.C.E.)

-the greatest anatomist of antiquity and probably the first to practice human dissection -Many of his discoveries directly challenged the orthodoxy of Aristotelian teaching—and rightly, since Aristotle's understanding of physiology (like his knowledge of astronomical and natural science) has not stood the test of time as well as his grasp of logic and politics -his achievements included a detailed description of the brain, which allowed him to prove that the brain was the engine of human intellect (Aristotle thought that it was the heart), as well as the discovery that the arteries contain blood alone (not a mixture of blood and air, as Aristotle had taught), and that their function is to carry blood from the heart to all parts of the body -understood the significance of the pulse and its use in diagnosing illness -His colleague Erasistratus (air-ah-sis- STRAH-tus) made allied discoveries, establishing that the heart was a pump and not an organ of emotion, explaining the working of its valves, and distinguishing between motor and sensory nerves.

Aristotle's beliefs

-took it for granted that some people— like barbarians—were not fully human, and so were intended by nature to be slaves. -believed that women were not endowed with a full measure of humanity, and so could never achieve the good life either as individuals or as participants in the public sphere of the polis -when Aristotle asserted that "man is by nature a political animal" (or, to be more faithful to the Greek, "a creature of the polis"), he meant only Greek males of privileged status.

Theocritus

-was a merchant of escapism -In the midst of urban bustle and within sight of overcrowded slums, he celebrated the charms of country life and lazy summer afternoons, putting into the mouths of his rustic characters unlikely sentiments expressed in ornate language -He founded an enduring tradition that would be taken up by poets from the Roman Virgil to the Englishman (and classical scholar) A. E. Houseman, and that has continuously provided a wealth of themes for the visual arts -Even composers like Beethoven and Debussy owe a debt to Theocritus

The Athenian orator Isocrates (436-338 B.C.E.)

-was another direct contemporary of Plato -convinced that something had gone horribly awry as a result of the Peloponnesain War -Rather than imagining that a solution lay in the reform of the polis, he proposed instead that the Greeks rediscover their lost unity by staging a massive invasion of Persia -This assault^, he prophesied, would be led by a man of vision and ability, someone who could unite the Greek world behind his cause -Isocrates spent most of his life casting about to find such a leader -Finally, he began to think that the man for the job was someone whom most Greeks considered no Greek at all: the king of Macedonia, Philip II.

Philip II of Macedonia

-was not supposed to be its ruler -Born in 382, he was the third and youngest son of King Amyntas III, and was considered so dispensable that he was sent to Thebes as hostage when he was fourteen, at the time of the Theban Hegemony -He became the protégé of the brilliant Epaminondas and may even have trained alongside the general Pelopidas in the Theban Sacred Band -By the time he returned to the Macedonian capital of Pella in 364(three years later) he had received a more thorough education in Greek culture and military tactics than any Macedonian before him

Chronology

404 b.c.e. Sparta defeats Athens in the Peloponnesian War 401 b.c.e. Xenophon and the Ten Thousand begin their Persian expedition 395-338 b.c.e. The struggle for Greek hegemony (Thebes, Athens, Sparta) 371 b.c.e. Epaminondas of Thebes defeats the Spartans at Leuctra 356 b.c.e. Philip II becomes king of Macedonia 338 b.c.e. Macedonia defeats Thebes and Athens at Chaeronea 336-323 b.c.e. Reign and campaigns of Alexander 323-c. 275 b.c.e. Formation of the Hellenistic kingdoms 323-c. 225 b.c.e. The Greek diaspora 300 b.c.e. Formation of the Aetolian and Achaean Leagues 300-270 b.c.e. Rise of Stoicism and Epicureanism 300-200 b.c.e. The Hellenistic scientific revolution 203-120 b.c.e. Lifetime of Polybius

How long did it take the Ptolemaic, Seleucid, and Antigonid Kingdoms to coalesce and stabilize after Alexander's death?

About fifty years

Alexander's failure

Alexander took no realistic steps to create an administration for his vast empire -How he planned to govern it effectively and bequeath it intact remains a mystery -He seems to have fixed his sights more clearly on further conquests, perhaps in Arabia, perhaps toward "Greater Greece"—Italy and Sicily. We will never know.

