ch.6

Expectancy theory

a theory developed by victor vroom about work motiavtion that focuses on how employees make choices among alternative behavior and levels of effort. this theory is how employees deicide which specific which specific behaviors to perfomr and how much effort to exert. becuase of its profound orgnaizaiontal implications expectancy thereoy is among the most popular theories of work motivation.

inputs

special skills, training, education, wokr expereince, effort on the job, time and anything else the employee believes they can contribute to the comapny.

what are the three key elements in work motivation?

(1) direction of behavior (2) level of effort (3) level of persistence

what two questions about motivation does the expectancy theory address?

(1) does an indiviudal beleive that his or her inputs (such as effort on the job) will result in a given level of performance? expectancy theory propsoed that regardless of which outcomes are available, employees will not be motivated to contribute their inputs to the organization unless they believe it will be it will result in achieving a given level of performance. Employees beliefs about the relationship between their inputs (such as effort) and the performance level they reach are, thus, centeral to understanding motivation.Put simply, if employees do not think they are capapble of performing at an adquate level evne with maximum effort, their motivation to perform will likely be zero. (2) Does an indivdiual belive that perfomring at this level will lead to obtaining the outcomes he or she wants (pay, job, securtiy, feeling of accomplisment, etc)? The second key part of the expectancyt theory indicates that employees will be motivated tp oerform at a given level only if that level leads to desried outocmes. only when the answer to both of these questions is yes will be individual be motivated to contirubte efforts and other inputs to the job.

what are the 5 ways to restore equity?

(1) employees can change their inputs or outcomes (2) employees try to hcange their referants inputs or outcomes (3) employees change their perceptions of inputs and outcomes (either theirs or their referents) (4) employess can change the referant (5) employes leave the job or orgnanization or force the referent to leave.

need theory

a group of theories about work motivation that focuses on employees needs as the sources of motivation. this theory focuses on the outcome side of the equation. the principle is that employees have needs that they are motivated to satisfy in the workplace.They try to explain what motivates employees.

need

a requirement for survival and well being. to determine what will motivate an employee a manager must first determien what needs an employee is trying to satisfy on the job because needs will vary for person to person.

positvie valence

an employee prefers having the outcome to not having it. (i.e) getting a raise

negative valence

an empoyee perfers not having the outcome. (i.e) getting fired

referant

another employee of group of emlpyees percieve similar to onces self. it could also be oneslef at differnet place or time (previous job) or it come be ones expcations (belifs about what the outputs and imputs of an entry level accountant job should be). regardless of what referant the person picks its their perception of the referents outcomes and inputs that are compared- not any objective measure of actual outcomes or inputs.

psychological needs

basic needs for things such as food, water, and shelter that must be met in order for an individual to survive. an example of how needs are met or satisfied in an organization would be by recieiving a minumum level of pay that enables a worker to buy food and clothing and have adequate housing

intrinsic motivation

behavior that is performed for its own sake. the sources of motivation actually comes from perfromign the behavior itself. employees that are intrinsically motivated often remark that their work gives them a sense of accomplishment and achievement or that they feel they are doing something worthwhile. these employees want challenging assignments and the opportunity to make important contributions to their jobs and organizations.

inputs

effort, time, education, experience, skills, knowledge and job behaviors

organizational justice theory

employees perceptions of overall fairness in his or her organization. fairness is being recognized as an important determinant of employee motiviation, attitudes and behaviors. theory proposes that employees will not be motivated to contirubte their inputs unless they percieve that fair procedures will be used to distribute outcomes in the organization adn that they will be treated fairly by managers. there are four forms of organizational justice: (1) distributive justive, procedural justice, interpersonal justice, and informational justice.

overpayment inequity

exist when an indivdiual percieves that his or her outcome/input ratio is greather than that of a referant. For exapme a financial analyst contruibtes the same level of inputs to her job as her referent but recives more outcomes than the referent receives.

