Chap 1 - 10

How to look at black History

- All the general major American moments, revolutionary era, market revolution, Industrial revolution, progressive era.

C3 Before Permanent Bondage

- Early Virginia-Founded in 1607. First Africans came in 1619. + 70 to 85 percent of whites arriving at 17th century Chesapeake were indentured servants. + No criteria for distinguishing slaves from servants. + Terms of servitude flexible. + Whites and blacks still differentiated by social distinctions of everyday practices and institutional form. - New Netherland-Founded 1609. + Access to freedom more available. + Legal codes did not establish fixed status of racial slavery. + Manumission with qualifications available. + "Half-freedom". + Annual dues to Dutch West India Company + Denied children free status + gave them tracts of land in the unsettled area north of the city, thereby creating a "buffer zone" between European settlers and increasingly hostile Native Americans. Located about a mile from the city in what was primarily swampy, hilly wilderness, this so-called "Land of the Blacks" comprised several communities. Freed slaves received land grants ranging from two to eighteen acres; those who had served as soldiers in New Amsterdam's defense were particularly favored. The land these freed slaves came to inhabit—over 130 acres or 100 square city blocks—formed the basis of New York's first black community. - Massachusetts Bay + First colony to legally sanction slavery; law not racially or ethnically specific. + Puritans believed that the Bible supported slavery. + Under the Puritan social structure, slaves were incorporated into the families they served. + Prominent merchant families like the Winthrops and the Hutchinsons made their fortunes by linking New England farmers and fishermen to West Indian markets, by sending food to the sugar colonies, where, in the 17th century, the real wealth lay. Enslaved Africans came to New England through these same merchant networks, as one of several imports from the English Caribbean. These forced migrants never became more than 10 percent of the population. Still, many New England households soon kept a captive African or two. + There was no plantation slavery in New England.

Persistence of the African Trade

- Extent of the Illegal Trade + Atlantic slave trade continued despite its illegality - The Movement to Reopen the African Trade + Between 1854 and 1860, every southern commercial convention considered proposals to reopen Atlantic slave trade. + 1808 federal law so weak and lax, repeal not really necessary.

C2 Finding New Lands and Labor

- For years historians omitted the fact that many people of African origins accompanied the European settlers into the New World. Portuguese took control of islands off the Atlantic coast of Africa, Cape Verde islands became a portuguese colony (1466). Therefore African slaves are shipped to work on cotton and indigo plantations on those Portuguese's islands. - From the onset of European exploration of the New World, Africans came as explorers, servants, and slaves. Although no Africans accompanied the English. - The irony is that "some slaves gained fame, if not their freedom, for their participation in the conquest of the Americas, since they played a role in helping the Spanish conquistadors claim the land and lives of Native American people." - Africans and the Conquistadors: + The Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado with Hernando de Alarcon and Francisco Vasquez de Coronado in the Spanish conquest of New Mexico. African-descended conquistadors. + Juan Garrido (Kongolese) from 1480 to 1550 served under Ponce de Leon, and later in the Aztec conquest under Hernando Cortés. Garrido is the first person to plant GRAIN in the New World, he was born around 1480 on the West African coast, on two expeditions to Florida 1513, & 1521. After destroying Aztec Empire, Garrido receives land in Mexico City. + Estevan - valuable ability to learn and interpret Indian languages of India, "Son of the Sun". One of 4 survivors. Being Killed in 1539 by Zuni. Estevan was a genius. He accompanies with his master Andres Dorantes de Carranza on a Spanish expedition to Florida, led be the conquistador Panfilo de Narvaez in 1528. + Africans accompanied with French people on the Noth American continent in 7 CTR, traveling with French Jesuit on their Canadian expeditions. + Late 18 CTR (1790), Jean Baptiste Point du Sable, a French black, erected a building which is known as Chicago. - Africans did not accompany the English. - Demand for Slave Labor: + Slave labor is key to the exploitation of New World resources, production like crops, sugar, coffee, and cotton. Angolan slaves on the sugar plantation + Crops have not appeared in the New World, but Old World tropical has them. + New World, slave labor initially cam form the readily available native population + Africans were brought in to replenish Indian laborers who were susceptible to European disease. 1506, black slaves had been shipped into Cuba. Indian slaves worked in mines, and agricultural fields. + 1516, Charles V required Flemish traders to bring Africans to the colonies - From Indenture to Slavery: + The number of slaves rise from one-fourth of the total in the years btw 1492 and 1580 to more than 3/4 of the total btw 1700 & 1780. + Land-to-man ratio in New World required many laborers. + Use of white-indentured labor became unsatisfactory to white colonizers. + By the late 17th century, New World land owners began to favor black slaves-The Black Legend-Bartholomew De Las Casas-1552: Slaves could be purchased, stabilizing labor supply or Could be easily apprehended because of color

United States Slavery (1619 - 1865, 246 years) Era of Jim Crow (1896 - 1954, 58 years) Civil Rights War on Drugs Institutionalized racism (1948 - 1996, 46 years)

- Slavery based on race banned 13th Amendment. - Plessey vs Ferguson Nationally legalized discrimination and disenfranchisement. - Progress made Election Of Obama 2008

C2 Africans in the Atlantic World

- The first African arrived to North America in 1619.

An Ancient Land & People (page 2 in the book)

- The intertropical convergence zone, which means the continent lies within the tropics. - More than 3 times the size of the US mainland. - West Africa is the various ecological zones' that distinguished from north to south. Majority of persons in the Atlantic slave trade came. Sahara produces salt, cereal; Sahel is livestock; The forest region, gold and kola - Ecological diversity affected social development in meaningful ways. The southern Sahara is arid. Desertification is the drier periods in Sahara region btw 300 BCE and 1500 CE. Eventually, the instruction of camels in place of cattle herding in the northern Sahel regions. The climate shifts and changing terrain over millennia provide the backdrop against which occurred migration, agricultural innovation, metallurgy, urban settlement, and state formation. - Significant change in ecology over time; desiccation. - Africa has 2k languages, which can be classified into 4 different linguistic groups: Koisan in southern Africa, Afro-Asiatic in northern Africa, Nilo-Saharan in north-central Africa, and Niger-Congo (the native languages of most African peoples) in equatorial and southern Africa. - The Bantu Dispersion: (2000 BCE). Today is eastern Nigeria and southern Cameroon, encompassing nations of the Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, and Kenya. - The dispersion thesis portrays many centuries of discontinuous movements by smaller groups on foot through rainforests and savannahs in search of new and fertile land to farm. - Iron Technology early 600 BCE in the Sahara desert fringe, and Jos Plateau of northern Nigeria. Tuyére (blast hot air into a fiery furnace). Iron working was a highly skilled craft, one that conferred status and prestige and was usually limited to members of a particular lineage or social group. Ironworkers are thought to possess magical-religious powers (Yoruba culture page 4.)

C3 The Legalization of Slavery

- Virginia Slave Codes + Legalization of slavery result of labor shortage. + Bacon's Rebellion of 1676 spurred enactment of stricter slave laws. + Authorities troubled by black and poor white alliance. + New laws coincided with growth in number of slaves. + Black population restive; more laws passed to discipline slave population. + Rights of free blacks limited, branded racial inferiors. - New York Slave Codes + Slave law enacted in 1702. + Slave unrest + In 1712 New York had a large population of enslaved Africans because of its involvement in the slave trade with the Caribbean. Unlike slaves on large plantation or remote rural areas, enslaved blacks lived and worked in close proximity to free and indentured Whites. They also had some freedom of movement and met with others. On the night of April 6, 1712, a group of blacks, who complained that their masters overworked them, set fire to a house and attacked white colonists who raced to the scene. The slaves killed nine whites and wounded at least six more in a ferocious fight. Soldiers from Fort George and local militias responded to the revolt and captured nearly all the rebels. Twenty slaves were found guilty and executed. As a result of the revolt, the New York Assembly passed repressive laws that limited free movement of slaves in the city. For instance, slaves were no longer allowed to gather in groups of three or more. The laws also limited the number of free blacks in the city by requiring any owner freeing a slave to pay a large amount of money to the government and annuity to the freed slaves. - New England's Laws + In late 17th century, New England laws took away liberties previously enjoyed by blacks. + Still had more rights than other British colonies. + Could testify in court, sue, petition for freedom. + Allowed to marry, but if owned by different masters forced to live apart. This had more to do with religion than equality. - The Carolinas + Permanent servitude law before settlement began-Slaves made a significant size of the population. + John Locke - "every freeman of Carolina shall have absolute power and authority over his negro slaves, of what opinion or religion soever". + John Locke wrote that freedom should be a "universal entitlement." Influenced the American Revolutionary ideas. + Growth of black population led to laws to control activities of slaves. + Slave patrols. - Slave Courts + Enforcement of slave code through separate judicial system dispensing local and swift judgment. - Slave Laws in French Louisiana: + Prior to 1724 no hard and fast rules for racial subordination. + French colonial Louisiana was more a "society with slaves" than a full-fledged "slave society," a distinction commonly used by scholars who study the history of slavery in the United States. There were few enslaved people in Louisiana before 1720. As in other New World colonies, efforts to enslave the Indian population in Louisiana proved futile and contributed to the colonial authorities' decision to import enslaved Africans. + Slave codes emerged after importation of large number of Africans. - The Code Noir + Sought to reduce manumission and curb interracial mixing. + Denied property rights; severe punishment for runaways. + Required masters to provide religious instruction, adequate food and clothing. + Outlawed separation of husbands and wives and taking children under 14 from parents. + Law was often broken or ignored. - Spanish Louisiana. - In the 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau, France ceded Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to Spain, its ally in the war, as compensation for the loss of Spanish Florida to Britain. + After French transfer of Louisiana to Spain, slaves given more access to freedom. + Spanish law of coartación allowed slaves to purchase freedom and caused increase in free black population. + Access to freedom did not amount to full racial equality.

C2 Portuguese slave Trade

Founded in 1482 near the town of Elmina in present-day Ghana, the feitoria (factory) São Jorge da Mina was of special importance in that it gave the Portuguese far better access to sources of West African gold. Portuguese were the first to kidnap African people from their homeland. The Atlantic Slave trade began before Christopher Columbus and reached the Americas in 1492. Portugal traded gold and slaves, and became the supplier of African slaves to Early Modern Europe.

