Chapter 1
Critical Consumer
paying attention to the sources of information we encounter, asking questions about how data was gathered, and keeping our minds open to information and evidence that challenge our beliefs.
Structural functionalism characterizes society as made of up of many independent parts that ______.
work together to ensure the smooth working of society
Proletariat vs. Bourgeoisie
working class vs. upper class (property owning)
Norms
Accepted social behaviors and beliefs
True or False: Structural functionalism and conflict theory are micro-level paradigms.
False
True or False: The sociological imagination is a methodological tool used for selecting samples.
False
True or False: The symbolic interactionist paradigm argues that we can explain social organization and change in terms of how each part functions to support the whole.
False
True or False: Passion should not play a role in sociological research.
False; it helps to motivate us, but should not play a role when we are weighing evidence and drawing conclusions
How long have people been studying the nature of social life?
For more than 2,000 years
What are bureaucracies?
Formal organizations characterized by written rules, hierarchical authority, and paid staff, intended to promote organizational efficiency.
patterned social arrangements that have effects on individuals' abilities to make social changes
Structure
Which theoretical perspective would study the wage gap by examining how workers experience and interpret their work experiences?
Symbolic Interactionism
Stratification plays out in our daily lives even in situations where it is not directly relevant.
Symbolic interactionism
Critical Thinking
The ability to evaluate claims about truth by using reasoning and evidence
Intersectionality
a term coined by legal scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw, captures the idea that people's individual and group experiences are shaped by overlapping oppression and privilege built into the structure of our societies
What is Positivism?
the application of the scientific approach to the social world; based on facts alone
Max Weber (German)
-Among his contributions are an analysis of how Protestantism fostered the rise of capitalism in Europe -Provided insights into the emergence of modern bureaucracy -He did not expect the injustices of capitalism to improve or change -Believed that an adequate explanation of the social world begins with the individual and incorporates the meaning of what people say and do. -Believed that to explain what people do, we must use a method he termed Verstehen, the German word for interpretive understanding; sought to explain social relationships by having the sociologist/observer imagine how the subjects being studied might have perceived and interpreted the situation. -Argued that the modern Western world showed an ever-increasing reliance on logic, efficiency, rules, and reason -felt that modern societies are characterized by the development and growing influence of formal rationality, a context in which people's pursuit of goals is increasingly shaped by rules, regulations, and larger social structures -One of Weber's most widely known illustrations of formal rationality comes from his study of bureaucracies, formal organizations characterized by written rules, hierarchical authority, and paid staff, intended to promote organizational efficiency -he feared, the bureaucratization of modern society would also progressively strip people of their humanity and creativity and result in an iron cage of rationalized structures with irrational consequences.
Robert K. Merton
-Columbia University -Undertook wide ranging studies that helped further establish sociology as a scientific discipline 1.) Theory of deviance 2.) Manifest vs Latent functions used as a means for better understanding sociological phenomena and institutions 3.) middle range- studies were right in between all the studies of the significant founders of sociology
Harriet Martineau (English)
-Deaf and first major woman sociologist. - a woman in male-dominated intellectual circles that failed to value female voices -Translated Comte's works to english and wrote many works herself -sought to identify basic laws that govern society -Her unique fourth law is: For a society to evolve, it must ensure social justice for women and other oppressed groups.
Émile Durkheim (French)
-Established the early subject matter of sociology, laid out rules for conducting research, and developed an important theory of social change. -Believed sociology's subject matter was social facts, qualities of groups that are external to individual members yet constrain their thinking and behavior -His principal concern was explaining the impact of modern society on social solidarity, the bonds that unite the members of a social group. -Mechanical solidarity: finding similarities within groups (ex: language) -Organic solidarity: Differing individuals are dependent on one another for things such as safety, education, and the provision of food and other goods essential to survival
Women in early sociology
-Julie Daubié was the first woman to achieve a Baccalaureate degree -Mary Wollstonecraf: made arguments similar to Harriet Martineau: science could not progress as long women are not equals to men in education: "A Vindication of the Rights of Women" -Aline Vallette "Socialism and Sexualism" -Flora Tristan "The last remaining slaves in France"
Structure
-Patterned social arrangements that have effects on agency and are, in turn, affected by agency
W.E.B. Du Bois
-Radical Ideas/ Civil rights leader -Atlanta University -Condemned Racism- did not like the blacks that "made it" and turned their backs on their people -claimed that African Americans experience "double consciousness" or being both American and Black, never free of radical stigma
What is collective conscience?