Aldefers ERG theory

existence-relatedness-growth theory by clayton alderfers is also a need thory of work motivation. this theory build on some of maslows thinking but reduces the number of universale needs from five to three and is more flexible in terms of movement between levels. Like maslow, alderfer also proposese that needs can be arranged in a hierarcy. According to ERG a higher level need can be a motivator even if a lower-level need is not satisfied and needs at more than one level can be a motivators at any time. Alderfer proposes that when an indiviudal is motivated to satisfy a higher level need but has difficulty doing so, the person motivation to satisfy a lower level need will increase.

underpayment inequity

exists when a person pervices that his or her outcome/input ratio is less than that of a referent. for example, a financial analys contributes more inputs to her job than her referent and recieves the same outcomes as her referent.

equity

exists when an individuals outcome/input ratio equal the outcome/ratio of the referant. because the comparision of ratios is what determiens to pressence or absence of equity, equailty can eist even if the referent revies more than the individual who is make the comparision. (i.e) two financial analysts who have been wokring at the smae corporation for two years. at the end of two years, analys A get promoted, but analys B does not. Can both analysts be consider this situation to be equitable? the answer is yes. equity eixst if analys A and analys B percieve that their respecitve outcome/input ratios are equal or proportional and that nalys A generally worked more hours than analys B. Perhpas, for exmaple, added input, or overtime, accounts for analyst A additional outocme (the promotion).

growth needs

hightest level need in erg that defineds needs as needs for slef-development and creative and productive work. This need can be met or satisfied in an organization by continually improving skills and abilities and engaging in meaningful work.

level of effort

how hard does a person work to preform a chosen behavior? it is not enough for organizations to motivated employees to perform desired functional behaviors; the organization must also make them work hard at these behaviors.

outcome/input ratio

in equity theory, the relationship between what an employee gets from a job (outcomes) and what the emloyee contributes to the job (inputs).

valence

in expectancy theory, the desirablity of an outcome to an individual. for any indivdual, the desirablity of each outcome is likely to vary. it can be positive or negative and vary in size or magnitude (how desirable or undesirable the outcome is).

instrumentality scale

meaured on a sacle form -1 to +1. -1 means that an employee perceives that perfomring a certian behaivor, or performing it at a certian level, definitly will not result in obtaining the outcome. an instrumentality of +1 means that the employee percieves the performance definitely will result in obtaining the outcome.

expectancy

in the expectancy theory, a perceptino about the extent to which effort will result in a certian level of performace. it helps us understand why mtoivation is low even with instrumentalites and valences are high. it varies form 0 to 1 and relfect the chances that putting forht a certian amount of effort will result in a certian level of perfomrance. an expectancy of 0 means that the employee believes ther is no chance that his or her efforss will result in a certian level of perfomrance. an expectancy of 1 signifies that an empoyee is absoultey certain that his or her effort will lead to a certain level of performance.

motivation equation

inputs--> performance -->outcomes

inequity

is lack of fairness, exists when outcome/income ratios are not proparlly equal. moreover, it creates tension and unplesent feelings for empoyee and motiaves indivudals to try to restore euqity by bring the two ratios back into balance. two types are :overpayment inequity and underpayment inequity. both are dysfunctional for organization, managers and employees.

extrinsic motivation

is the behavior that is performed to acquire material or social rewards and avoid punishment. the behavior is preformed not for its own sakes but rather for its consequences. consequences (positive or negative reinforcers and punishment) are used to generate extrinisically motivated behavior. when employees are extrinsically motivated and doing the work is not the sournce of motivation , it is especially important for an organization and its managers to make a claer connection between the behaviors the organization wants employees to perform and the outcomes or rewards the employee wants. these employees value desires consequent with working such as earning money ,having status in the community, social contact and time of from work for family and leisure.

existance needs

lowest level need in erg theory that is defined as the basic needs for human survival such as the need for food, water, clothing, shelter and a secure and safe enviornemnt. One can met or satisfy this need in an orgnaizatoin by recieving enough pay to provide for the basic necessities of life and by having safe working conditions.