Early Commercial Networks

_ Shaping economic possibilities and making specialization and trade necessary. - Metallury, making weapons and utensils. - The trans-Saharan trade with the Muslim world by the ninth century CE. - The evidence abounds of West African with the outside world in the first millennium CE such as glass beads.

C8 p. 182 Economic and Social Life (Done)

•Trades and Professions •Restrictions on employment; but free blacks were required to work. • The majority of the South's free blacks worked as skilled and unskilled blacks found employment in areas experiencing labor shortages. - Free black artisans got considerable economic independence, & affluence before Civil War. - They made clothing, grew and prepared foods, operated machines, piloted ships, and labored in the building trades. - Free blacks were employed in more than seventy occupations in North Caroline, in Baltimore in 1860 including several confectioners, druggists, and grocers. - In 1819, there were enough skilled craftsmen of color to permit new apprentices to train under artisans of their own race. - Dutreuil Barjon, in 1822, opened a shop on Royal Street. In the 1830s, he was recognized as a master artisan whose work equaled that of his white peers. In 1834, he opened a furniture warehouse. - New Orleans free black Julien Hudson, the earliest recorded professional artist of African descent to work in the antebellum South. Hudson was known as the Gens De Couleur Libre (free persons of color). •Lower South had the largest proportion of free black and skilled positions. Barbers and blacksmiths were identified and stigmatized as black jobs. - Baltimore, Charleston, and New Orleans, free blacks need to be required a high degree of skill. - In 1860, 20% of all free black men in Boston engaged in skilled employment. 60% in Charleston, black men held such jobs. - Boston's black ministers controlled churches. They also keep a few high positions as professionals - lawyers, officeholders, teachers, physicians, dentists, typesetters, journalists, etc. •Property Ownership •Regional differences in property ownership •Property "owned" by southern blacks included enslaved family members. In the North, 11.7% of free blacks owned property in 1860, compared to 18.1% of whites. In the Upper South, 9.8% of free blacks owned property, while 19.4% of whites. In the Lower South, an astonishing 17.9% of free blacks help property; 18.8% of whites. - In North Caroline, free blacks owned $480k worth of real property and $564000 worth of personal property (including slaves) in 1860. - In Charleston, 352 blacks paid taxes on property valued in 1859 in excess of $778000. - In Tennessee, free blacks owned about $750000 worth of real and personal property in 1860. - In 1860, they owned more than $15 million worth of property. •Urban Life in the North •Northern Antebellum blacks are more likely than whites to live in cities. In 1860, 63.5% of New England's free blacks lived in cities, and 49.7% of free blacks in the Mid-Atlantic states were urban dwellers. The cities offered jobs and chances to build cohesive communities anchored by social, financial, and religious resources. •Boston •Smallest free black community of northern seaport cities - Boston, New York, and Philadelphia - Under two thousand persons in 1850. •Residential segregation created a geographical concentration of the black community •Certain positions, like porter, held higher prestigein Black boston because they worked as servants in wealthy whites' homes or as waiters in the City's prominent restaurants and hotels. - Robert Roberts parlayed his expertise into a published book :"The House Servant's Directory: or, a Monitor for Private Families." •Upper class and middle class were strong in the tradition of protest through 16. - Walker, a brilliant eassyist, militant activist , and author of David Walker's Appeal (1829). "Massachusetts General Colored Association". "to unite the colored population, so far, through the Us of America as may be practicable and expedient". - Harriet Hayden, wife of activist Lewis Hayden, a successful boardinghouse. - George Ruffin's wife, Nancy, an independent retailer can buy out of slavery in Virginia - Christiana Carteaux, a milliner and hairdresser facilitated securing clients for her artist-husband Edward Bannister. •New York •More affluent than black Bostonians. In 1837, the free blacks in NYC owned $1.4 million worth of taxable and $600000 on deposit. •Clearly demarcated economic and cultural differences among blacks. Historian Leslie Harris insists that class distinctions need to be examined to understand the free black community in its full complexity. Freedom's Journal and The Colored American - condemning the boisterous, unrespectable public behavior of lower-class blacks. The free blacks leaders Peter Williams, Jr., and Samuel Cornish criticized less affluent free blacks for their rowdy celebrations, such as Emancipation Day, and lectured them on the values of frugality, decorum, and temperance. •Many opportunities for interracial mixing among lower classes. The English author Charles Dickens, who visited the notorious Five Points slum in 1842, in his journal American Notes, published a lengthy description of Almack's dance cellar, which was owned and operated by the free black entrepreneur Pete Williams. "a lively young negro, who is the wit of the assembly, and greatest dancer known." •Philadelphia - The most studied antebellum northern free black population. - Pennsylvania Abolition Society (PAS) in 1837, and the Society of Friends (Quakers) in 1847 are made from demand for equal rights of free blacks. - In 1847, "Statistical Inquiry into the Condition of the People of Colour of the City and Districts of Philadelphia." was hailed by Frederick Douglass's North Star in 1849, "carefully read and pondered by colored men who are endeavoring to achieve their own elevation.", "should inspire hope and confidence in the future." - Free black population in Philadelphia 20240, in which 6896 are male, 9146 are female. - "the able-bodied population": 3358 men and 4249 women. - 1581 men are laborers, 286 of them are mechanics. shopkeepers are 166, waiters and cooks are 557, hairdressers are 156, 33 males are musicians, 22 preachers, and 11 are schoolteachers. - 1970 women are washerwomen, 786 are laborers, needle-women 486, cooks 176, traders 213, 33 are keepers of boarding, shopkeepers are 35, and school mistresses are 13. •Distinct three-tiered class structure among free blacks during 1830 and 1840. The poorest 50% of Philadelphia's free blacks, 5% of the city's black-owned wealth, while the top 10% held 70%, and the top 1 percent controlled 30%. - Sketches of Colored Society in Philadelphia, the antebellum-free black chronicler Joseph Willson portrayed a three-tiered class structure. •Active in temperance crusade. A newspaper reports from the Philadelphia Daily Republic, in the North star in 1848, provides a glimpse of the fervor with which free black leaders embraced the crusade against alcohol. The Phoenix and Garnet Unions of the Daughters of Temperance hosted an event at the Wesley Methodist Church with the fiery black abolitionist, the Reverend Henry Highland Farnet, as the keynote speaker. Garnet described as "the apostle of liberty and temperance, who for an hour and a half portrayed the terrible effects of alcohol and labored to allure the drunkard to the paths of soberness and peace" •Mutual Aid Organizations •Free blacks formed organizations to bind themselves together socially and culturally - In Baltimore, 35 mutual aid organizations existed in 1835. The Friendship Benevolent Society for Social Relief, the Star in the EastAssociation, and the Daughters of Jerusalem with substantial savings in Baltimore banks. • Outlawed in many southern states. As late as 1860, benevolent associations were being organized in New Orleans, where the Band Society, with its motto Love, Union, Peace required members: "To go about once in a while and see another in love." In 1843, under the leadership of Odd Fellows, the charter for which was obtained from an English Grand Lodge, since the American Lodge refused to grand it. The Odd Fellows became a national African American fraternal organization. •Cultural Contributions •Free black poets, playwrights, historians, newspaper editors, and artists contributed to development of African American culture - In North Caroline, George Moses Horton, who was "Virtually free", wrote poems that were widely read. In 1829, he published a volume titled The Hope of Liberty, next 30 years, he wrote for students at the University of North Carolina. - Daniel Alexander Paine, had a brilliant career as a bishop in the African Methodist Episcopal Church, published a small volume in 1850 titled Pleasure and Other Miscellaneous Poems. Frances Ellen Watkins Harper, whose poems on Miscellaneous Subjects appeared in 1854. - Harriet E. Wilson became the first black woman to publish a novel, Our Nig Or Sketches From the Life of a Free Black (1859). Henry Louis Gates, Jr, described that novel as "a missing link." - Les Cenelles in 1845 (page 187). Armand Lanusse had lived and studied in France. - Robert S. Duncanson, the first African American to achieve national and international fame in landscape painting, spent his career in Cincinnati, a burgeoning arts center that called itself the "Athens of the West". Duncanson exhibited at the Western Art Union and was counted, along with noted white artist T. Worthington. Duncanson was trained in the family businesses of house painting and carpentry. - Cincinnati also became home to James Presley Ball and his photographic studio in 1850. Ball learned the daguerreotype process from the black daguerreotypes John Bailey of Boston. Historian of photography Deborah Willis called "Ball's Daguerrean Gallery of the West". Between 1854 and 1859, Duncanson worked in Ball's studio, "equal in beauty of finish to the richest paintings." One of the earliest portrait photographers, J.P Ball attracted black and white patrons.