-The common beliefs and values that bind a society together
What is Sociology?
-The scientific study of human social relations, groups, and societies -the purpose is to understand and generate new knowledge about human behavior, social relations, and social institutions on a larger scale
Symbolic Interactionism
-both the individual self and society as a whole are the products of social interactions based on language and other symbols. -was coined by U.S. sociologist Herbert Blumer (1900-1987) in 1937, but the approach originated in the lectures of George Herbert Mead -argues that people acquire their sense of who they are only through interaction with others by the means of symbols.
Macrolevel Paradigms
-concerned with large-scale patterns and institutions -two examples: 1.) structural functionalism 2.) social conflict theory many sociologists use both macro- and microlevel perspectives when analyzing social phenomena such as deviance.
Microlevel Paradigms
-concerned with small-group social relations and interactions -Ex: symbolic interactionism
Inequality
-differences in wealth, power, political voice, educational opportunities, and other valued resources -raises moral and ethical questions about fairness, but it also can tear at the very fabric of societies, fostering social alienation and instability -Affected by many axes, not just one
Jane Addams
-founder of Hull House, a settlement house for the poor, sick, and aged that became a center for political activists and social reformers. -Hull-House Maps and Papers, published in 1895, pioneered the study of Chicago neighborhoods, helping to shape the research direction of the Chicago School of sociology -Received Nobel Peace Prize
Karl Marx
-influenced the development of economics and political science as well as sociology; was the inspiration of many communist revolutions -human history is the product of class conflict, competition between social classes over the distribution of wealth, power, and other valued resources in society -Condemned capitalisms exploitation of the proletariat by the bourgeoise -He thought capitalism was a transitional stage that would eventually lead to a utopia of equality -Predicted that ownership of the means of production, the sites and technology that produce the goods (and sometimes services) we need and use, would come to be concentrated in fewer and fewer hands -Marx thought social change would be revolutionary, not evolutionary, and would be the product of oppressed workers rising up against a capitalist system that exploits the many to benefit the few.
Auguste Comte (French)
-is credited with founding modern sociology, naming it, and establishing it as the scientific study of social relationships -The twin pillars of Comte's sociology were the study of social statics, the way society is held together, and the analysis of social dynamics, the laws that govern social change.
What is a weakness of the Social Conflict Paradigm?
-it overlooks the forces of stability, equilibrium, and consensus in society. The assumption that groups have conflicting (even irreconcilable) interests and that those interests are realized by those with power at the expense of those with less power fails to account for forces of cohesion and stability in societies.
Charlotte Perkins Gilman
-novelist, feminist, sociologist -wrote "The Yellow Wallpaper" about a woman shut away by her husband- addressed women's lack of autonomy in marriage -wrote "Women in Economics " book -claimed women's dependency in a marriage is a social construct, not inevitable
What are Durkheims thoughts on deviance?
-one function of deviance—specifically, of society's labeling of some acts as deviant—is to remind members of society what is considered normal or moral; when a society punishes deviant behavior, it reaffirms people's beliefs in what is right and good. -many sociologists use both macro- and microlevel perspectives when analyzing social phenomena such as deviance.
Robert Ezra Park
-pioneered the study of urban sociology and race relations (Chicago University) -Wrote "An introduction to the Science of Sociology -Champion of racial integration
What are symbols?
-representations of things that are not immediately present to our senses. -include such things as words, gestures, emoticons, and tattoos, among others
Structural Functionalism (Durkheim)
-seeks to explain social organization and change in terms of the roles performed by different social structures, phenomena, and institutions. -analogy: human body- lots of working parts -Society is composed of a spectrum of different parts with a variety of different functions, such as the government, the family, religious and educational institutions, and the media. According to the theory, together, these parts contribute to the smooth functioning and equilibrium of society. -Poses a question: What function does a particular institution, phenomenon, or social group serve for the maintenance of society?