How do managers motivate employees using expectancy theory?

manager who wants to motivate an emplyoee to perform at a certian level must first make sure the employee believes he or she can achieve the performance level. then the manager must make sure that employees beleives he or she will recieve, and actually does recieve, the deisred outcomes once the performance level has been acheived. the must understand or consider the direction of behavior and the level of persistance because expectancy theory seeks to explain how employyes go about making these various decisions. because these chocies determine what employees do on the job and how hard tehy work, they have profound effects on organizational effectivness. by desicribing how employes make these chocies, expecatncy theory provides managers with valuesable insights on how to get employees to perform organizationally functional behaviors and encourage to exert high levels of effort when perfomring these behaviors.

maslows hierarchy of needs

maslow proposed that human beings have five univseal needs that the seek to satisfy: physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness needs, esteem meeds and self-actualization needs. he proposed that these needs can be arranged in a hierarcy of improatnce with the most basic or compleeling needs physiological and safety needs at the base. these basic needs must be satisfied before an individual attempts to satisfy needs higher up the hierarcy. maslow argued once a need is satisfied it is no longer a motivation. unsatisfied needs are the prime motivatiors of beahvior and needs at the lowest level of the hierarcy take precedence over needs at higher levels. at any particular time however, only one set of needs motivates behavior and its not possible to skip levels. once a need has been satisifed the individual then moves to the next level of the hiearcy and this level becomes the foucs of motivatin.

relatedness needs

middle level need in erg theory that defineds needs to have good interpersonal relatons, to share thoughs and feelings and to have open two-way communication. This need can be met or satisfied in an organizatoin by having good relations with co workers, superiors and subordinates and by obtaining accurated feedback from others.

self-actualization needs

need to realize ones full potential as a human being. This can be met or satisfied in an organization by using ones skills and abilities to the fullest and striving to achieve all that one can on the job.

safety needs

needs for security, stability and a safe environment. An example of how this need would be met or satisfied in an organization would be by recieving job security, adequate medical benefits and safe working conditions.

belongingness needs

needs for social interaction, friendship, affection and love. an example of how this need can be met or satisfied in the workplace would be by having a good relationship with co-workers and supervisors, being a member of a cohesive group, and participating in social funcitons such as company picnics and holiday parties.

esteem needs

needs to feel good about oneself and ones capabilities, to be respect by others and to receive recognition and appreciation. This need can be met or satisfied in an organization by recieiving promotions at work and being recognized for accomplishments on the job.

informational justice

one of the four types of organizational justice that is caputres employees perception of the extent to which managers explain thier dcisons, and the procedures used to arrive at them, to employees. managers can explain to employees how they assess inputs, how they appraise perfomrance and how they decide to distribute outcomes.

distributive justice

one of the four types of organizational justice that is defined as the perceived fairness of the distbution of outcomes in the organizations. (i.e) pay, promition and desirable working condtions and assingments.

interpersonal justice

one of the four types of organizational justice which is concerend with the percieved fairness of the interpersonal treamtment employees receive from the distrbutors of outcomes (usually managers). it is important for mangers to be courtous and polite and to treat employees with dignity and respect to promote interpersonal justice. managers shoudl refain form making disparaging remarks or bilittling subordinates.

proceudral justice

one of the four types of organizational justice which is defined as the percieved fariness of the procedures used to make decisions about the disribution of outocmes in an organization. if it is not concerned about the acutal distribution of outcomes it pertaions to how perfomance levels are evalued, how grievance or distrbiutons are handles and how outcomes are distrubited. employees perceptions are of fundamental importance for procedural justice. that is, employees reactions to procedures depend on how fair they percive the procdures to be rather than how fair they actually are. thus, employes are going to be more motivated to perform at a high level when they perceive that the producres used to make decisions about the distribution of outcome are fair.

outcomes

pay, fringe benefits, job satisfaction, status, opportunites for advancement, job sercurty and anything else the empoyee wants form the organization.