Whereas Plato conceived of politics as a means toward living the good life, Aristotle regarded politics as:

An essential attribute of being human, in which both women and men should participate. Aristotle regarded politics as an essential attribute of being human, in which both women and men should participate. He believed that humans are naturally social and political animals, and that politics is necessary for achieving the common good and living a fulfilling life. According to Aristotle, the state exists to promote the well-being of its citizens, and it is the duty of all citizens to participate in the political process to ensure that the state functions effectively. He also believed that women should participate in politics, though he did not advocate for full equality between men and women. Overall, Aristotle saw politics as a fundamental aspect of human life, and he believed that it was necessary for individuals to participate in politics in order to live a virtuous and fulfilling life.

Hellenistic sculpture influenced many later sculptors such as: A. Henry Moore. B. Rodin. C. Joseph Beuys. D. Nicola Pisano. E. Barbara Hepworth.

B. Rodin. Hellenistic sculpture, which emerged after the death of Alexander the Great, was characterized by a new level of realism, emotion, and individualism. This style influenced many later sculptors, including Auguste Rodin, who is known for his expressive and dynamic sculptures such as "The Thinker" and "The Kiss".

One of Plato's philosophical concerns was:

B. The doctrine of ideas. One of Plato's philosophical concerns was the doctrine of ideas. Plato believed that there was a world of perfect and unchanging forms or ideas, which existed beyond the physical world of everyday experience. According to Plato, these forms were the true reality, and the physical world was merely a shadow or imperfect copy of the world of forms. Plato's concern with the doctrine of ideas is evident in his famous allegory of the cave, where he uses the image of prisoners in a cave to illustrate the difference between the world of appearances and the world of true reality. Plato believed that knowledge of the world of forms was the key to understanding the nature of reality, and that philosophers should seek to understand and contemplate these forms in order to achieve wisdom and enlightenment. Overall, Plato's concern with the doctrine of ideas reflects his broader philosophical interest in the nature of reality and the search for knowledge and truth.

Philip II likely wanted to forge an alliance with Athens to gain access to its:

B. navy. Philip II of Macedon realized that in order to achieve his goal of conquering the Persian Empire, he needed a strong navy to control the Aegean Sea. Athens had a powerful navy, so Philip II saw the benefits of forming an alliance with Athens to gain access to their navy. However, Athens refused to form an alliance with Philip, which contributed to the outbreak of the Second Athenian League, a coalition of city-states created to counter Macedonian expansion.

Medicine and Mechanics: The Sciences of Physiology and Physics

Before the third century B.C.E., physics had been a branch of philosophy. It became a separate, experimental science thanks to the single-handed genius of one man, Archimedes of Syracuse (c. 287-212 B.C.E.) -It was he who discovered the law of floating bodies, or specific gravity, now known as "Archimedes' principle.

What similarity did Stoicism and Epicureanism share?

Concern for the welfare of the individual

In 395 BCE, a significant portion of Greece—including such sworn enemies as Athens, Argos, Corinth, and Thebes—were aligned against Sparta in the so-called

Corinthian War -Eventually, the Spartans could bring the war to a conclusion only by turning once again to Persia, as they had done in the final stages of the Peloponnesian War.

What factors contributed to the urbanization of the Hellenistic world?

Economic growth: The Hellenistic period was a time of significant economic expansion, as the Mediterranean world experienced increased trade, commerce, and wealth. This growth created opportunities for people to move to urban centers in search of employment and new economic opportunities. Political and military power: The Hellenistic world was dominated by powerful city-states and kingdoms, which established urban centers as hubs of political and military power. The capitals of these states, such as Alexandria, Antioch, and Pergamum, became centers of culture, learning, and innovation. Immigration and population growth: The Hellenistic world was characterized by significant population movements (the Greek diaspora), as people migrated to new regions in search of better opportunities. This led to the growth of cities and towns, as immigrants settled in urban centers and contributed to their diversity and vitality. Urban planning and architecture: Hellenistic rulers invested heavily in the construction of public buildings, roads, and other infrastructure to support urban growth. They also commissioned architects and engineers to design and build impressive structures, such as temples, theaters, and stadiums, which became symbols of civic pride and identity. Cultural and intellectual developments: The Hellenistic period was a time of great cultural and intellectual innovation, as scholars, philosophers, and artists flocked to urban centers to exchange ideas and collaborate on new projects. This intellectual ferment created a vibrant urban culture that attracted people from all over the Mediterranean world.

