Chapter 1: introduction to lifespan development
erik erikson
-psychosocial theory -neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"
survey
a measure administered through either a verbal or written questionnaire to get a picture of the beliefs or behaviors of a sample of people of interest
dependent variable
a measured variable that is expected to be influenced by the experimental manipulation
third variable
a variable that is not part of the research hypothesis but produces the observed correlation between them
population
all the people that the researcher wishes to know about
nature
heredity plays the most important role in bringing about that feature
Development is multidisciplinary
human development is such a vast topic of study that it requires the theories, research methods, and knowledge base of many academic disciplines.
cohort effect
impact of having been born in a certain time-period
representative sample
includes the same percentages of males, females, age groups, ethnic groups, and socio-economic groups as the larger population
object permanence
the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight
event-related potentials (ERPs)
-recorded by fitting a research participant with a stretchy cap that contains many small sensors or electrodes. -electrodes record tiny electrical currents on the scalp of the participant in response to the presentation of stimuli, such as a picture or a sound. -provided important insight as to how infants and children understand the world around them.
preformationism
-the predominant early theory belief that a tiny, fully formed human is implanted in the sperm or egg at conception and then grows in size until birth
Cognitive Psychology
-the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
research design
-the specific method a researcher uses to collect, analyze, and interpret data. -three major types -each vary according to its strengths and limitations
culture
-the totality of our shared language, knowledge, material objects, and behavior. -includes ideas about what is right and wrong, what to strive for, what to eat, how to speak, what is valued, as well as what kinds of emotions are called for in certain situations. -teaches us how to live in a society and allows us to advance because each new generation can benefit from the solutions found and passed down from previous generations. -learned from parents, schools, churches, media, friends and others throughout a lifetime.
reciprocal determinism
-there is interplay between the environment and the individual. We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings. -there is interplay between our personality and the way we interpret events and how they influence us
Secondary/Content Analysis
involves analyzing information that has already been collected or examining documents or media to uncover attitudes, practices or preferences
formal operational
-11 years to adulthood -Adolescents can think systematically, can reason about abstract concepts, and can understand ethics and scientific reasoning. -Abstract logic
identity vs. role confusion
-12 to 18 years -The adolescent develops a well-defined and positive sense of self in relationship to others
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
-18 months to 3 years -The child learns what he or she can and cannot control and develops a sense of free will.
Perfectionist view
-18th century, children were thought of as little adults -performationism -environment was thought to play no role in determining development
Intimacy vs. Isolation
-19 to 40 years -The person develops the ability to give and receive love and to make long-term commitments
preoperational
-2 to 7 years -Children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through language and mental imagery. They also start to see the world from other people's perspectives. -Theory of mind; rapid increase in language ability
initiative vs guilt
-3 to 6 years -The child learns to become independent by exploring, manipulating, and taking action.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
-40 to 65 years -The person develops an interest in guiding the development of the next generation, often by becoming a parent
Industry vs. Inferiority
-6 to 12 years -The child learns to do things well or correctly according to standards set by others, particularly in school.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
-65 to death -The person develops acceptance of his or her life as it was lived.
concrete operational
-7 to 11 years -Children become able to think logically. They can increasingly perform operations on objects that are real. -Conservation
Trust vs. Mistrust
-Birth to 12 to 18 months -The child develops a feeling of trust in his or her caregivers
sensorimotor
-Birth to about 2 years -The child experiences the world through the fundamental senses of seeing, hearing, touching, and tasting -Object permanence
Plasticity
-Development is characterized by ________. -all about our ability to change and that many of our characteristics are malleable. -illustrated in the brain's ability to learning from experience and how it can recover from injury
Development is multicontextual.
-Development occurs in many contexts. -three specific contextual influences: normative age-graded influences, normative history-graded influences, non-normative life influences
early childhood
-this period is also referred to as the preschool years and consists of the years which follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling. As a two to six-year-old, the child is busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world.
social desirability
Another problem is that respondents may lie because they want to present themselves in the most favorable light
comparative psychology
--area of psychology in which the psychologists study animals and their behavior for the purpose of comparing and contrasting it to human behavior -Branch of psychology that studies the behavior of different animal species
psychosocial theory
-Erikson's proposal that personality development is determined by the interaction of an internal maturational plan and external societal demands. -presents eight developmental stages that encompass the entire lifespan. -forms the foundation for the discussion of psychosocial development -criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is prerequisite for the next crisis of development. Also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all
Active vs. Passive
-How much do you play a role in your own developmental path? Are you at the whim of your genetic inheritance or the environment that surrounds you? -Some theorists see humans as playing a much more active role in their own development. In contrast, many behaviorists view humans as being more passive in the developmental process.