C8 p.192 Black Women (DONE)

•Women Take Public Action •Free black women attempt to bring gender inequality into the discussion on racial inequality •Jarena Lee. In her autobiography, she and pastor Richard Allen, in 1804, as a preacher in charge of the African Free Society of Philadelphia, said he had nothing to say as and woman preacher. Bishop Allen did not ordain and officially licensed Jarena Lee. In 1817, Lee's ministry was in several states and in Canada. In 40 meetings preached, African Methodist Episcopal (AME). "On the 14th April 1824, I went with Bishop Allen and several elders to Baltimore, on their way to attend Conference; at the end of which the Bishop gave me permission to express a few thoughts for my Lord." Richard Allen died in 1831, Lee lost an ally. Lee encountered many rejections from church leaders, male clergymen denying her access to the pulpit because of her gender. Excerpted from The Life and Religions Experiences of Jarena Lee (1836). - In August 1827, a black woman named "Matilda" wrote to the pioneering Freedom's Journal: "I don't know that in any of your papers, you have said sufficient upon the education of females... 'Tis true, the time has been, when to darn a stocking and cook a pudding well, was considered the end and aim of a woman's being. But those were days when ignorance blinded men's eyes. There are difficulties, and great difficulties in the way of our advancement; but that should only stir us to greater efforts...." - The Coloured American stated in 1839: "Man is strong - Woman is beautiful Man is daring and confident- Woman is different and unassuming. Main is great in action - Woman is suffering. Main shines abroad - Woman at home." - Early free-living black women had a belief that mothers were the guarantor of the family, but also had limited effects. Historian, James Horton called it "freedom's yoke". The privilege and power of men over women creates difficulties for a people with a history of labor and motherhood, under slavery and freedom. - Frederick Douglass, Robert Purvis and William C. Nell was an advocate for women's rights and collaborated with them in anti-slavery societies. - Black women who have not yet reached adulthood have lived under the competition of the sexes. •Maria Stewart •One of the earliest and most outspoken advocates of women's rights and abolition•Considered the first black feminist - Her life changed after her marriage in 1826 to James W. Stew art, a Boston shipping company agent. They distributed anti-slavery books, and sided with black abolitionists in Boston, along with David Walker, whose famous book "Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World (1829)". After her husband's death, she completely broke down, losing faith, but soon she regained her faith: "Many will suffer for pleading the cause of oppressed Africa and I shall glory in being one of her martyrs". - In 1831 she asked, "How long shall the fair daughters of Africa be compelled to bury their minds and talents beneath a load of iron pots and kettles?" "What if I am a woman?" - Lecture at Franklin Hall in Boston in 1832, Stewart should advance their aspirations through moral and intellectual improvement. - In her farewell speech in 1833, Stewart said "I have made myself contemptible in the eyes of many, that I might win some. But it has been like labor in vain." •Sojourner Truth •Best known black women in women's rights and abolitionist movements •Exposed the socially constructed character of gender. - The name was given by Isabella Van Wagenen. - In The Narrative of Sojourner Truth (1853), she traveled across the North to speak to an audience. In 1847, she interrupted Frederick Douglass' lecture at Faneuil Hall in Boston by shouting "Frederick, is God dead?" - During an abolitionist speech in 1858, she exposed her breasts to an audience in Indiana after one questioned her as a woman. - The white suffragist Frances Dana Gage, in her account of a women's rights meeting in Akron, Ohio, in 1851, quoted Truth as asking "Ar'n't I a woman?" in a powerful speech that declared slave and free black women no less women.

Myth Making (page 2 in the book) Dark Continent means there were no a known or knowable history.

- Africa was long considered a "Dark Continent" by Early historians. Archeological, Environment, linguistic, and genomic studies have played a noteworthy role. - Africa's original name is Alkebulan (mother of Mankind). - Sudan is the chief city of the Negroes along the Nile. - George Washington William (the first serious historian of the African American experience) sought to vindicate his racial heritage as did the late nineteenth-century trained African American Protestant. - William described cities, rivers, armies, and even languages.

Conclusion p23

- Ancient black African kingdoms flourished well before the Common Era

Dyula

- Knows as the specific west African groups, who dominate the long-distance trade. - Mande-speaking traders. - Utilizing a complex system of weights and measures, money as gold and cowry shells. - Married across ethnic groups. - Developed their own pidgin-a contact language employing vocabulary and grammar to facilitate commercial relations. - The earliest converts to Islam, - The pilgrimages of African kings & emperors to create trade routes and stimulate commercial activity. - An area of far-flung interests based on agriculture, industry, and commerce.

Ife Yoruba and Benin

- Maybe their ancestor is Nok. - Social Norms, political thinking, religion. - They can use copper, or copper alloy. - Copper is a highly valued metal for commerce, export, and import. - Benin, bronze and copper implements

Other States

- European exploration in 15, 16 century. village states flourished throughout Africa, the population in Atlantic Africa, btw Gambia River, Niger Delta. With the smaller territorial size, politics closer to the coast. With small states, voluntarily or by force, to form small kingdoms, those kd able to have leadership, adequate resources, strong military organization. - Mossi States: found in 11 century, in the south of the bend of the Niger river. 5 states constituted the loose Mossi confederation. 5 states' governors + councils served as chief ministers in the imperial organization. Succumbing to European (French) colonial rule in Africa in 19 century. Moiss's strength is based on its efficient political and military system. - Hausa States: Hausa city-states grew from trade relations with other African states and North Africa. Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Zaria are the best-known Hausa cities. Growing millet, rice, pepper, and livestock. The prominent Islamic rulers such as Muhammad Rumfa of Kano, Queen Amina of Zaria. Hausa is the area of present-day northern Nigeria, Each city retained its own identity, Kano was in the limelight for a while, became a center of learning, famous for its studies in law and theology. - The kingdom of Benin: gaining control of the Lagos area, Known for bronze and copper artistry, Also wielded substantial military might in 16 century, 18 is dominance broken by Dahomey, Oyo kingdoms. Artistic renderings show veneration of both male and female authority. The right of "election", merely ceremonial, check the rulers was granted to representatives of specific lineages. - The Christian Kongo: in west central Africa, 14 century. It a unique for its voluntary conversion to Catholicism under king Nzinga a Nkuwu in 1491. Baptized by Portuguese (Joao I); established trade and religious relations with them. However, In Kongo, Africans controlled the church. Christian beliefs are introduced by the Portuguese, complemented and reinforced by local Kongo traditions, like the cruciform, which is an indigenous symbol of transitional space for communication. Kongon leaders use Christian like the crucifix as vehicles and used to invoke divine favor in matters such as weather, hunting, and fertility. King Joao death in 1506, his son Afonso leaded 1509 to 1543. Afonso marked the rapid increase in the amount of trade with Portugal. - Ndongo- Matamba (now Angola): Another West Central African kd, more centralized in 16 century. The king does not enjoy hereditary succession. Portugal often allies with one African faction over another, exacerbating struggles over sovereignty, particular in 1600s. Queen Njinga, 1582, the first female ruler, Catholicism, reigning from 1624 till her death in 1663. - Great Zimbabwe(1100 - 1450): 1000 CE, West Africa incorporated into the Indian Ocean, which has an abundance of coastal city-states. Great Zimbabwe locates in the South African Limpopo River basin, Benefited from the control of gold, ivory, and cattle. Famous for stone walls and towers, and elliptical buildings. Linked to Swahili coastal trade. Ancient Phoenicians, proto-Shona. Great Zimbabwe is the precursor to Mapungubwe (1000 - 1200 CE). The excavation of graves found out the societies' rulers and their adornments: gold jewelry, woven cloth of local African provenance,..... - Swahili Coast are people African, Arab, Persian, and Indian traders. 11th century on, blended African and Arab ways. The Swahili language is a Bantu language. 1000 - 1500 CE, Swahili come to its height, having such flourishing seasides as Mogadishu, Malindi, Kilwa. late 18 century, the expansion of the slave trade to the middle east and then to the Americas.

The Great Empires

- Gao means kingdom, nation, widely famed. The "greatest of the realms of the Sudan". an eminent commercial region. Old Gao by Sorko people. Pottery, copper, beads, hippopotamus tusks, and funerary objects. - Ghana: + The first of the great imperial powers. + Lay about 500 miles northwest. + Started in 7 centuries. + Has capital is Kumbi Saleh, which is an important commercial center during 9 century + Public offices are hereditary, its social order is stratified. + Abundance of sheep, cattle. + Having a large army. + Ghana exchanged salt, wheat, fruit, and sugar with ivory, slaves, and gold. + Soninke take a lot gold mines. + King Tunka-Manin does not practice Islam. + Ghana fall easy prey to waves of conquerors in 12, 13 centuries by Susu people. - Mali 1235 + Manas, or King, + The credit for consolidating the kingdom of Mali goes to the Maninka people, a subject group of the Susu in a successful revolt against Susu king Sumaoro in the 13 century. + The high demand for Arabic horses into West Africa via trans-Sahara. North African horses suffered high mortality rates. + Mali was known for successfully crossbreeding the stronger, taller North African horses and which facilitate Sunjata's victory. + Mali rises in economic and military power. + Mansa Musa, a descendant of Sunjata carried imperial Mali to greater heights from 1312 to 1337. Also, an ardent and pious convert to Islam. In 1324, embarked upon his hajj or religious pilgrimage to Mecca with spectacular fanfare. He death in 1337, + Keita dynasty, an empire comprising much of what is now francophone Africa. + People in Mali are predominantly agricultural, but some of them are in various crafts and mining. + Mali under Mansa Musa enjoyed a flourishing economy with good international trade. + Mali declined in 15 century. - Songhay + Sorko people is roots living in the late 7 century Gao region. + Sunni Ali uses the riverine system, deploying his military forces in Niger. + Waging successful campaigns for political control and taxation of eminent cultural and commercial cities. Taking Timbuktu in 1469, and Jenna in 1473. + Askia Muhammad, 1493 to 1529. Songhay becomes the epitome of imperial statecraft, economic, and intellectual predominance in the Sahel. + Askia built a professional army of slaves and prisoners of war and engage in farming and commerce. + 1494 Omar, Askia's brother, conquested all of Massina. + Songhay extended from the Atlantic to Bornu,.... + Songhay becomes the largest and most powerful state in the history of West Africa. + Askia pilgrimage, fair, noi (p 18). + Songhay have an education, and intellectual center in Timbuktu, gao, walata, jenne. Timbuktu univer.

