Ch. 6: Recognizing, Analyzing, and Constructing Arguments
Writing a Paper Based on Logical Argumentation
1. Identify the issue 2. Present premises 3. Present and address counterarguments 4. Conclusion and summary 5. ReferencesA
Deductive arguments
An argument that claims its conclusion necessarily FOLLOWS from the premises
Inductive arguments
An argument that only claims that its conclusion PROBABLY follows from the premise
Issue
An ill-defined complex of problems involving a controversy or uncertainty
In logic, ______________ refers to the use of reason and evidence to support a claim or conclusion
Argument
The conclusion must come at the end of an argument True or False?
False
When formulating a conclusion, it's best to frame the issue in black and white terms to avoid confusion and indecisiveness True or False?
False It's best to avoid looking at issues as being split b/w 2 sides
When formulating premises, it is a good idea to keep your list as wide as possible to ensure that you aren't missing plausible reasoning True or False?
False It's important to eliminate premises that are weak or irrelevant to the issue
Premises and Conclusions
Premise(s) ---------> Conclusion --The more credible the premise(s), the better the argument
Conclusion (Thesis statement)
The proposition in an argument that's supported on the basis of other propositions
A conclusion in an argument can be unstated True or False?
True
How should you address counterarguments in an essay? a. Address counterarguments and explain why your premises are stronger b. Ignore counterarguments b/c they detract from the issue at hand
a. Address counterarguments and explain why your premises are stronger
When evaluating an argument, generally the 1st step is ensuring that the argument is ____________ a. Sound b. Clear c. Valid
b. Clear
Which of the following statements is true of arguments? a. All arguments are clearly stated b. Good arguments invite feedback and analysis of an issue considering the feedback c. Openness to the ideas of others can only serve to prevent you from understanding an argument d. None are correct
b. Good arguments invite feedback and analysis of an issue considering the feedback
Which of of the following statements is true of issues? a. Issues are always clearly defined b. Identifying an issue requires good communication skills c. Issues are always simple d. All of these answers are correct
b. Identifying an issue requires good communication skills
Which of the following best describes a valid deductive argument? a. An argument w/h 2 premises b. A persuasive argument c. An argument in which the premises provide support but not necessarily proof for the conclusion d. An argument in which the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises
d. An argument in which the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises
Which of the following is an indicator for a conclusion? a. Given that b. Since c. Because d. Consequently
d. Consequently
Which of the following is NOT an indicator word for the conclusion? a. Consequently b. Therefore c. Hence d. Since
d. Since
Good critical thinkers are ____________ likely to recognize a conflict
more
Rhetoric (the art of persuasion)
The defense of a particular position usually w/o adequate consideration of opposing evidence in order to win people over to one's position -Purpose: to PERSUADE people of what you consider to be the truth
Breaking Down an Argument into Propositions
1. Bracket the Propositions 2. Identify the conclusion 3. Identify the premises
Guidelines for Evaluating an Argument
1. CLARITY - Is the argument clear and unambiguous? 2. CREDIBILITY - Are the premises supported by evidence? 3. RELEVANCE - Are the premises relevant to the conclusion? 4. COMPLETENESS - Are there any unstated premises and conclusions? 5. SOUNDNESS - Are the premises true and do they support the conclusion?
Analog premise
A premise containing an analogy or comparison b/w similar events or things
Definitional premise
A premise containing the definition of a key term
Prescriptive premise
A premise is an argument containing a value statement (what ought or ought not to be done) -Can't be proven true or false
Independent premise
A premise that can support a conclusion on its own
Explanation
A statement about why or how something is the case
Proposition
A statement that expresses a complete thought and can be either true or false
Conditional statement
An "if...then..." statement
Argument
Reasoning is made up of 2 or more positions, 1 of which is supported by the others -Purpose: DISCOVER the truth. Present good reasons for a position and then evaluate them
Every argument must have a conclusion True or False?
True b/c the conclusion is what the argument is trying to prove
Rhetoric has no place in logical thinking True or False?