Downfall of Theban power

Epaminondas fell in battle, crippling Thebes' leadership -Athens then attempted to fill the vacuum by establishing a naval confederacy, organized more equitably than the Delian League had been -the Athenians quickly reverted to abusing their allies, and the naval confederacy dissolved in rebellions

The _________ taught that the only reason one should be good is to increase one's own happiness.

Epicureans The Epicureans taught that the only reason one should be good is to increase one's own happiness. Epicureanism is a school of philosophy founded by the Greek philosopher Epicurus in the 4th century BCE. Epicurus believed that the ultimate goal of human life is to achieve happiness and freedom from pain, and that this can be achieved through the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. However, he also believed that true happiness and freedom from pain can only be achieved through living a virtuous and simple life, free from excess and unnecessary desires. Epicurean ethics, therefore, emphasize the importance of self-interest and personal pleasure, while also advocating for a moral code that emphasizes kindness, justice, and moderation. Overall, the Epicureans taught that the only reason one should be good is to increase one's own happiness, in line with their philosophy of seeking pleasure and avoiding pain.

Why did economic activity increase in the aftermath of Alexander's conquests?

Expansion of trade routes: Alexander's conquests opened up new trade routes and facilitated the exchange of goods and ideas between the Mediterranean and the Near East. This led to an increase in commercial activity, as merchants and traders took advantage of the new opportunities presented by the expansion of Alexander's empire. Integration of economies: The conquests of Alexander led to the integration of previously disparate economies, as regions that had been isolated from each other were now connected by a common ruler and a common set of institutions. This integration led to increased trade and economic activity, as resources and products could now be more easily exchanged between regions. Development of new markets: Alexander's conquests created new markets for goods and services, particularly in the newly conquered territories of the Near East. This led to the growth of industries such as textiles, metalworking, and agriculture, as well as the emergence of new centers of economic activity, such as Alexandria. Promotion of infrastructure development: Alexander's campaigns also promoted the development of infrastructure, including roads, bridges, and ports, which facilitated trade and economic activity. This infrastructure also allowed for the movement of goods and people across vast distances, which helped to spur economic growth. Promotion of cultural exchange: Alexander's conquests promoted cultural exchange and the spread of new ideas, which in turn led to the development of new technologies and industries. This cultural exchange also helped to create a more interconnected and cosmopolitan world, which facilitated economic growth and innovation.

Which factors gave rise to differences among the Hellenistic kingdoms?

Geography: The Hellenistic kingdoms were spread over a vast area, from Greece and Macedonia in the west to India in the east. The different regions had different geographies, climates, and resources, which shaped their economies and societies. Ethnic and cultural diversity: The Hellenistic kingdoms were home to a diverse range of peoples, including Greeks, Persians, Egyptians, Jews, and others. Each group had its own traditions, beliefs, and languages, which contributed to a rich cultural mix but also created tensions and conflicts. Political structures: The Hellenistic kingdoms had different forms of government, ranging from monarchies to republics to federations. Some rulers were more centralized and authoritarian, while others were more decentralized and participatory. Military power: The Hellenistic kingdoms were all heavily militarized, with large standing armies and professional soldiers. The strength and composition of these armies varied, depending on the resources and strategic priorities of each kingdom. Economic factors: The Hellenistic kingdoms had different economies, based on agriculture, trade, industry, and mining. Some kingdoms were wealthier and more developed than others, which affected their ability to project power and influence.