Continuity vs. Discontinuity
-Is human development best characterized as a slow, gradual process, or is it best viewed as one of more abrupt change?
Lev Vygotsky
-Russian psychologist who wrote in the early 1900s but whose work was discovered by researchers in the United States in the 1960s and became more widely known in the 1980s (Crain, 2005). His sociocultural theory -differed with Piaget in that he believed that a person not only has a set of abilities, but also a set of potential abilities that can be realized if given the proper guidance from others.
middle adulthood
-Starts at 40-45 until 60-65 -this is a period in which aging becomes more noticeable and when many people are at their peak of productivity in love and work.
infancy & toddlerhood
-Starts at birth and continues to two years of age -The first two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers are also transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep schedules to a constantly moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child
prenatal development
-Starts at conceptions, continues through implantation in the uterine wall by the embryo, and ends at birth -Conception occurs and development begins. All of the major structures of the body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern. Understanding nutrition, teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to birth defects), and labor and delivery are primary concerns
early adulthood
-The twenties and thirties -Intimate relationships, establishing families, and work are primary concerns at this stage of life
Development is multidimensional
-We change across three general domains/dimensions; physical, cognitive, and psychosocial. -All three domains influence each other. note that a change in one domain may cascade and prompt changes in the other domains
developmental psychology
-a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span -also known as Human Development or Lifespan Development, the scientific study of ways in which people change, as well as stay the same, from conception to death.
socioeconomic status (SES)
-a context that influences our lives is our social standing, or social class -a way to identify families and households based on their shared levels of education, income, and occupation. -members of a social class tend to share similar lifestyles, patterns of consumption, parenting styles, stressors, religious preferences, and other aspects of daily life. -All of us born into a class system are socially located and may move up or down depending on a combination of both socially and individually created limits and opportunities -Families with higher socioeconomic status usually are in occupations that not only pay better and grant them a certain degree of freedom and control over their job. Those families with lower socioeconomic status are typically in occupations that are more routine, more heavily supervised, and require less formal education. These occupations are also more subject to job disruptions, including lay-offs and lower wages
cohort
-a group of people who are born at roughly the same period in a particular society. These people travel through life often experiencing similar circumstances.
debriefing
-a procedure designed to fully explain the purposes and procedures of the research and remove any harmful aftereffects of participation. -must occur !!
emerging adulthood
-ages 18-25 -a transitional time between the end of adolescence and before individuals acquire all the benchmarks of adulthood. Continued identity exploration and preparation for full independence from parents are demonstrated. -Although at one's physiological peak, most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse
middle & late childhood
-ages of six to the onset of puberty -much of what children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and by assessing one's abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others
cultural relativity
-an appreciation for cultural differences and the understanding that cultural practices are best understood from the standpoint of that particular culture -the need to consider the unique characteristics of the culture in which behavior takes place
theory of mind
-an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own -people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.