The Domestic Slave Trade

- King Cotton-Cotton facilitated the Western expansion of the US. - In 1862 fully 20 million people worldwide—one out of every 65 people alive—were involved in the cultivation of cotton or the production of cotton cloth. + Technology supported the expansion of slave labor. Eli Whitney's 1794 invention of the cotton gin + Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama rapidly grew with demand for cotton and sugarcane + Growing prosperity in new states caused a wave of migrants and greater demand for slaves + Insatiable demand for cotton resulted in: the acquisition of Florida; admission of Missouri as a slave state; annexation of Texas; war with Mexico. - The interstate Slave Trade + Domestic slave trade augmented westward movement. + After the 1808 illegalization of the Atlantic slave trade, interstate trade became increasingly profitable. + Slaves were brought overland; mostly chained and on foot. + Slaves are a "product" sold by business firms, lottery, and by slave-trading firms. + Speculation integral to slave-trading business + Slaves gathered in pens for direct shipment to New Orleans or for resale to other long-distance traders + Until ended by Congressional action in 1850, District of Columbia seat of the slave trade. - A Capitalist Enterprise. - American capitalism gets its roots in slavery. + Slave trade is financially driven; mostly seen as a capitalistic enterprise + Families separated because slaves brought higher prices when sold individually. - Separation of Families by Sale + Harriet Tubman-Arminta Ross(c1820). + Large number of single slaves on market evidence of constant separation of families. + Families were separated. 1 out of 3 children was sold off into the interstate slave trade. - Market Prices - A prime slave was usually a male ages 18-27. Healthy, strong, etc. + Prices of slaves responded to market factors + As demand increased, so did the price of slaves + After financial turmoil, price and demand slumped

C2 Slavery in Mainland Latin America

- Mexico + More than 60,000 slaves entered Mexico during the first century of conquest. - Central America + Africans are a small but important segment of population. + Some freed slaves developed into substantial citizens. - South America + The largest concentration of blacks in continental Spanish America was in New Granada (modern-day Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador). - The Viceroyalty of Peru + Concentration of slaves in Lima, which also served as a market for Andean herders and planters. - Uruguay and Argentina + Major ports for the slave trade. - Brazil + Introduction of sugar stimulated the importance of African slave labor. + Five centers of distribution that sent slaves into various parts of Brazil• Brazil received the largest percentage of all slaves brought to the New World. + Three distinct groups of slaves in colonial Brazil: Urban. Mining. Plantation. - Uprising and Revolts + Slaves in South America made constant trouble• Republic of Palmares created by insurgent slaves• Existed from 1630 to 1697. + Created community institutions based on West African models.

Interregional Trade

- Numerrous inland waterways linked African ethinic groups. - Kintampo, reveals food production in the late Stone Age period from 1450 to 1300 BCE. - first-millennium-C E, Senegal, Niger rivers in the later rise of the Soninke Empire of Ghana, Jenne. - African rice by a wetland method at least 1500 years ago in the flood plains. - The great rivers: Niger, Senegal, Gambia, Benue, Volta. - African traders sold their goods along the coastal waterways btw the Zaire and Kwanzaa rivers.

Resistance

- Slave Market Gambits. + Slaves used tricks in order to gain control over would-be purchasers + Exhibited behavior appealing to a master of their choosing; pretended to be sick or weak in front of an undesirable master. - Sabotage and Suicide + Engaged in sabotage like breaking farm tools + Suicide widespread + Also performed acts of self-mutilation to render themselves ineffective workers - Running Away + Most common form of overt resistance was running away + Federal and state legislation sought to aid in recovery of runaway slaves. - Violent Resistance + Owners feared violent resistance + Use of poison against masters; Murder of masters. + Slave Revolts + Slaves emboldened by Haitian revolution. - Denmark Vesey + Freed black who plotted slave revolt + Whites caught wind of conspiracy and rounded up suspects - Nat Turner + Believed he had been selected by divine power to deliver his people from slavery. + Began revolt by killing his master and family; revolt spread rapidly until overpowered by state and federal troops.

C2 Slavery in the Caribbean

- Slavery in the Caribbean + First large shipments of slaves were sent to the Caribbean. + The Spaniards made the most of their wealth to produce staple crops, sugar, tobacco, coffee, and slave labor. - The Spanish Monopoly: + Spain's Caribbean holdings produced staple crops-sugar was the main crop. + English attempts to break the Spanish slave trade monopoly in the Caribbean. - Loss of Spanish Control + In 17th century, West Indies became pawn in European diplomacy. - Living Conditions + Absentee landlordism; Islands are not considered places of residence, but merely sources of wealth. + Overseers broke in new slaves; the mortality rate for recent arrivals was extremely high. + Food for slaves insufficient. - Slave Codes + On many islands, Africans outnumbered whites. + Slave codes were passed to regulate slave activity. - Punishment + Overseer's láh mót common punishment. - Slave Revolts + Almost every island has a record of a serious revolt + Maroons - Jamaican slaves who revolted and ran away to form communities in interior mountain sections + Maroons fought a guerilla-style war against the British + Tacky's Rebellion (May-July 1760) no match for superior British forces - Seasoned Slaves + Slaves were considered seasoned after learning plantation regimens and adjusting to the climate, food, and disease. + Seasoned slaves were re-exported to other places such as Cuba and the North American mainland. + United States slaves were sent to the Caribbean islands as punishment. It was that harsh.

C2 Slave Societies in the Americas

- The Catholic Church + Catholic church played role in shaping slave experience in Latin America • Slaves baptized • Married in the church • No law forbidding them to read• Slaves not permitted to work on Sundays and feast days. + Intermarriage • More interracial marriage; choices for white men in Latin America extremely limited

The Slave Codes

- The Slave Codes + Passage of slave codes accompanied the expansion of slavery. + Codified viewpoint that slaves were not people but property. + Slaves were denied most rights and freedoms. + Laws are often made stricter in response to insurrections. - Enforcement. + Machinery set up for enforcement of slave codes. + Reluctant to imprison because it meant taking away an owner's investment. - The Patrol System + A type of militia; free white men expected to serve on patrol for a period of time apprehending runaway slaves and returning them to masters. + In quiet times, slave codes were disregarded, and slaves were given more freedom. + Masters tended to prefer taking matters regarding their slaves into their own hands.

Ghana

- The land of the gold. - In seventh century - Dominant source of gold was in Bambuk, - Bure on the Upper Niger is prominent as a gold source, and also come from the Akan forest farther south.

African Slavery

- The ancient Egypt enslaved people from Semitic, mediterranean, and Nubian blacks. Also throughout sub-Saharan Africa. - Chattel slavery, serfdom. - Slavery prominently in islamic societies, they are viewed as inhabiting. - Muslim slaves are allowed to marry, to have a family and independent income, and to purchase their freedom, - Slavery in European Communities + Embracing coerced labor, chattel slavery in Medieval Period. + Slaves are drawn from the Slavic heartland of Eastern Europe. + Anglo-Saxon, & Norman England btw 875 and 1125, Pelteret has shown that slave status is defined by law as resulting from birth, war captivity, and various forms of punishment. + Slave represent more than 10% of the English population in 1086. + 16 centuries England, Slavery never go away in Medieval Iberia (Spain & Portugal). + 15 centuries, Slaves are Mulism from Iberia or Orthodox Christians. + Black slaves come to Italy via North African merchants. - Slaves in Africa + African merchants purchase slaves for carrying goods on trade caravans. + Enslaved persons represented members of the same ethnic group, military, political dissidents, or persons who were unable to pay court fines, poor, or set themselves in the service of a wealthy individual. + Most indigenous African slaves are women, they are used as wives, concubines, household servants, and agricultural laborers. + Male slaves are used for miners, porters, craftsmen, herdsmen, brewers, soldiers, traders, and attendants. + The uniqueness of women in African labor systems, a men can have several wives. - Slaves and Status + Slave ownership, + Land ownership is collective rather than private. Falling under the control of the state or the kinship group, + Ancient Near Eastern societies, Babylonia, Egypt. + Slavery as a form of property in persons meant that slaves could be bought, sold, or given to someone else. The importance of slaves to the economies of different African states. + The presence of an internal slave trade as well as the centuries-old trans-Saharan slave trade with Muslim North Africa.

The Nok people of the Jos Plateau

- an early iron-age society - Taruga, Samun Dukiya, 500 BCE - Nok lived in organized, permanent settlements. Agriculture, iron. The beautiful terracotta figures, in 1943 on the Jos Plateau btw Niger & Benue rivers in Nigeria. - The most ancient extant examples of figurative African sculpture as well as the oldest evidence of advanced, organized society in sub-Saharan Africa. - Thermo-luminescence, radiocarbon, scientists from 500 BCE to 200 CE. - The Nok head figurines appear disproportionately large which include triangular-shaped eyes, flared nostrils, and full lips. - Skillful Nok sculptors applied slip

Federal Reserve

It would take 228 years from Black wealth to catch up to White wealth.

Ancestral Africa Ancient around 500 BCE to 1600

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Pre-Columbus America

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C10 The Black Response

•Black Counterarguments •Frederick Douglass - "oneness of man" •James McCune Smith •Black Narratives •Ex-slave writers were influential in refuting the notion that slaves were happy and content. •Black Literature •Quality and quantity of black literature disproved charges of innate inferiority of blacks

C9 Black Abolitionists

•Black Antislavery Societies •In 1820s, 50 black-led antislavery societies operated in various cities •In 1830, blacks held first national convention issuing denunciations of colonization and slavery •After publication of The Liberator, black abolitionists aligned with Garrison •Blacks participated in 1833 establishment of the American Anti-Slavery society •Also worked at local and regional antislavery organizations In 1829, from the pen of the slave poet George Moses Horton, a protest against slavery appeared in North Carolina: "Bid Slavery hide her haggard face, And barbarism fly: I scorn to see the sad disgrace, In which enslaved I lie." That same year, Robert A. Young of New York published the Ethiopian Manifesto. He prophesied that a black savior would appear and liberate the nation: "call together black people as a nation in themselves." In 1820, many black-led anti-slavery regimes were active in the north, one of which was that of Thomas Clarkson. Blacks held the first national convention in 1830, strongly denouncing the colonies and slavery. Of 450 subscribers, 400 are black and 1 rich black abolitionist. Many African Americans were active in anti-slavery societies and were joined by the national American Anti-Slavery Society (AASS) in 1833 by William Lloyd Garrison, Arthur Tappan, and Theodore Dwight Weld. There were five black leaders who served on its first board: Peter Williams, Robert Purvis, John B. Vashon, Abra ham Shadd, and James McCrummell. In 1830, blacks led the urban initiative to form vigilance committees for hiding and protecting fugitives, feeding them, finding employment, and raising funds. In 1835, David Ruggles became secretary of the New York Vigilance Commission, which assisted Frederick Douglass in his escape from Maryland and to New York in 1838. •Black Agents - Có một danh sách các tên ở trang 205, mục Black Agents. •Blacks worked as agents and speakers for various societies •Frederick Douglass captivated audiences with his eloquence, and he is becoming an American hero - as a writer, speaker, and thinker. After a speech in Nantucket, Massachusetts in 1841, he was considered a famous orator in the United States. Historian David Blight says he was a seer because he drew scripture from the James Bible. •Women Abolitionists •Women in many cities (New York, Rochester, Philadelphia,Boston, and Cincinnati) formed their own antislavery organizations •Addressed abolition and gender issues •Many male abolitionists opposed female officeholders in prominent male-run societies - The Boston African-American Women's Intelligence Association encouraged education for black women and confronted men's reluctance to give women's voices in the public debate about slavery. . Mariah Stewart's speeches were advertised on The Liberator, but her speech was mocked by black men. In 1833 at the Masonic Lodge, her tone offended a number of people: "We are all sensible that the Anti-Slavery Society has taken hold of the arm of our whole population, in order to raise them out of the mire. Now, all we have to do is, by a spirit of virtuous ambition, to strive to raise ourselves." The Grimke sisters embraced the idea of women's rights and called on other white women to speak out. In 1836, Angelina Grimke, in the Appeal to the Christian Women of the South, sent petitions to their state legislatures. •Newspapers •African American newspapers aired debates and ideas of black community •Freedom's Journal - first black newspaper •Most popular black abolitionist paper The North Star, founded by Frederick Douglass and Martin Delany in 1847 - Journalist Samuel Cornish, in 1827, founded Freedom's Journal, the first black newspaper. In 1829, Cornish published Rights of All. In 1836, he published the Weekly Advocate. Eventually, with the help of Charles B. Ray and Phillip A. Bell, Cornish founded Colored American. - Other newspapers such as National Watchman, run by William G. Allen and Henry Highland. Mirror of Liberty by David Ruggles. Mary Ann Shadd's Province Free Man from Canada. The most popular is The North Star, founded by Douglass, Martin Delany in 1847, short-term publications such as Mystery (Pittsburgh, 1843). Colored Man's Journal (New York, 1851). The Mirror of the Times (San Francisco, 1855), and the Anglo-African (NY, 1859).