True, b/c can help us learn more about a particular position and how to clarify that position
A proposition can be a. Both a premise and a conclusion b. Both a premise and an argument
a. Both a premise and a conclusion
Which of the following is needed when identifying an issue? a. Clear thinking and good communication skills b. Broad depth and passion for the issue
a. Clear thinking and good communication skills
Which of the following is an important step in formulating an argument? a. Ensuring the broadest range of premises possible b. Narrowing down the premises to the most relevant c. Eliminating premises that don't mesh w/h your own opinion d. Expanding premises to the wildest audience possible
b. Narrowing down the premises to the most relevant
How do you test a premise to discover if it is dependent or independent? a. Look at the conclusion and determine if it is false w/o both premises b. Omit 1 premise and see if the remaining premise can stand on its own
b. Omit 1 premise and see if the remaining premise can stand on its own
Which of the following is true of arguments? a. All arguments are rational compelling b. Some arguments leave the conclusion unstated, allowing readers to draw their own conclusions c. All arguments are deductive d. No arguments are inductive
b. Some arguments leave the conclusion unstated, allowing readers to draw their own conclusions
Generally speaking, how should you address multiple premises within an argumentative essay? a. List the dependent and undefended premises b. Gloss over the premises and then delve into the most important c. Form groups of closely related premises
c. Form groups of closely related premises
Which of the following is the 1st step in constructing an argument? a. Organizing the argument in a written form b. Trying out the argument on others c. Stating the issue to be addressed d. Eliminating weak or irrelevant premises
c. Stating the issue to be addressed
Which of the following should be done while developing a set of premises for constructing an argument? a. Seeing the issue as having 2 sides b. Using rhetoric wherever possible c. Selecting those premises that support your worldview d. Putting personal opinions aside
d. Putting personal opinions aside
Which of the following is a conclusion indicator? a. Because b. Since c. If d. Therefore
d. Therefore
Step 2 for Constructing an Argument: Develop a list of premises
-Put personal feelings aside -Avoid the trap of seeing the issue as having 2 sides in which rhetoric is used to settle issues -Remain objective and openminded -Should be relatively uncontroversial
Steps for Constructing an Argument
1. State the issue 2. Develop a List of Premises 3. Eliminate Weak or Irrelevant Premises 4. Establish a Conclusion 5. Organize your Argument 6. Try out your Argument on Others 7. Revise your Argument 8. Put your Solution or Conclusion into Action
Empirical facts
A fact based on scientific observation and the evidence of our 5 senses
Dependent premise
A premise that supports a conclusion only when its used together with another premise
Descriptive premises
A premise that's based on empirical facts
Premise
A proposition in an argument that supports the conclusion -Good premises are based on fact and experience, not opinion and assumption
Subconclusion
A proposition that acts as a conclusion for initial premises and as a premise for the final conclusion
Soundness of Argument
Premises are true and support conclusion
An accurate statement about descriptive premises is that they ______________ a. Are based on empirical facts -- scientific observation and/or the evidence of our 5 senses b. Contain value statements about what ought to be done c. Take the form of analogies in which comparisons are made b/w 2 similar events or things d. Cannot be proven true or false
a. Are based on empirical facts -- scientific observation and/or the evidence of our 5 senses
When analyzing multiple perspectives on an issue, which of the following is a good practice? a. Assign weights to completing before reaching decisions b. Consider each reason equality when reaching a decision
a. Assign weights to completing before reaching decisions
In the context of critical thinking, identify a true statement about an argument a. Its purpose is to present good reasons for a particular position b. The goal in an argument is to convince others of the correctness of one's position c. Its purpose is to presage people of what one considers to be the truth d. The objective in an argument is to win and to keep the truth hidden
a. Its purpose is to present good reasons for a particular position
When is it appropriate to employ rhetoric? a. Once you have thoroughly researched a position and are ready to convince others b. Before you begin your argument to set the stage for your audience
a. Once you have thoroughly researched a position and are ready to convince others
Which fo the 2 essential parts of an argument? a. Premise and conclusion b. Theory and conclusion c. Proposition and conclusion
a. Premise and conclusion
A failure to define the issue at stake in an essay causes which of the following problems? a. Shadow and unfocused discussion b. A shadow discussion c. A deep discussion d. An unfocused discussion
a. Shadow and unfocused discussion
Which of the following is correct? a. The premises support the conclusion b. The conclusion supports the premises
a. The premises support the conclusion
Which of the following statements is true of prescriptive premises? a. They contain value statements about what ought or ought not to be done b. They are based on empirical facts -- scientific observation and/or the evidence of our 5 senses c. They can be proven true or false d. They contain a definition of a key term
a. They contain value statements about what ought or ought not to be done
Which of the following is accurate? a. You should 1st formulate your premises and then draw a conclusion based on the premises b. You should 1st establish a conclusion and then formulate premises that support it
a. You should 1st formulate your premises and then draw a conclusion based on the premises
Good critical thinking has a ________________ component that involves taking action
behavioral
What are the qualities of a good premise? a. Precise, plausible, and plain b. Lengthy, lucid, and loquacious c. Clear, credible, and complete
c. Clear, credible, and complete
Which of the following is true of conditional statements? a. Conditional statements are arguments b. Claims follow form conditional statements c. Conditional statements take the form "if ... then..." d. None are correct
c. Conditional statements take the form "if ... then..."