continuous development
-assume development is a more slow and gradual process -adults advance skills that were already present in some form in the child
stage theorists / discontinuous development
-assume that developmental change often occurs in distinct stages that are qualitatively different from each other, and in a set, universal sequence
information processing
-based on the ideas and research of several cognitive scientists studying how individuals perceive, analyze, manipulate, use, and remember information -assumes that humans gradually improve in their processing skills. -development is continuous rather than stage-like --> complex mental skills of adults are built from the primitive abilities of children. we are born with the ability to notice stimuli, store, and retrieve information. -Brain maturation enables advancements in our information processing system, and interactions with the environment also aid in our development of more effective strategies for processing information
learning theory / behaviorism
-based on the premise that it is not possible to objectively study the mind, and therefore psychologists should limit their attention to the study of behavior itself. -identified the principles of learning
social age
-based on the social norms of our culture and the expectations our culture has for people of our age group. -culture often reminds us whether we are "on target" or "off target" for reaching social milestones -argued that social age is becoming less relevant in the 21st century
Tabula Rosa
-blank slate, and whatever comes into the child's mind comes from the environment. -the environment was thought to be especially powerful in the child's early life because the mind the most pliable then
Psychosocial Domain
-changes in emotion, self- perception and interpersonal relationships with families, peers, and friends -An area of development that involves patterns of change in children's personalities as well as their social and emotional skills, including relationships with others and the ability to regulate their own emotions.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
-children developed according to a natural plan which unfolded in different stages -did not believe in teaching them the correct way to think, believed children should be allowed to think by themselves according to their own ways and an inner, biological timetable -considered the father of developmental psychology -Gesell, Montessori, and Piaget
laboratory observation
-conducted in a setting created by the researcher. -permits the researcher to control more aspects of the situation. -strange situation test -participants are aware that they are being watched, there is no guarantee that the behavior demonstrated in the laboratory will generalize to the real world
mesosystem
-connections between microsystems -includes the larger organizational structures, such as school, the family, or religion. -these institutions impact microsystems -the philosophy of the school system, daily routine, assessment methods, and other characteristics can affect the child's self-image, growth, sense of accomplishment, and schedule thereby impacting the child, physically, cognitively, and emotionally.
Macrosystem
-cultural elements, such as global economic conditions, war, technological trends, values, philosophies, and a society's responses to the global community
ethical research
-decisions about whether research is ethical are made using established ethical codes developed by scientific organizations, such as the American Psychological Association, and federal governments. -research in psychology may cause some stress, harm, or inconvenience for the people who participate in that research. psychologists may induce stress, anxiety, or negative moods in their participants, expose them to weak electrical shocks, or convince them to behave in ways that violate their moral standards. researchers may sometimes use animals, potentially harming them in the process.
social learning theory
-developed by alfred bandura -actions are learned by watching others -children learn behaviors through imitation, especially when children do not know what else to do, they learn by modeling or copying the behavior of others
lifespan perspective
-development is lifelong, multidimensional and multidirectional, highly plastic, and affected by multiple interacting forces -life-long, multidirectional, multidimensional, multidisciplinary, and multicontextual
Nature vs. Nurture
-do genes (nature) or environmental factors (nurture) contribute more to a person's being? -Heredity vs. Environment -most scholars agree that there is a constant interplay between the two forces. it is difficult to isolate the root of any single behavior
Urie Bronfenbrenner
-ecological systems theory -recognized that human interaction is influenced by larger social forces and that an understanding of these forces is essential for understanding an individual. The individual is impacted by several systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem
sigmund freud
-emphasized the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our personality and behavior. -assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the ways in which parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on children's emotional states.
ethnocentrism
-evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture. -belief that our own culture is superior -we tend to believe that our own culture's practices and expectations are the right ones. -a normal by-product of growing up in a culture. -can be a roadblock, however, when it inhibits understanding of cultural practices from other societies
Burrhus Frederick (B. F.) Skinner
-expanded the principles of behaviorism and also brought them to the attention of the public at large. -used the ideas of stimulus and response, along with the application of rewards or reinforcements, to train pigeons and other animals. -used the general principles of behaviorism to develop theories about how best to teach children and how to create societies that were peaceful and productive
informed consent
-explains as much as possible about the true nature of the study, particularly everything that might be expected to influence willingness to participate. -participants can withdraw consent to participate at any point
cognitive theories
-focus on how our mental processes or cognitions change over time. -three important theories are Jean Piaget's, Lev Vygotsky's, and Information-processing
biological age
-how quickly the body is aging factors that determine the rate the body ages: nutrition, level of physical activity, sleeping habits, smoking, alcohol consumption, how we mentally handle stress, the genetic history of our ancestors
psychosocial crises / "stages"
-if a person does not resolve a stage successfully it may hinder their ability to deal with later stages -each period of life has a unique challenge or crisis that the person who reaches it must face -successful development involves dealing with and resolving the goals and demands of each of these psychosocial crises in a positive way. if a person does not resolve a stage successfully it may hinder their ability to deal with later stages
physical domain
-includes changes in height and weight, sensory capabilities, the nervous system, as well as the propensity for disease and illness -changes in the size, shape, and characteristics of the body
sequential research
-includes elements of both longitudinal and cross-sectional research designs. -features participants who are followed over time; includes participants of different ages -examines changes within individuals over time & changes between participants of different ages at the same point in time -used to examine cohort effects, may be expensive, possibility of practice effects
longitudinal research
-involves studying a group of people who are the same age, and measuring them repeatedly over a period-of-time. -examines changes within individuals over time, provides a developmental analysis. -participant attrition, possibility of practice effects, cannot examine cohort effects, very time consuming and expensive.