Urbanization increased in the Hellenistic world because:

Greeks traveled far to found new cities and rural workers joined the new urban communities. Urbanization increased in the Hellenistic world because of a number of factors, but one of the most significant was the founding of new cities by Greek settlers. Many of these cities were established as a result of Alexander the Great's conquests, as his armies spread Greek culture and language across much of the Mediterranean and Near East. Greek settlers also established new cities for economic, strategic, or political reasons. These new cities attracted rural workers seeking economic opportunities and social advancement, as well as merchants, artisans, and other professionals. As a result, urban populations grew rapidly, and many of these cities became centers of commerce, culture, and political power. While the walled nature of cities did provide some protection from external threats, such as invasion or raiding, this was not the primary reason for the increase in urbanization in the Hellenistic world. Rather, it was the result of the growth and expansion of Greek culture, language, and political influence, which drew people from rural areas into the cities in search of a better life.

The Ptolemies of Egypt promoted themselves as heirs of Alexander by:

Intermarrying with Alexander's family. The Ptolemies of Egypt promoted themselves as heirs of Alexander by intermarrying with Alexander's family. Ptolemy I Soter, the founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty, was one of Alexander's generals and a close companion. He married Alexander's half-sister, Arsinoe, to legitimize his claim to the throne of Egypt and to strengthen his connection to Alexander. Ptolemy II Philadelphus continued this practice, marrying his full sister Arsinoe II, and later marrying his daughter Berenice to a Seleucid prince. While the other options listed may have been part of the Ptolemaic strategy to promote themselves as heirs of Alexander, intermarriage with Alexander's family was the most significant and direct way that they established a connection to the conqueror and sought to legitimize their rule in Egypt.

In the fourth century, Persia interfered continually in the affairs of the Greek poleis. A. TrueB. False

It is actually true that in the fourth century, Persia interfered continually in the affairs of the Greek poleis. This was due to the fact that Persia had lost significant territories to Alexander the Great, and they sought to regain their power and influence in the region by meddling in the affairs of the Greek city-states.

Plato and Aristotle both lived after the Peloponnesian War. What did these philosophers think of democracy?

Neither of them considered it to be a real form of gov't. -Because both philosophers doubted most people's ability to think rationally, they each suggested forms of government that limited participation in leadership and decision-making.

The vast possessions that Alexander had accumulated in Asia—both within the Persian Empire and outside of it— eventually fell to another Macedonian named

Seleucus (seh-LOO- kus) -After Alexanders death, his half-Persian son Antiochus inherited an expansive realm, but despite his best efforts he could not extend it beyond the city named after him, Antioch, into Egypt

The Scientific revolution of Antiquity

The Hellenistic period is the most brilliant age in the history of science before the seventeenth century of our era. There are three major reasons for this: -First, there was the enormous stimulus to intellectual inquiry caused by the fusion of Mesopotamian and Egyptian science with the philosophical methods of the Greeks -Second, as in the more famous scientific revolution of modernity, the use of a common language and the ease of communication facilitated by quick, affordable travel also made the circulation of knowledge and sharing of ideas easier -Finally, the competition among patrons of science was intense, which ensured the availability of ample funding. Every autocrat wanted to be thought of as enlightened and to be associated with new discoveries. And it might even be profitable to subsidize research that led to the development of new technologies, especially ones with military applications.

Which Greek developments influenced Philip II's military practices?

The phalanx formation: The phalanx was a military formation in which soldiers stood shoulder to shoulder, wielding long spears called sarissas. The Greeks, particularly the Spartans, had been using this formation for centuries before Philip II, and he adapted it to fit the Macedonian army. He increased the length of the sarissas to 18 feet, making the formation more difficult to penetrate, and placed his best troops, the Companion Cavalry, on the flanks to provide protection. Military training: The Greeks were known for their emphasis on physical training and discipline, and Philip II incorporated these elements into his military practices. He established rigorous training programs for his soldiers, which included gymnastics, wrestling, and other physical exercises. He also emphasized discipline and obedience, and punished soldiers who disobeyed orders. Use of siege warfare: The Greeks had developed sophisticated siege warfare techniques, including the use of siege engines such as battering rams, catapults, and siege towers. Philip II adopted these techniques and used them to great effect in his conquests. The Macedonian phalanx: While influenced by the Greek phalanx, the Macedonian phalanx was unique to the Macedonian army. It was characterized by soldiers standing in blocks of 16, with each soldier carrying a large shield called a pike, which provided more protection than the smaller shields used by the Greeks. The Macedonian phalanx was designed to be more flexible than the Greek phalanx, with soldiers able to maneuver and change formation more easily.