Wright Mills
-sociological imagination -translated max webers works to english -called himself a "Marxist" -An advocate of equality in the workforce
Agency
-the ability of individuals or groups to exercise free will and to make social changes on a smaller or larger scale
Sociological imagination
-the ability to grasp the relationship between individual lives and the larger social forces that shape them -to see where biography and history intersect
Power
-the ability to mobilize resources and achieve goals despite the resistance of others -Power is often distributed unequally and can be used by those who possess it to marginalize other social groups.
Technology
-the practical application of knowledge to transform natural resources for human use. -we are in the midst of another revolutionary period of technological change: the information revolution -The information revolution is creating postindustrial economies based far more heavily on the production of knowledge than on the production of goods, as well as new ways of communicating that have the potential to draw people around the world together—or tear them apart.
Talcot Parsons
-wrote that traditional sex roles for men and women contribute to stability on both the microsociological level (that of the family, in this instance) and the macrosociological level (society). -Complementary rather than competing roles contribute to solidarity in a marriage by reducing competition between husband and wife. -tends to accept rather than question the status quo; it holds that any institution or phenomenon exists because it is functional for society, rather than asking whether it might benefit one group to the detriment of other groups.
Six steps to critical thinking
1.) Be willing to ask any question, no matter how difficult 2.) Think logically and be clear (able to be studied) 3.) Back up your arguments with evidence 4.) Think about the assumptions and Biases 5.) Avoid anecdotal evidence ( do not base evidence on one moment or experience) 6.) Be willing to admit when you are wrong or uncertain about your results, and when results themselves are mixed
What is the enlightenment and what is its significance in sociology?
1.) French Philosophers, such as Voltaire, Diderot, and Montesquieu promised that humankind could attain lofty heights by applying scientific understanding to human affairs 2.) Enlightenment ideals such as equality, liberty, and fundamental human rights found a home in the emerging social sciences, particularly sociology.
What is urbanization and why is it significant in sociology? Who spoke on behalf of urbanization and what was their claim?
1.) Industrialization fostered the growth of cities as people streamed from rural fields to urban factories in search of work. 2.) Durkheim argued that traditional communities were held together by shared culture and norms, or accepted social behaviors and beliefs, modern industrial communities were threatened by anomie, or a state of normlessness that occurs when people lose sight of the shared rules and values that give order and meaning to their lives.
What are the twin pillars of Auguste Comte's studies and what are their definitions? What did he call his new science of sociology and what does it entail?
1.) Social Statics: the way society is held together 2.) Social dynamics: The laws that govern social change -Positivism: based on facts alone- pure science
What are the three main perspectives in sociology?
1.) Structural Functionalism 2.) Social Conflict Theory 3.) Symbolic Interactionism -All seek to understand and interpret social life
What are the four interrelated historical developments, or roots of sociology, that gave birth to the modern world?
1.) The scientific revolution 2.) The enlightenment 3.) Industrialization 4.) Urbanization -Sociology is rooted in Europe and soon made its way to North America by the end of the 19th century
What are the three stages Aguste Comte argues all science and all societies go through?
1.) Theological: key ways of understanding the world are framed in terms of superstition, imagination, and religion 2.) Metaphysical: society is the product of natural rather than of supernatural forces 3.) Positivist stage: knowledge is based on scientific reasoning from the "facts."
What is the industrial revolution and what is its significance in sociology? Which German theorist spoke on behalf of this and what were his claims?
1.) Traditional agricultural societies and small scale producers transitioned into more efficient, profit-driven manufacturing based in factories. 2.) Small towns were transformed into bustling cities, showcasing extremes of wealth and poverty, as well as opportunity and struggle 3.) Karl Marx- predicted that industrialization would make life increasingly intolerable for the masses. He believed that private property ownership by the wealthy allowed for the exploitation of working people and that its elimination would bring about a future of equality for all.
At which universities were the first sociology courses instilled?
1.) University of Kansas 2.) University of Chicago 3.) Atlanta University
What are the three focal points of sociology?
1.) power and inequality and the ways in which the unequal distribution of social, economic, and political resources shape opportunities, obstacles, and relationships; 2.) the societal changes occurring as a result of globalization and the growing social diversity of modern communities and societies; 3.) the powerful impact of technological change on modern lives, institutions, and states.
Who is considered to be the first modern sociologist and what is their claim?