C8, 175 Freedom's Boundaries (DONE)

•Black Laws •Missouri Compromise was part of a larger debate within individual states about the civil status of free blacks. There is an addendum that forbade Missouri's state constitution to "free Negroes and mulattoes from coming to and settling in this state under any pretext whatsoever." The House of Representatives initially refused to accept Missouri as a state. In March 1821, Congress admitted Missouri to statehood. New Hampshire RepresentativeWilliam Plumer, Jr. wrote in a letter in 12/1820 that neither Congress had not determined the actual rights of free blacks, nor blacks are members of the body politic. Btw 1800 & 1808, South Carolina, Maryland, and Kentucky enacted laws to counteract manumissions by the Revolutionary War's rhetoric of freedom. Other southern states passed the same laws: Georgia in 1818, Mississippi in 1819, Louisiana in 1830, Tennessee in 1831, Alabama in 1832, Arkansas and Missouri in 1843. •Many states passed laws barring in-migration of free blacks •Fear that free blacks would threaten slavery; desire to limit black population •In some states with high free Black populations like SC and VA, there were county restrictions on the lives of them They could only live in certain counties. •Migration West - Black Laws: limit its growing black population, such as a course of action, and legal restriction. - In 1804, Ohio enacted a law that denied residency to any black or mulatto who was unable to produce a certificate of freedom from slavery. 1807 Ohio required African Americans to post a bond of 500$ as proof of freedom. - In 1837, Michigan repealed its black laws but Ohio Indiana, and Illinois continue until after the Civil War. - Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, and Iowa enacted laws to deter free blacks from settling within their borders. - A legal historian Paul Finkelman: "a few hundred blacks were held in bondage in Indiana till 1820 and Illinois till 1840". California, the western state with the largest free black population, could not enact black laws in 1850. • French author, Alexis de Tocqueville (Democracy in America 1835-1840) - the paradox of racial intolerance in states where slavery never existed. In an interview in 1831, he said with an Ohio attorney: "we try to discourage the free blacks in every possible way. Not only have we made laws allowing them to be expelled at will, but we hamper them in a thousand ways. A negro has no political rights; he cannot be a juror; he cannot give evidence against whites." He highlighted how the 'calamity' of slavery had resulted in a terrible sub-division of social and political life. Black people in America were neither in nor of civil society. They were objects of gross incivility. Legal and informal penalties against racial intermarriage were severe. In those states where slavery had been abolished, black people who dared to vote, or serve on juries, were threatened with murder. - In 1805, Ohio had the fourth-largest free black population in the North. - Columbus Palladium of Liberty, the racist presumption embodied in Ohio's law to regulate persons of color would eventually lead to the regulation of everything. - On 2/1844, the paper's editor, David Jenkins, wrote "Since Ohio has been a free state, she regulates both clocks, watches, blacks and mulattoes, one a thing to behold, the other the image of god, the great I AM, the great Creator of all things, and the only regulator of mankind." •There was segregation and deep inequality in education. 'In the theatres, gold cannot procure a seat for the servile race beside their former masters; in the hospitals, they lie apart; and although they are allowed to invoke the same God as the whites, it must be at a different altar and in their own churches, with their own clergy.' Prejudice even haunted the dead. 'When the Negro dies, his bones are cast aside, and the distinction of condition prevails even in the equality of death.' - In 1830, the census registered almost 15k free blacks in 3 states Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. 1840, that number increased to 28k. 1850, growing to 41k. - "Free Frank", ex-slaves who sought greater opportunities. A successful black migrant, William Trail, found his freedom through court action, becoming a prosperous landowning farmer in Union County, Indiana. •The prejudice directed at black people, he noted, increases in proportion to their formal emancipation. Slavery in America was in this sense much worse than in ancient Greece, where the emancipation of slaves for military purposes was encouraged by the fact that their skin color was often the same as that of their masters. Both within and outside the institutions of American slavery, by contrast, blacks were made to suffer terrible bigotry, 'the prejudice of the master, the prejudice of the race, and the prejudice of color', a prejudice that drew strength from false talk of the 'natural' superiority of whites. •Disfranchisement •Free blacks' political rights declined everywhere. Black disenfranchisement represented the rule, not the exception until the ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870. - In 1830, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Connecticut, and New York disenfranchised black voters, but Maryland, North Carolina, and Tennessee, still allow voting by blacks. 1834, Tennessee disenfranchised black voters. 1835 North Caroline did the same as Tennessee. - In 1835, Fogg, described in the court record as a freeman and taxpaying citizen of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, was denied the right to vote in his township of Greenfield • In January 1838 Pennsylvania revised the constitution to disfranchise. - The protest," Appeal of Forty Thousand Citizens, Threatened with Disenfranchisement, to the People of Pennsylvania" rejects the new constitution. •By end of the Antebellum period, only New England states gave black men the unrestricted right of suffrage. In 1843, Rhode Island adopted its first constitution that gave blacks equal suffrage rights; which was already assured in Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. In New York, black people can vote only if they met the property qualification of 250$. •Demographics - In 1830, the black population totaled 319, 599. 1840, a total of 386293. 1850, a total 434495. 1860, a total 488070. •Black population continued to grow, but relative to the entire U.S. population the percentage of free blacks began to decline. 2.5 percent in 1830 but at only 1.6 percent in 1860. •Increasingly rigid manumission laws. Significant increase in European immigrants after 1840. From 1847 to 1854 witnessed unprecedented immigration, with an average of slightly more than 334000 persons arriving from Europe. 45% of the immigrants come from Ireland, 32% from Germany, and 13% from Great Britain. •Immigration made opportunities for African Americans outside of the South difficult to obtain. No immigration in the South. 1837, the New York-based, The Colored American, one of the earliest black newspapers, "Foreigners and aliens to the government of laws-strangers to our institutions- are permitted to flock to this land and in a few years are endowed with all the privileges of citizens; but we, native-born Americans, the children of the soil, are of us shut out."

C10 The Path to Civil War

•The Path to Civil War •Expansion of slavery central to turmoil that led up to the Civil War •Fugitive slaves also highly controversial •The Compromise of 1850 •Included stringent fugitive slave law, but admitted California into the Union as a free state •Under new fugitive slave act, owners of escaped slaves intensified manhunts; many slaves returned, others increasingly feared capture •The Christiana Riot •Effort to thwart capture of four runaway slaves ended in death of plantation owner who was looking for the slaves •"Jerry Rescue" - mob of abolitionists rescued a fugitive slave who was apprehended in Syracuse •The Sectional Truce Unravels •Publication of Uncle Tom's Cabin •Passage of Kansas-Nebraska Act •Repeals Missouri Compromise; allows territories to decide if they want to be a free or slave state •North and South struggle for control of Kansas •Galvanized leaders into political action; antislavery Republican Party is formed •The Dred Scott Decision •Slave who accompanied master to free state sued, claiming his residence on free soil had liberated him •Supreme Court held Scott was not a citizen and therefore could not bring suit in the courts •Also held that Congress could not ban slavery in federal territories and that free blacks could never be citizens •The Appeal of Force •Black community began to see force as both necessary and inevitable •John Brown's Raid •Plan to attack slaveholders and liberate slaves •Seized federal arsenal in Harper's Ferry; quickly overwhelmed by federal and state troops •Raid terrified the South; moved toward military preparedness •John Brown convicted and hung to death

Copper Technology

- 1400 CE. - African craftsmen. Hammering, twisting, and casting, to transform copper into such forms as bars, rings, wires, bells,... - Abrammuo is used to measure gold dust.

C2 Trading in Slaves

- Acquiring Slaves: + Slave traders developed slave trafficking technique: Slaves mostly obtained through negotiation, although slave raids by Europeans also occurred. John Hawkins, a english slave trader + Ship traders exchange their untensils of brass, pewter, beads of many sizes and shapes, guns, and gunpowder, alcohol, foodstuffs,... + Mid-18 CTR, 10-ton slaver Hesketh to 566-ton Parr (700 slaves) to Liverpool. + The ship the King Solomon made four voyages btw 1715 & 1758. 1720, the King had an inventory of 4250L~ worth of goods. - Africans in the Slave Trade: + A warrior queen, Njinga, led her army and alliances into battle with Portugal in 2 decades. Eventually, she encroachment and control her kingdom. + Africans generally captured people for sale: Did not want Europeans to move to the interior. + Europeans followed strict protocol to secure permission to trade from African rulers and traders. + Africans are both victims and perpetrators of the Atlantic slave trade. Paying a courtesy visit in order to secure permission to trade. The slaves before being sold had to be shaved, and soaked in palm oil. Depending on the age, there will be a different price. - Slave Trade Challenges: + Delays caused by disposing of trade goods. Because they bring items for exchange that is not as desired. + Not a sufficient number of slaves at the single trading post. Traders wanted to maximize their time due to the difficulty in getting slaves. They had to stay 2, or 3 weeks or go to other ports to buy slaves. - The Trauma of Capture: + Africans' initial contact with whites was traumatic. The majority of these people had not seen white skin. => The exchange and trade of slaves are no longer justified but instead are the search and kidnapping of children to sell. - African Resistance: + Africans offered stiff resistance to their capture, sale, and transport. + Revolts.