Macedonian military reforms under Philip II most closely resemble earlier such reforms undertaken by:

Thebes. Philip II of Macedon modeled his military reforms after the Theban general Epaminondas, who had previously defeated the Spartans at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BCE. Epaminondas had revolutionized the Greek phalanx by placing a deeper formation of troops on the left side, creating a force that was stronger on one flank and could break the enemy line. This tactic was used by Philip II and his son Alexander the Great in their conquests.

Pergamon

a city on the coast of Anatolia that became the capital of a new kingdom wrested from the control of the Seleucids in the second century B.C.E -It boasted an enormous altar dedicated to Zeus that crowned the heights of the city, below which an open-air theater was built into the steep slope of the hill. -In Ephesus, not far away, the streets were not only paved, but paved with marble.

Aristarchus of Samos was unusual among Hellenistic astronomers because he:

believed that the earth revolves around the sun.

Literary Fantasy and Historical Reality

in the Hellenistic era, the new literary genre was pastoral verse -These poems tapped into a strong vein of nostalgia for rural pastimes and simple pleasures, a make-believe world of shepherds and wood nymphs -The most important pastoral poet of the age was Theocritus, who flourished around 270 B.C.E. in the big-city environment of Alexandria

Epicureans also denied that there is any such thing as

justice -laws and political institutions are "just" only as they contribute to the welfare of the individual -certain rules have been found necessary in every society for the maintenance of order, but these rules should be obeyed solely because that is to one's advantage -The state is, at best, a mere convenience, and the wise man should take no active part in politics. Instead, he should withdraw to study philosophy and enjoy the fellowship of a few congenial friends -Modern libertarian and anarchic movements share many characteristics with Epicureanism.

Philip called delegates from around mainland Greece to Corinth, where he established a new league. By and large, he left the independence of the Greek poleis unaffected. The main purpose of the League of Corinth was to

provide forces for the invasion of Persia and to maintain peace among the rival poleis -Two years later, in 336 B.C.E., he was assassinated by a disgruntled (male) lover during a festival at Pella -The kingship now fell to Alexander. Among the Greeks, he would be known as Alexander, the Sacker of Cities. To the Romans, more impressed by military genius than the Greeks, he was Alexander the Great.

The most pessimistic philosophy generated by the Hellenistic era was propounded by

the Skeptics, whose named derives from a Greek word meaning "those on the look-out" or "the spies. -Skepticism reached the zenith of its popularity in the second century under the influence of Carneades (c.214-129 B.C.E.), a man born in the Greek city of Cyrene, in North Africa, who spent his youth in Athens -The chief source of his inspiration was the teaching (filtered through Aristotle) that all knowledge is based on sense perception and is therefore limited and relative.

Every facility was provided by the Ptolemies and the Seleucids for

the encouragement of commerce -Harbors were improved, warships were sent out to police the seas, roads and canals were built. -The Ptolemies even employed geographers to discover new routes to distant lands and thereby opened up valuable markets. As a result of such methods, Egypt developed a flourishing commerce in the widest variety of products obtainable -Into the port of Alexandria came spices from Arabia, gold from Ethiopia and India, tin from Britain, elephants and ivory from Nubia, silver from Spain, fine carpets from Asia Minor, and even silk from China -Profits for the government and for some of the merchants were often as high as 20 or 30 percent.

Closely allied with astronomy were geography and mathematics, especially geometry. The most influential Hellenistic mathematician

was Euclid, whose Elements of Geometry (c. 300 B.C.E.) codified the work of others, including pre-Socratic philosophers like Pythagoras