1.) Émile Durkheim 2.) Sociological understanding would create a more egalitarian, peaceful society, in which individuals would be free to realize their full potential
What is the Scientific Revolution and what is its significance in sociology?
1.)The rise of modern natural and physical sciences 2.) Offered scholars a more advanced understanding of the physical world 3.) Contributed to the belief that science could be fruitfully applied to human affairs, thereby enabling people to improve society or even perfect it
the ability of individuals and groups to exercise free will and to make social changes on a small or large scale
Agency
What is a weakness of Social Interactionism?
Although symbolic interactionist perspectives draw our attention to important microlevel processes in society, they may miss the larger structural context of those processes, such as examining who has the power to make laws defining what or who is criminally deviant.
Who coined the term sociology to characterize what he believed would be a new "social physics"—that is, the scientific study of society?
Auguste Comte
What term best describes the ability to evaluate claims about truth by using reason and evidence?
Critical Thinking
differences in wealth, power, political voice, educational opportunities, and other valued resources
Inequality
Whose work strongly influenced social conflict theory?
Karl Marx
What were the two suggestions Merton made to broaden the functionalist idea?
Merton broadened the functionalist idea by suggesting that manifest functions are the obvious and intended functions of a phenomenon or institution. Latent functions, by contrast, are functions that are not recognized or expected.
the ability to mobilize resources and achieve goals despite the resistance of others
Power
Stratification benefits the rich and powerful at the expense of the poor.
Social Conflict Paradigm
Which option seeks to explain social organization and change in terms of the competition that is built into social relationships?
Social Conflict Paradigm
the social and cultural mixture of different groups in society and the societal recognition of difference as significant
Social Diversity
the fundamental shaping of human behavior by social relations
Social Embeddedness
What are frameworks that help us interpret social life?
Sociological Theories
Stratification ensures social cohesion by the just distribution of awards.
Structural Functionalism
According to the sociological imagination, what is the distinction between troubles and issues?
Troubles are personal; issues are public.
True or False: Arab scholar Ibn Khaldun wrote about social conflict and cohesion hundreds of years before sociology became an academic discipline.
True
True or False: Structure may enable or constrain social action.
True
What is formal rationality?
a context in which people's pursuit of goals is increasingly shaped by rules, regulations, and larger social structures.
What is one weakness of Functionalism?
a failure to recognize inequalities in the distribution of power and resources and how those affect social relationships.
Anomie
a state of normlessness that occurs when people lose sight of their shared rules and values that give order and meaning to their lives
The "scientific" study of sociology has two combined factors:
a way of learning about the world that combines logically constructed theory and systematic observation.
Ethnocentrism
a worldview whereby one judges other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and regards one's own way of life as normal—and often superior to others.
Select option social diversity ethnocentrism power inequality globalization a worldview whereby one judges other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and regards one's own way of life as "normal" and better than others
ethnocentrism
Latent Functions
functions that are not recognized or expected.
the process by which people all over the planet become increasingly interconnected economically, politically, culturally, and environmentally
globalization
Today we are in the middle of a technological revolution called the ______ revolution.
information
What is Verstehen?
interpretive understanding
Sociological theories
logical, rigorous frameworks for the interpretation of social life that make particular assumptions and ask particular questions about the social world
Manifest Functions
obvious and intended functions of a phenomenon or institution
-The social conflict paradigm (Karl Marx)
seeks to explain social organization and change in terms of the conflict that is built into social relationships. -poses a question: Who benefits from the way social institutions and relationships are structured, and who loses? -focuses on what divides people rather than on what unites them -Conflict theory is rooted in the ideas about class and power put forth by Marx
The ______ is the ability to grasp the relationship between individual lives and the larger social forces that shape them.
sociological imagination
social embeddedness
the idea that economic, political, and other forms of human behavior are fundamentally shaped by social relations
Globalization
the process by which people all over the planet have become increasingly interconnected economically, politically, socially, culturally, and environmentally -the rate of globalization took a giant leap forward with the industrial revolution, which accelerated the growth of global trade, as well as the information age
Social Diversity
the social and cultural mixture of different groups in society and the societal recognition of difference as significant. -The spread of culture through the globalization of media and the rise of migration has created a world in which almost no place is isolated