Internal Slave Trade

- African merchants use Slave, draft animal. - The River systems formed and integral part of the indigenous African slave trade, - 1508, Portuguese traveler, described the lagoon trade as a canoe-borne trade of cloth and slave. - African rivers plays a crucial role once the Atlantic slave trade. Forming small rural communities in aroun Niger cites such as Jenne, Hausa. - Less organization, the acephalous societies are weak, people can be captured and carried via the waterways that had long brought commerce from the interior to the coast. The Europe traders call the water routes, the Slave Rivers.

Urban and Nonagricultural Slavery

- Black Artisans and Inventors + Slaves demonstrated diversity of talent in skilled trades. + Slaves used in pottery and textile mills, iron furnaces, and tobacco factories. + Slaves proved value as inventors. + Not allowed to get patent; after 1861 slave owner could be issued patent for his or her slave's invention. - Slave Hiring + Owners put slaves out for hire in period between harvest and new planting + Some urban slaves allowed to self-hire; although illegal under southern law. + Self-hire gave dual sense of freedom and its limits + Slaves could not legally contract for their services; contract was between master and hiring employer

Trans-Saharan trade routes

- Connecting sub-Saharan Africa to the Mediterranean coast before Common Era. - Southward: silk, cotton, horses, and salt. - Northward: gold, ostrich feathers, ivory, pepper, and slaves. - The trade routes through desert can connect to oases, which become way stations for restocking provisions, exchanging goods, determine price, spreading information. - Africa gives much of its own culture to others and received much in return.

C3 Imperial Claims to North America

- Early Settlements + Slaves played important role in Spanish efforts to gain foothold in North America + Africans part of establishment of San Miguel Gualdape, St. Augustine. + Provided muscle to build new outposts. + North American slavery emerged as Europeans struggled for colonies, trade, and key ports. + In early years, most slaves imported from Caribbean, where they had been "seasoned". + Creoles - "born in the New World". - Forms of North American Slavery + North American slavery in colonies assumed different forms depending on: + Founding circumstances. + Laws of European homeland. + Fluctuation in colonial jurisdictions.

C4 Eighteenth-Century Slave Societies

- Eighteenth-Century Slave Societies • No single black slavery experience • African American experience influenced by: • Local conditions • Nationality of colonizer • Geographical location of outpost • Colony's demographics • Modes of economic production • Atlantic world market in slaves • Sex ratio • Geographical source of blacks themselves. - Two major eighteenth-century demographic trends of African slaves in North America • First: • Majority of slaves direct from Africa • Men outnumbered women • Africans came from diverse ethnic groups • Second: • American-born slave population increased (Creoles) • Multi-racial population; familiar with different religions • Cultural "syncretism" - blending of African and European cultures to create a new form • Syncretism occurs with language, food, religion, etc. • Varied from region to region. • African people drew upon experience and cultural patterns to escape bondage. • Transformation of Africans into African Americans differed by time, place, and freedom strategies

On the Plantation

- On the Plantation + Work of slaves primarily agricultural• In 1860, 3⁄4 (75%) of white people in South did not own slaves. + Slaves concentrated in hands of relatively few + Bulk of staple crops produced on large plantations. + Owners dominated political and economic thinking. -Field Hands + Large plantations had two groups of workers: house servants and field hands. + Work regimen for cotton demanding Gang-labor system used. + Believed that one slave needed for every 3 acres of cotton + Work hours longest during harvest time. - Gender Division of Labor + Certain jobs identified by sex + Slave women were integral to the plantation economy + Ranked each other's status according to creative ability + Also worked in fields alongside men. - Overseers and Brutality + Overseers employed on farms of more than 20 slaves where the owner was an absentee landlord + No personal interest in slaves' welfare. + Owners demanded overseers get the most out of slaves; often treated slaves with brutality. + Some plantations employed driver slaves who assisted overseers and compelled work from fellow slaves 30 + Often viewed as a traitor by other slaves. - The Slave Diet + Each slave household received ration of meal and salt pork. + Sometimes allowed to maintain own gardens. + Some even allowed to market their produce

King Cotton

- On the eve of the Civil War, raw cotton constituted 61 percent of the value of all U.S. products shipped abroad. - By the late 1850s, cotton grown in the United States accounted for 77 percent of the 800 million pounds of cotton consumed in Britain. It also accounted for 90 percent of the 192 million pounds used in France, 60 percent of the 115 million pounds spun in the Zollverein (German territory), and 92 percent of the 102 million pounds manufactured in Russia.

Social & Cultural Life

- Social and Cultural Life. + Slaves' personal expression and recreation a rejection of chattel principle - Religious Activity. + Worship services held on larger plantations and in towns. + With rise of abolition movement and rumors of slave conspiracies, slaves increasingly made to attend owners' churches + Sat in separate sections; earliest example of segregation. - The Slave Church + Blended Christianity and folk beliefs - Slave Families + Permanency of slave marriage depended on opportunity to live and work together. + Childbearing difficult; inadequate medical care. - Interracial Relationships + Children born of slave women and white men visible throughout South + Most often the result of physical coercion. - Mulatto Slaves. - These children had a very "interesting" relationship with the slave owner's wife. + Treatment by white fathers varied 40 + Some emancipated their slave children.

C2 The Middle Passage

- The middle Passage: + Voyage to America is called the "middle passage". The British Parliament passed a regulation to reduce the overcrowding of slaves entering the UK, to no more than 5 slaves per 3 tonnes of cargo. Due to the slave limit, the merchants tried to circumvent the law, so the regulation was not implemented. Over 20% of the slaves died in the "middle passage" + Ships were overcrowded; disease rampant; extensive slave mortality. Initially, there was around a 60% mortality rate. diarrhea, hunger, filth in the stinking environment. Many have committed suicide or become permanently disabled as a result of struggling with their leash. - A profitable trade + The Slave trade was one of the most important sources of European wealth in the 17th and 18th centuries. Slave labor created the wealth of the Western world during these centuries and established modern England, France, Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, and the United States. + Between 1525 and 1866, in the entire history of the slave trade to the New World, according to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, 12.5 million Africans were shipped to the New World. 10.7 million survived the dreaded Middle Passage, disembarking in North America, the Caribbean, and South America. + Due to steady growth in the 17th century. + The Atlantic Ocean is FULL of Black remains.

Ecology of Africa

- Tropics, northern and southern tips have a moderate, Mediterranean climate. - West Africa has various ecological zones. - Affecting social development.

Race

1. What is race? 2. Who invented it? 3. Can Black people be racist? 4. What is the purpose of racial construct? 5. How has it impacted Black people in the US?

The comparison between the white billionaires and the black billionaires.

96% is white billionaires, the 4% rest is black millionaires.

The Chesapeake Region

• African Outsiders • Difficult adjustment for non-English speaking "saltwater" Africans-Those directly from Africa. • One quarter died within first year • Ran away in groups; caught by white troops. • Population Growth • In 1720s Virginians began importing more women to naturally increase slave population. • During 18th century, Chesapeake blacks first black population to grow by natural increase.

C4 The Lower Mississippi Valley

• French Louisiana • Exercised significant cultural autonomy • Slaves directly from Africa, held by small number of white masters • Africanized slave culture • African religious beliefs • Knowledge of poisons and antidotes • Black-Indian alliance formed at tobacco settlement Natchez. • Maroon Societies • Entire Creole families escaped • Built huts, stored weaponry . • Farmed, hunted, fished • Engaged in trade• Juan Maló noted leader • Between 1782 and 1784, Spanish governor set out to capture and destroy maroon villages

C4 The Mid-Atlantic Colonies

• New York Colony • Largest number of slaves in North throughout eighteenth century. • Pinkster - traditional Dutch Pentecostal celebration mixed with African and Creole dancing, drums, banjos. • The name is a variation of the Dutch word Pinksteren, meaning "Pentecost". • Expansion of Slavery • Mid eighteenth century, non-elite whites began to buy slaves, and options for manumission disappear • Increase in grain production increases need for slave labor. • Pennsylvania Slavery • Pennsylvania Quakers debated morality of slavery. • Led to early manumission movement • Operated schools to educate black children.

C4 New England

• Slave Populations • Fewer blacks than any other region, but blacks were important to the region's eighteenth-century commercial life. • Slave Occupations • Put to work in skilled trades • Used increasingly in the eighteenth century as "body servants"-A close servant; a personal attendant. • Negro Election Day • Festival tradition, public election of black "kings" and "governors" • Evidence of cultural syncretism • Forged sense of community, secured obedience, and loyalty to masters • Concentration of blacks in few towns allowed for such communal experiences • Began in 1741 in several towns of New England as part of the local election of the black representative of that community. The festival incorporated aspects of West African culture and ritualistic celebrations such as traditional dancing, African feasting and parades. • Cotton Mather and Inoculation • Idea of inoculation came to Cotton Mather from his slave, Onesimus • Known as the "African solution" • Heated arguments over the African folk medical practice • Mather and African informants proven correct • Acceptance or rejection of inoculation was difference between life and death.