outcomes

pay, job security, benefits, vacation, job satisfaction, feeling of accomplishment and pleasure of doing interesting work.

distinction between motivation and performance?

performance is an evaluation of the results of a persons behavior. it involves determining how well or poorly a person accomplished a task or done a job. motivation is only one factor among many that contributes to an employees job performance. Moreover, since motivation is only one of several factors that can affect performance, a high level of motivation does not always result in a high level of performance conversely high level of performance odes not necessarily imply that motivation is high. managers need to be careful not to automatically attrubited the cause of low performance to low levels of motivation or the cause of high performance to high levels of motivation. if they incorrectly assume that low perfomrance stems form low motivation, they may overlook the real cause of a perofmrance problem (such as inadequate training or lack of resources).

performance

quality of work, quanity of work, level of customer service

work motivation?

the psychological forces that determine the direction of the persons behavior in an organization, a persons level of effort and a persons level of persistence.

instrumentality

the second key determinent of motivation according to expectancy theory, is an employees perception about hte extent to which performing certain behaviors or performing at a certain level will elad to the attainment of a partiuclar outcome. in organizations emplyoees are going to engage in desired beavhiros and be motivated to perfrfom them at a hgih level only if they percieve that they high perofmrance and desired behaviors will lead to psitively valent outcomes such as pay raises, promotion or sometimes even just a pat on the back. it can also be negative or positive and vairze in size or magnitute.

How does Maslows theory help managers?

theory hleps managers determine what will motivated any given employee. a simple but improtant lesson from maslows theory is that employees differ in the needs they try to satisfy at work and that what motivates one employee may not motivate another . to have a motivated workforce , mamagners must idenfity which needs each employee is seeking to satisfy at work and once these needs have been idenfiteid managers must ensure that the employees needs are satisfied if he or she performs the desired behaviors.

research evidence of need theories

there appear to be at least two major difficulties with the theories. (1) it may be unreasonable to expect a relatively small set of needs ordered in a particular fashino to apply to all human beings. (2) it may be unrealistic to expect that all people become motivated by differnt tpyes of needs in a set order (that is, that satisfaction of high needs is sough only when lower-level needs have been satisfied). studies of americans employees generally do not support the main tenets of maslows and alderfers therories, and it is likely that international studies conducted in other cultures would yield even less support. yet we can still learn some important lessons about motivation from the work of these two theories.

equity theory

theroy developed by j. stacy adams. it is a thoery about work motivation that focuses on employees perceptions of the fairness of their work outcomes (what employee gets from a job and orgnaization) and inputs(what employee contirubtes to the job and organization). the objective level of outcomes and inputs is not what is important in derterming work motivaition, what is important is to motiavtion is the way an employee percieves his or her outcome/input ratio compared to the outomce/input ratio of antoher person.

how to managers motivate using equity theory ?

to motivate employees to contribute the inputs the organization needs, managers need to administer otuocmes based on those inputs. morevoer, managers need to ensure the different employees otucome-input ratios are approximately equal so that employees who contirubt more inputs recive more outcomes and vice versa.

conditions of a motivated employee under expectancy theory

valence must be high (the employee wants outcomes the organization has to offer). instrumentality must be high (the empoyee percieves that she or he must perfomr the desired behaivors at a high level to obtain thses outcomes). Finally exptancy must be high (the mepoyee thinks that trying hard will lead to performance at a high level). if just one of these factors is zeor, motivatin will be zero.

what three factors that determine empoyees motivation does expectancy theory identify?

valence, instrumentality and expectancy.

level of persistence

when faced with obstacles, roadblocks, and stone walls, how does a person keep trying to preform a chosen behavior successfully?

direction of behavior

which behaviors does a person choose to perform in an organization from the many choses of behaviors they could perform. For instance, does an enginner take the time and effort to convience skeptical superiors of the need to change the design specification for a new product to lower production cost. employees can be motivated in functional ways (help the organization achieve its goals) or in dysfunctional ways (hinder an organization form achieving its goals).