Ch4

Extinction

Extinction decreases the frequency of behavior by eliminating a reward or desirable consequence that follows that behavior.

Fixed-interval reinforcement

Fixed-interval reinforcement provides reinforcement on a fixed time schedule.

Fixed-ratio reinforcement

Fixed-ratio reinforcement provides reinforcement after a fixed number of behaviors.

The Importance of Motivation

Job performance (P) depends upon motivation (M), ability, and environment (E) P = M + A + E

Learning

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential resulting from direct or indirect experience.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory

Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory assumes that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance. 1;Basic (or deficiency) needs - Physiological - Security - Belongingness 2;Growth needs - Esteem - Self-actualization

Motivation factors

Motivation factors are intrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as achievement and recognition.

Motivation

Motivation is the set of forces that leads people to behave in particular ways.

Need-based theories of motivation

Need-based theories of motivation assume that need deficiencies cause behavior.

Organizational behavior modification

Organizational behavior modification, or OB mod, is the application of reinforcement theory to people in organizational settings.

Performance-to- outcome expectancy

Performance-to- outcome expectancy is the individual's perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain outcomes.

Positive reinforcement

Positive reinforcement is a reward or other desirable consequence that a person receives after exhibiting behavior.

Human resource approach

The human resource approach to motivation assumes that people want to contribute and are able to make genuine contributions.

Need for achievement

The need for achievement is the desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than was done in the past.

Need for affiliation

The need for affiliation is the need for human companionship.

Need for power

The need for power is the desire to control the resources in one's environment.

Scientific management approach

The scientific management approach to motivation assumes that employees are motivated by money.

Valence

Valence is the degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness a particular outcome has for a person.

Variable-interval reinforcement

Variable-interval reinforcement varies the amount of time between reinforcements.

Variable-ratio reinforcement

Variable-ratio reinforcement varies the number of behaviors between reinforcements.

Effectiveness of OB Mod

Varying results in organizational applications Lack of "real world" use

Continuous reinforcement

With continuous reinforcement, behavior is rewarded every time it occurs.

Outcome

An outcome is anything that results from performing a particular behavior.

Contemporary View: Learning as a Cognitive Process

Assumes people are conscious, active participants in how they learn

Avoidance

Avoidance, or negative reinforcement, is the opportunity to avoid escape from an unpleasant circumstance after exhibiting behavior.

Conditions for social learning:

Behavior being observed and imitated must be relatively simple Observed and imitated behavior must be concrete, not intellectual Learner must have the physical ability to imitate the observed behavior

Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning that links a conditioned response with an unconditioned stimulus.

Effort-to-performance expectancy

Effort-to-performance expectancy is a person's perception of the probability that effort will lead to performance.

Equity

Equity is the belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others; inequity is the belief that we are being treated unfairly in relation to others.

Expectancy theory (Vroom)

Expectancy theory suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something and the likelihood they perceive of getting it. Key Components: - Effort-to-performance expectancy - Performance-to-outcome expectancy - Outcome - Valence

Equity theory of motivation

focuses on people's desire to be treated with what they perceive as equity and to avoid perceived inequity.

Social learning

occurs when people observe the behaviors of others, recognize their consequences, and alter their own behavior as result.

Need

A need is anything an individual requires or wants.

Ethics of OB Mod

Individual freedom of choice Employee manipulation

Dual-structure theory

- Assumes that motivation, as a construct, has two separate dimensions: - The dual-structure theory identifies motivation factors, which affect satisfaction, and hygiene factors, which determine dissatisfaction. - Assumes motivation occurs through job enrichment once hygiene factors are addressed

Guidelines for Using Expectancy Theory

- Determine the primary outcomes each employee wants - Decide what levels/kinds of performance are needed to meet organizational goals - Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible - Link desired outcomes and desired performance - Analyze the situation for conflicting expectancies - Make sure the rewards are large enough - Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone

The Porter-Lawler Model

- Focuses on the relationship between satisfaction and performance - Assumes that: - If rewards are adequate, high levels of performance may lead to satisfaction. - Satisfaction is determined by the perceived equity of intrinsic (intangible) and extrinsic (tangible) rewards for performance.

Criticisms of dual-structure theory

- May be both method and culture bound - Fails to account for individual differences - Factors (e.g., pay) may affect both dimensions

Process-based perspectives on motivation

- The process-based perspectives on motivation focus on how people behave in their efforts to satisfy their needs. - How people evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained these goals

How Motivational Processes Occur:

1- A need is anything an individual requires or wants 2- A need deficiency leads to need to satisfy the need 3- Goal-directed behaviors result from individuals trying to satisfy their need deficiencies 4- Rewards and punishments are consequences of the goal-directed behavior

Assumptions of ERG

1- More than one need may motivate a person at the same time 2- Satisfaction-progression and frustration-regression components imply that a person may not stay at the same level of need in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

inequity. Motivation to reduce inequity:

1- change inputs 2- change outcomes 3- alter perceptions of self 4- alter perception of other 5- change comparisons 6- leave situation

Hygiene factors

Hygiene factors are extrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as pay and job security.

Punishment

Punishment is an unpleasant, or aversive, consequence that results from behavior.

Reinforcement theory

Reinforcement theory is based on the idea that behavior is a function of its consequences.

Reinforcements

Reinforcements are the consequences of behavior.

Schedules of reinforcement

Schedules of reinforcement indicate when or how often managers should reinforce certain behaviors.

Human relations approach

The human relations approach to motivation suggests that favorable employee attitudes result in motivation to work hard.

ERG(existence, relatedness, growth) theory (Alderfer)-

The ERG theory describes existence, relatedness, and growth needs.

Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod)

The application of reinforcement theory to people in organizational settings