The Lower South, Eastern Seaboard • The End of Mose • Free blacks did not return to war-ravaged fort • Ordered to leave St. Augustine and build frontier village near original site • After Britain's victory in French and Indian War, Menendez and other Mose residents resettled in Cuba

• The Slave Population • Increase in African slaves paralleled significance of rice as an export. • African slaves taught masters about growing rice. • As black majority grew, so did size of plantations. • Due to malarial environment, import necessary. • The Chesapeake and the Low Country • Distinctly different trends in slave work and culture in the South's two major slave systems. • Chesapeake • Slaves had varied work routine, worked in small units • Lots of interracial contact • Reciprocal cultural influences • South Carolina Lowcountry • Lived on large plantations with few whites present• Greater cultural autonomy • Task system • Lived on plantation units - "village communities" • African religion, music, language, kinship patterns, and naming practices influential in life and culture. • Rural and Urban Slave Life • Two types of black society in South Carolina slave system: rural and urban • Urban slaves far more Anglo-assimilated. • People of Mixed Race • South Carolina did not prohibit interracial sexual conduct • Mulattoes overrepresented among skilled laborers. • African Traditions • Belief in minkisi - "sacred medicine" • Amulets control health and destiny • Root "doctors" • Caesar - Slave, medical practitioner. Caesar was a slave and medical practitioner who gained his freedom in 1750 in exchange for revealing his knowledge of cures for poison and rattlesnake bite. He is widely considered to be the first African American to have his medical findings appear in print. • The Stono Rebellion-1739 (25 colonists and 35 to 50 Africans killed)-This is one of 250 documented rebellions. • Freedom and Catholic identity inspired revolt • Spanish offer of freedom to fugitive slaves professing Catholicism • Fort Mose. • Francisco Menendez and Mose • Mose leader granted freedom for military service • In Mose, established families and adopted Spanish practices such as godparenthood • The War of Jenkins' Ear • Anglo-Spanish conflict over legitimacy of British Georgia • Menendez defended Spanish, recaptured Mose from British

C9 Abolitionism in Black and White (DONE)

•Abolitionism in Black and White •Three events that heralded age of militant abolitionism: •1829 publication of David Walker's Appeal. In September 1829, David startled the nation by urging the violent overthrow of slavery. His pamphlet Walker's Appeal in Four Articles, Together with a Preamble to the Coloured Citizens of the World, but in Particular and Very Expressly to Those of the United States of America. David invoked the Declaration of Independence in his call to blacks to rise up: (p203 ở trên cùng). •January 1, 1831 publication of the inaugural issue of William Lloyd Garrison's newspaper, The Liberator. He cited the Declaration of Independence and demanded the immediate end of slavery, "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness". "I will be as harsh as truth, and as uncompromising as justice. On this subject, I do not wish to think..... p203". Nat Turner's revolt in Southampton, Virginia, in August 1831 foreshadowed a different and far more radical abolitionist tactic. In the South Gabriel's failed rebellion in Richmond in 1800 and Denmark Vesey's conspiracy in Charleston in 1822 testified to the willingness of the enslaved to sacrifice all for freedom. •1831 insurrection of Nat Turner

C10 Antislavery Agendas

•Antislavery Agendas •Abolitionism closely connected to religious revivalism •Argued that slavery contrary to Jesus' teaching of universal brotherhood •The Abolitionist Argument •Abolitionists argued that slavery: •Was against fundamental principles of American life •Was economically unsound •Threatened culture of and civilization of the South •Threatened peace and safety of country •Colonization movement was strongest among slaveholders in Upper South •White abolitionists and blacks realized colonization buttressed slavery •The Crusade •Throughout 1830s, abolitionist cause grew, moving beyond the borders of the Northeast •Theodore Dwight Weld •Oberlin College •The American Anti-Slavery Society •Cofounded by Dwight Weld, Arthur Tappan, and William Lloyd Garrison in 1833 •Differences between Garrison and Tappan arose •Garrison did not think society pressed hard enough for abolition; critical of unwillingness to work for women's equality •New York faction under Tappan broke away and formed rival American Foreign Anti-Slavery Society focusing only on slavery issues •1840 splinter group, the Liberty Party, formed in attempt to bring abolition into electoral politics •Black vs. White Abolitionists •Black abolitionists angered by whites' lack of support for true racial equality •White abolitionists uncomfortable with black convention movement •Black-White Cooperation •White abolitionists important benefactors of nineteenth-century African American artists •Friendships developed between black and white abolitionists

C8 p190 Black Convention Movement (DONE)

•Black Convention Movement •Black delegates met to "devise ways and means for the bettering of our condition" by black delegates from New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia in 1830. In the meeting, there were James Forten, John B Watson, and Samuel Cornish. In 1833, however, a majority of the delegates rejected emigration to establish a school of arts and crafts and a college in New Haven, Connecticut. •The Rochester Convention - In Rochester, in July 1853, more than a hundred people formed the National Council of Colored People, to promote equal rights for African Americans and to end slavery. A memorial was built and signed by Frederick Douglass. "in the midst of such a universal and stringent disparagement." - Derrick Spiers Scholar: "the practice of citizenship". - Black political rights were denied in Pennsylvania until 1838. In Harrisburg, in 1848, the Pennsylvania State Convention of Colored Citizens renewed the ballot requirement. - In 1850, black New Yorkers organized protests against the segregated car policy on electric fares, according to the historian, Blair Kelley. Pastor, James W.C. Pennington, the abolitionist, historian, and Thomas Jennings, a seamstress, formed the Rights Association Legal Foundation after their daughter Elizabeth, 25, was ejected from her car. - After the American Revolution, whites often referred to blacks as "Africa". In 1830, "colored people", "people of color", or "Colored Americans" were preferred to be called. - Black leaders assert that the name of the race plays an important role in representing and establishing American citizenship and heritage.

C8 p.195 The Debate on Emigration (DONE)

•Efforts at Mass Colonization - In 1832, the legislature approved the American Colonization Society (ACS). Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, North Caroline, and Mississippi have the local branches of ACS. - Historian Martha S. Jones, in 1831, the Nat Turner slave uprising in Southampton, Virginia was frightening to white people. - Octavius Taney, brother of Roger Brooke, supported 1832, who made a stern decision on slavery in the Supreme Court case Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857), denying national citizenship to African-Americans, slaves or free slaves. - Definition of "alien" free black residents. •Despite schemes to deport free blacks, no more than 15,000 migrated outside the U.S, to African, and also to Haiti, Central America, and Canada. •The American Colonization Society (ACS) is responsible for transporting most, about 20 000 people, mostly to Liberia. •Mass colonization proved unworkable •Not economically feasible •Could not agree on single program because of varying motives of ACS members - Advocates of colonization hoped to end slavery, or because of their belief that blacks were incapable of fitting into American society and would not have equal citizenship. Opportunity to bring Christianity and Western customs to Africa. The slave hoped to drain the free black population, bringing security to slavery. •Opposition to the ACS - In 1832, Garrison published his scathing review: "This is our home, and this is our country, Beneath its sod lie the bones of our fathers: for its some of them fought, bled, and died. ......." •Opposition grew steadily among black and white abolitionists, although recurring discussions of emigration continued at conventions into the 1850s •Emigration supporters like H. Ford Douglas, James Theodore Holly, and Martin R. Delany distanced themselves from the ACS from 1830 to 1850. In 1850, Douglas championed both anti-slavery and emigration. - John Russwurm and Samuel Cornish, published in 1827 to campaign for their racial repression. In 1829, Russwurm relocated under the auspices of the ACS to Monrovia, Liberia. •The National Emigration Convention. - Douglas argues that the migration of people within and outside of countries is a historical fact. Douglas was influenced by Delany, "Political Destiny of the Colored Race". •Promoted black-led emigration movement •Douglas, Holly, and Delany are vocal supporters because it refutes Frederick Douglas' speech the previous year at the National Negro convention in Rochester. •Factionalism over whether Canada, Africa, or Haiti was the best place to emigrate to because this is an area that cannot be annexed by the United States. Douglas moved to Canada from 1856 to 1858. He published pro-immigration views in Official Report of the Niger Valley Exploring Party (1861). •Mary Ann Shadd Cary was the strongest female emigrationist voice. 179 / 5.000 Kết quả dịch star_border The enactment of the Fugitive Slave Law in 1850 forced her to give up her land in Windsor, Ontario. She raised the hot question of emigrating to the national convention in Philadelphia in 1855.

C8, 177 In a Culture of Racism (DONE)