conditional research
-involves the measurement of two or more relevant variables and an assessment of the relationship between or among those variables --> i.e. the variables of height and weight are systematically related (correlated) because taller people generally weigh more than shorter people
lifespan
-longevity, refers to the length of time a species can exist under the most optimal conditions
deception
-occurs whenever research participants are not completely and fully informed about the nature of the research project before participating in it. -may occur when the researcher tells the participants that a study is about one thing when in fact it is about something else, or when participants are not told about the hypothesis
Jean Piaget
-one of the most influential cognitive theorists in development -he was inspired to explore children's ability to think and reason by watching his own children's development. -one of the first to recognize and map out the ways in which children's intelligence differs from that of adults -was asked to test the IQ of children and began to notice that there was a pattern in their wrong answers. He believed that children's intellectual skills change over time and that maturation, rather than training, brings about that change. -theorized that children progressed through four stages of cognitive development
case study
-one person or a single small group. -descriptive records of one or a small group of individuals' experiences and behavior. -often conducted on individuals who have unusual or abnormal experiences. -by carefully studying these individuals, we can hopefully learn something about human nature. -disadvantages: usually limited to static pictures, descriptions of particular experiences may be interesting but are not always transferable to other individuals in similar situations, time consuming and expensive
psychological age
-our psychologically adaptive capacity compared to others of our chronological age -includes our cognitive capacity along with our emotional beliefs about how old we are. ex: an individual who has cognitive impairments might be 20 years of age yet has the mental capacity of an 8 year-old
interviews
-participants are directly questioned by a researcher. -yield more accurate results but take longer and are more expensive to administer. -participants can also demonstrate social desirability, which affects the accuracy of the responses
experimental method
-provides more definitive conclusions about the causal relationships among the variables in a research hypothesis than what is available from correlational research. -conducted in a controlled setting in an effort to explain how certain factors or events produce outcomes.
correlational research
-research designed to discover relationships among variables and to allow the prediction of future events from present knowledge -can be used when experimental research is not possible because the variables cannot be manipulated or it would be unethical to use an experiment. -also have the advantage of allowing the researcher to study behavior as it occurs in everyday life. can also be used to make predictions. However, we cannot use such correlational information to determine whether one variable caused another variable. -assess the relationships between and among two or more variables -Allows testing of expected relationships between and among variables and the making of predictions. Can assess these relationships in everyday life events. -Cannot be used to draw interferences about the causal relationships between and among variables.
experimental research
-research in which a researcher manipulates one or more variables to see their effects. -assess the causal impact of one or more experimental manipulations on a dependent variable -Allows drawing of conclusions about the causal relationships among variables. -Cannot experimentally manipulate many important variables. May be expensive and time consuming.
cross-sectional research
-research in which people of different ages are compared at the same point in time. -compares samples that represent a cross-section of the population who vary in age
descriptive research
-research that describes what is occurring at a particular point in time. -to create a snapshot of the current state of affairs. -provides a relatively complete picture of what is occurring at a given time. allows the development of questions for further study. -does not assess relationships among variables. May be unethical to participants if they do not know they are being observed.
psychophysiological assessment
-researchers record psychophysiological data, such as measures of heart rate, hormone levels, or brain activity to help explain development. -may be recorded by themselves or in combination with behavioral data to better understand the bidirectional relations between biology and behavior -ERP
Alfred Bandura
-social learning theory -TV or not TV? --> bobo doll experiment -behaviorist who looked at personality and self-efficacy and reciprocal determinism
exosystem
-social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development. -includes the larger contexts of community. A community's values, history, and economy can impact the organizational structures it houses. -Mesosystems both influence and are influenced by the exosystem.
age-grade
-specific age group, such as toddler, adolescent, or senior. Humans in a specific age-grade share particular experiences and developmental change -the system found in small traditional cultures by which people belonging to a similar age group are categorized together and hold similar rights and obligations
Arnold Gesell
-spent 50 years at the Yale Clinic of Child Development -studied the neuromotor development of children. -believed that the child's development was activated by genes and he called this process maturation -development unfolded in fixed sequences, -opposed efforts to teach children ahead of schedule as he believed they will engage in behaviors when their nervous systems had sufficiently matured.