•Minstrel Shows (dialect speech and song and caricatured images were fast becoming hugely popular as a form of entertainment) - Racist imagery in poems, novels, song lyrics, and broadsides in 1810. Contents are about blacks' inability to speak standard English as indicative of their incapacity for freedom and equality. •Blackface white actors performed caricatured images, dialect speech, and songs. Burnt-cork blackface makeup portrayed blacks in a series of loosely related songs, dances, and comedy sketches. •Promoted stereotypical images like "Jim Crow" - the lazy and ignorant southern slave - and "Zip Coon" - the absurd northern free black fop. In early 1840, this blackface tradition and its imagery of physical caricature survived well into the 20 century as a staple of the American entertainment industry; it satirized and promoted the stereotypical figure "Jim Crow". - In 1848, the northern black leader Frederick Douglass railed in his newspaper The North Star against "the 'Virginia Minstrels', the 'Christy's Minstrels,' and 'Ethiopian Serenaders'". Called 'filthy scum of white society, who have stolen from us a complexion denied to them by nature, in which to make money, and pander to the corrupt taste of their white fellow citizens., •Ethnology (Attained significant intellectual credibility in leading American universities and medical circles in the 1830s through 1850s) •Professed methods and theories that stressed innate and immutable racial traits. •Craniology - blacks have smaller skull size, thus lower intelligence, the measurement of scull size to determine the cranial capacity. Samuel G. Morton led the way in the development of this new science, which rejected earlier 18-century environmentalist explanations for races. Morton's Crania Americana (1839) & Crania Aegyptiaca (1844). Morton's conclusion: "decided and unquestioned superiority over all the nations of the earth". •Polygenesis - races emerged from different human origins and are therefore different human species. His influence on Harvard professor Louis Agassiz. Agassiz detailed and labeled physical characteristics and specific African ethnic origins as if classifying mere scientific specimens. Types of Mankind (1854, p.179). Josiah Nott asserted that "nations and races, like individuals, have an especial destiny: some are born to rule, and others to be ruled... No 2 distinctly marked races can dwell together on equal terms". - In 1843, Lowell institute lectures in Boston, Gliddon maintained that Egyptian culture had no African derivation. - July 12 1854. Douglass, the subject of ethnology at the commencement ceremony of Western Reserve College. "Any college commencement", "the claims of the Negro Ethnologically considered". - The National Era magazine identified Douglass as the best refutation of this science. •Bigotry and Prejudice •Word ****** (n I gg ..) began to be used as a term of racial disparagement in 1830. Black essayist Hosea Easton became perhaps the first person to write a public denunciation of this word in his Treatise on the Intellectual Character and Civil and Political condition of the colored people in the united states and the prejudice exercised toward them (1837). - Easton decried this "opprobrious term, employed to impose contempt upon blacks as an inferior race." Further "term in itself would be perfectly harmless were it used only to distinguish one class of society from another, but it is not used with that intent ... it flows from the fountain of purpose to injure". - In 1831, people in New Haven, Connecticut, became alarmed over white abolitionist Simeon Jocelyn's proposal to establish a college for blacks and resolved to oppose it with all their resources. Prudence Crandall, a Quaker school teacher in Canterbury, opened the school to black girls, attracting students from free black families as far away as Philadelphia, Providence, New York, and Boston. - In May 1831, the Connnecticut legislature forbade any school or academy to enroll out-of-state blacks. •Collective acts of animosity directed at free blacks became common •Mob Violence •Free blacks were scapegoated for the diminished economic prospects of white workers in 19 century. They scapegoated free blacks as economic competitors who undercut white workers' wages. Whites harassed blacks in public spaces and perpetrated extreme acts of hostility, often targeting community institutions that contributed to black advancement. •Riots, murders, and destruction of churches, schools, and orphanages occurred in Midwest and Northeast. For 3 days in 1829, bands of whites in Cincinnati took the law into their own hands, running out of the city for those blacks who did not post the bonds that the state required of blacks to reside there. Over 1000 blacks found it advisable to leave, moving to Canada, but most of them soon returned to Cincinnati. Antiblack riots erupted in Utica, Palmyra, and New York City in 1834 and 1839. On August 12, 1834, a white mob marched into the black section of Philadelphia and committed numerous acts of violence. - Historians Lois E. Horton and James Oliver Horton, the "official report laid the riot to whites' fears that blacks received favored treatment in hiring". - Between 1834 and 1836, at least 9 disturbances occurred in Philadelphia that can be labeled antiblack riots. - Historian Patrick Rael identified the occurrence of similar race riots in Columbia, Pennsylvania (1834 and 1835), in Washington, D.C (1835), and in Cincinnati (again in 1841). and in Boston ( 1843). - When an observer characterized African Americans in NYC and Philadelphia as having an "aversion to labor and proneness to villainy." - Louisiana blacks, suffering so much in NYC, begged visiting southerners to take them back with them. •South vs. North •Blacks were mistreated in North and West to the delight of southern slaveholders who enjoyed playing up northern hostility •In the North, however, blacks could agitate and organize for their rights; could enter professions and jobs barred from them in the South. Most southern states prohibited blacks from being pharmacists, physicians, dentists, gunsmiths, lawyers, and teachers. Not doing own land and other property. •Southern freedom tenuous •Slip could send back to slavery •Controls over free blacks continued to increase •Prohibition on in-migration; re-enslavement laws. - Greensboro paper not only reported the incident but reprinted the article 5 years later as though the event had just happened. - North Caroline prohibited free blacks from traveling beyond the county adjoining the one where they resided. - In Georgia, the offender was fined $100, and failure to pay it - which could be expected - meant being sold into slavery. - Virginia, Maryland, and North Caroline forbade free blacks from possessing or carrying arms without a license, and gun permits were issued annually to only a few blacks whom whites deemed trustworthy. - In 1857, Tennessee enacted a law to facilitate re-enslavement; the following year Texas enacted a similar law. In 1859 and 1860, Louisiana and Maryland did so as well. In 1859, the legislature passed an act to remove free blacks and mulattoes from the state by compelling those who remained after one year to choose masters "who must give bond not to allow such negroes to act as free"

C8 p.188 Education (DONE)

•Opportunities in the North • By the eve of the Civil War, educational opportunities were widely available for black education in the North. black children received an unequal share of school funds. Rhode Island and Connecticut maintained separate schools in the decade before the Civil War. In 1824, the New York City Common Council began providing partial support for the privately run African Free School and took them over altogether in 1834. The New York state legislature made it clear in 1841. - Syracuse and Rochester's blacks attended public schools with whites. - New Jersey and Pennsylvania maintained separate schools for black children. Ohio excluded black children from public schools by law in 1829. In a number of communities in northern Ohio, black children attended public schools with whites in the 1840s and 1859s. - Massachusetts is particularly notable for the transition from segregation to integrated schools. In 1798, free blacks and their white supporters founded a privately funded school for blacks in Boston. Not until 1820 did the city allocate any funds to the Smith school. In 1840, the black community under the leadership of author and printer William Cooper Nell joined white abolitionists William Lloyd Garrison and Wendel Philips in agitating for "equal school rights". Efforts to open all-white schools to black students occurred in Nantucket and Salem as well, and unlike Boston, those towns achieved integrated schools in 1845. - In 1848, Benjamin Roberts sued the city of Boston for his 5-year-old daughter, who had to go through white schools before going to an isolated black school. However, despite the arguments of senators Charles Sumner and Robert Morris and the boycott of Abiel Smith School by members of the black community, the court upheld the legitimacy of the Roberts v. City of Boston (1850). •Educational opportunities varied widely among states and communities - William C. Nell launched boycotts and a series of petitions, which, through perseverance, proved successful in 1855, the Massachusetts legislature prohibited segregated schools. "Yes, sir, it was the mothers (God bless them!) of these little bright-eyed boys and girls, who through every step of our progress, were executive and vigilant, even to that memorable Monday morning (September 3, 1855), the trial hour, when the colored children of Boston went up to occupy the long-promised land. It was these mothers who accompanied me to the various schoolhouses, to residences of teachers and committeemen, to see the laws of the old Bay State applied in good faith." •Opportunities in the South •Harder for southern free blacks to get the education •No public schools, even for white children •Public sentiment against free black education - In Baltimore, Oblate Sisters of Providence, the Catholic order for women of African descent, was a school for black children between 1830 and 1840. - In 1824, john Adams began to teach children of his race in Washington, D.C Thereafter. - John Chavis of Raleigh, North Caroline, maintained a school where he taught whites during the day and free blacks at night for almost thirty years, but after 1831, Chavis confined his teaching to white children. - Charleston, in the South for securing an education. In 1810, the Minor Society School was made for orphans. - In Florida, black people sent their children away to school. St. Augustine and Pensacola hired teachers to instruct them. New Orleans supported several schools, including the Ecole des OrphelinsIndigents, 1840, by wealthy creoles of color such as Thomy Lafon, Marie Couvent, and Aristide mary. - 2038 free blacks in Boston in 1850, almost 1500 were in school. - In Baltimore, 1400 free blacks attended school. - In 1860, only 155 children, out of a total of more than a thousand free black children of school age. The same year, only 275 of Louisiana's nearly 6500 free black children were enrolled in schools. In Virginia only 41 out of 22000 school-age free blacks attended school. In the south as a whole in 1860, 4%of the school-age free black population received an education, as opposed to more than one-third in the North. •Higher Education •Northern free blacks began to attend institutions of higher education during antebellum period. In 1826 Edward Jones and John Russwurm graduated from Amherst and Bowdoin Colleges. In 1851, a young white woman from New York, Myrtilla Miner, made an academy for black females in Washington, D.C. - In 1839, an Institute for Colored Youth. - In 1849, A bequest of $300 000 by the Reverend Charles Avery led to the establishment 1849 of a college for blacks in Allegheny City, Pennsylvania, which bore his name. - Lincoln University, which was originally called Ashmun Institute, in 1854 and admitted its first students two years later. - In 1862, Wilberforce reopened under the sponsorship of the African Methodist Episcopal Church. •Some schools that became predominantly black institutions opened during this time •Cheney University in Pennsylvania 1837. Nation's first HBCU.

C10 The Underground Railroad

•Origins •Started as network of antislavery activists •General Thomas Boude refused to give mother of his slave Stephen Smith back to her mistress •Town of Columbia, Pennsylvania decided to champion cause of fugitive slaves •Number of slaves reaching freedom via the Underground Railroad unknown •Intensified resentment of slaveholders toward the North •Railroad Operations •Most operations took place at night •Slaves prepared by taking supplies from masters and often disguising themselves •Early days, mostly on foot; as it grew, used covered wagons, closed carriages •"Stations" were planned where fugitives could eat, rest, and hide; news went out of their pending arrival via the "grapevine telegraph" •All Underground Railroad lines led to free states •Resources •Abolitionists raised funds required for the substantial material resources necessary •Had many active workers •John Fairfield •Black Conductors •Underground Railroad relied on many black conductors •Harriet Tubman •Using money from her work as a domestic servant, she left the North fourteen times to bring family and other slaves to freedom •After fugitive slave laws passed, she preferred bringing slaves to Canada •Jermain Loguen •Minister and stationmaster of the Underground Railroad in Syracuse, New York •Openly denounced the Fugitive Slave Law

C10 Proslavery Backlash

•The Proslavery Argument •Southerners promoted idea that slavery was a "positive good" •Four main arguments of proslavery theorists •Blacks biologically and mentally inferior, a different species of humanity •Necessity of slave labor for rise of civilization and economic development of South •Blacks destined by history to subordinate position in society •Slavery divinely ordained •Defending the Institution •Antislavery rhetoric prohibited in the South •Willing to use force to keep abolitionists out of communities •Proslavery leaders went to North to pursue runaway slaves, spread proslavery doctrine, and spy on abolitionists •Persecution and Violence •Conflict between two sides led to harassment and violence •Conflict over abolitionist views occurred in the North as well •New York journalists warned of the threat of the abolitionist "amalgamation" •Abolitionists frequently target of violence •1836 southern congressional leaders adopted a rule to table all petitions against slavery ("gag rule") •Changing Attitudes •Violence and gag rule backfired •Late1840s northern whites began to see slavery as threat to liberty; 1850s political opponents of slavery began to win elections