late adulthood
-starts at 65 onward -late adulthood is sometimes subdivided into two categories: the young-old who are from 65-84 years and the oldest-old who are 85 years and older. One of the primary differences between these groups is that the young-old are still relatively healthy, productive, active, and the majority continue to live independently. With both age groups the risks of diseases such as, arteriosclerosis, cancer, and cerebral vascular disease increases substantially
adolescence
-starts at the onset of puberty until 18 -a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences
Pearson correlation coefficient
-symbolized by the letter r, is the most common statistical measure of the strength of linear relationships among variables. The value of the correlation coefficient ranges from r= -1.00 to r = +1.00. The strength of the linear relationship is indexed by the distance of the correlation coefficient from zero (its absolute value). --> r = -.54 is a stronger relationship than r= .30, r = .72 is a stronger relationship than r = -.57
john locke
-tabula rosa -refuted the idea of innate knowledge and instead proposed that children are largely shaped by their social environments, especially their education as adults teach them important knowledge. -believed that through education a child learns socialization, or what is needed to be an appropriate member of society -laid the groundwork for the behavioral perspective and subsequent learning theories of Pavlov, Skinner and Bandura
cognitive domain
-the "thinking" domain, includes six intellectual abilities and thinking processes beginning with knowing, comprehending, and applying to analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. -encompasses the changes in intelligence, wisdom, perception, problem- solving, memory, and language
chronosystem
-the historical context in which these experiences occur. This relates to the different generational time periods previously discussed such as the baby boomers and millennials
chronological age
-the number of years since your birth / age as measured in years from date of birth -does not completely capture a person's age
microsystem
-the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment. -includes the individual's setting and those who have direct, significant contact with the person, such as parents or siblings. -The input of those is modified by the cognitive and biological state of the individual as well. These influence the person's actions, which in turn influence systems operating on him or her.
life expectancy
-the predicted number of years a person born in a particular time period can reasonably expect to live
Non-normative life influences
Despite sharing an age and history with our peers, each of us also has unique experiences that may shape our development. A child who loses his/her parent at a young age has experienced a life event that is not typical of the age group.
Stability vs. Change
How similar are you to how you were as a child? Were you always as out-going or reserved as you are now? Some theorists argue that the personality traits of adults are rooted in the behavioral and emotional tendencies of the infant and young child. Others disagree, and believe that these initial tendencies are modified by social and cultural forces over time.
development is multidirectional
Humans change in many directions. We may show gains in some areas of development, while showing losses in other areas. Every change, whether it is finishing high school, getting married, or becoming a parent, entails both growth and loss
confidentiality
Researchers must also protect the privacy of the research participants' responses by not using names or other information that could identify the participants
no harm
The most direct ethical concern of the scientist is to prevent harm to the research participants
positive correlation
When the straight line indicates that individuals who have high values for one variable also tend to have high values for the other variable
variable
anything that changes in value
development is life-long
change is apparent across the lifespan. No single age period is more crucial, characterizes, or dominates human development
correlation
does not demonstrate causation
control group
does not receive the treatment the experimenter is studying as a comparison
socialcultural theory
emphasizes the importance of culture and interaction in the development of cognitive abilities.
conservation
logical thinking ability that allows a person to determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container, shape, or apparent size
negative correlation
occur when high values for one variable tend to be associated with low values for the other variable
practice effects
occurs when participants become better at a task over time because they have done it again and again; not due to natural psychological development
attrition
occurs when participants fail to complete all portions of a study
nurture
one's environment is most significant in shaping the way we are
Ecological Systems Theory
provides a framework for understanding and studying the many influences on human development
naturalistic observation
psychologists observe and record behavior that occurs in everyday settings.
experimental group
receives the treatment under investigation
sample
representatives; the people chosen to participate in the research
hypotheses
specific statements about the relationship between variables
independent variable
the causing variable that is created or manipulated by the experimenter
normative history-graded influences
the time period in which you are born shapes your experiences
extraneous variable
variables that are not part of the experiment that could inadvertently effect either the experimental or control group, thus distorting the results
