Chapter 1 | Introduction to Cognitive Psychology

computer simulation or computer modeling

- A type of mathematical model that expresses ideas about mental processes in precise ways. - Attempts to take human limitations into account. The goal of computer simulation is to program a computer to perform a specific cognitive task in the same way that humans actually perform this task. - A computer simulation must produce the same number of errors as well as correct responses that a human produces

Ulric Neisser

-father of cognitive psychology -use behavior to make inferences about mental states and processes -computer metaphor and information processing approach

Information-Processing Assumptions

1. Stimuli present 2. Multiple processing stages 3. Decision 4. Response

Principles of Psychology

1890, considered to be the first modern psychology textbook by William James. It also emphasizes that the human mind is active and inquiring.

tip-of-the-tongue experience

A memory phenomenon that involves the sensation of knowing that specific information is stored in long-term memory, but being temporarily unable to retrieve it.

The Gestalt Approach

A psychological school of thought originating in Germany that proposed that the whole of a perception must be understood rather than trying to deconstruct perception into its parts

Cognitive Revolution

A shift in psychology, beginning in the 1950s, from the behaviorist approach to an approach in which the main thrust was to explain behavior in terms of the mind. One of the outcomes of the cognitive revolution was the introduction of the information-processing approach to studying the mind.

neural network approach

A theory describing cognitive processing in terms of networks that link together neuron-like units. These networks perform operations simultaneously and in parallel, rather than one step at a time.

computer metaphor

The idea that the brain is an information-processing organ that operates, in some ways, like a computer.

cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

social cognitive neuroscience

a new discipline that uses neuroscience techniques to explore the kind of cognitive processes used in interactions with other people

Information-Processing Approach

a perspective on understanding cognition that divides thinking into specific steps and component processes, much like a computer

operational definition

a precise deinition that speciies exactly how a concept is to be measured.

Event-Related Potential Technique (ERP)

a procedure for recording the very brief, small fluctuations in the brain's electrical activity in response to a stimulus such as an auditory tone

gestalt psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

artificial intelligence

a subdiscipline of computer science that attempts to simulate human thinking

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

cognitive approach

a theoretical orientation that emphasizes people's thought processes and their knowledge.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET scan)

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

Which of the following statements best describes cognitive science? a) cognitive science is the interdisciplinary study of internal representations involved in thinking b) cognitive sciences is a subdiscipline of psychology that focuses on observable stimuli and external responses. c) cognitive science declined in popularity as cognitive psychology increased in popularity d) cognitive science is a subdiscipline of computer science that uses pure AI and computer simulation methods.

a) cognitive science is the interdisciplinary study of internal representations involved in thinking

The distinction between whether or not cognitive activities are performed as a sequence of seperate operations or as a simultaneous processing of many signals involves the issues of: a) serial processing and parallel processing b) serial processing and pure AI c) computer simulations and pure AI d) computer simulation and parallel distributed processing

a) serial processing and parallel processing

Pure Artificial Intelligence

an approach that designs a program to accomplish a cognitive task as efficiently as possible, even if the computer's processes are completely different from the processes used by humans

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

an imaging technique used to examine changes in the activity of the working human brain by measuring changes in the blood's oxygen levels

gestalt

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

In the information-processing approach: a) principles of Gestalt psychology are applied to the scientiic study of overt behavior. b) a mental process can be understood by comparison with the operations of a computer. c) introspection, one of the oldest techniques in psychology, is the best research technique. d) a mental process always involves conscious problem solving and decision making.

b) a mental process can be understood by comparison with the operations of a computer.

A research team is trying to identify the cognitive deficits of a man who had a stroke that affected a small portion of the left temporal lobe of his brain. This approach to studying the brain examines: a) the single-cell recording technique b) brain lesions c) parallel distrubuted processing d) the even-related potential technique

b) brain lesions

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Noam Chomsky

theorist who believed that humans have an inborn or "native" propensity to develop language

cognitive psychology

has two meanings: (1) Sometimes it is a synonym for the word cognition, and so it refers to the variety of mental activities we just listed; (2) Sometimes it refers to a particular theoretical approach to psychology.

brain lesions

the destruction of an area in the brain, most often by strokes, tumors, blows to the head, and accidents

ecological validity

the idea that cognition should be measured in settings that are as realistic as possible and that the abilities measured should be those needed in real life

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Mary Whiton Calkins

First woman to be president of the American Psychological Association. Conducted research on dreams and memory.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

German psychologist who pioneered the experimental study of memory, and is known for his discovery of the forgetting curve and the spacing effect. He was also the first person to describe the learning curve.

Jean Piaget

Known for his theory of cognitive development in children; Four stage theory of cognitive development: 1. sensorimotor, 2. preoperational, 3. concrete operational, and 4. formal operational. He said that the two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth-assimilation and accomodation

serial vs. parallel processing

Serial memory processing is the act of attending to and processing one item at a time. This is usually contrasted against parallel memory processing, which is the act of attending to and processing all items simultaneously.

Themes in the Book

Theme 1: Cognitive processes are active, rather than passive. Theme 2: Cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate. Theme 3: Cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information. Theme 4: Cognitive processes are interrelated with one another; they do not operate in isolation. Theme 5: Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing.

human memory research

They frequently found that material was altered during memory by an individual's previous knowledge gained through their individual life experiences.

During the first half of the twentieth century, some strict behaviorists: a) claimed that scientiic psychology should rely only on operational deinitions of introspective reports. b) said that psychology should focus only on objective reactions to environmental stimuli. c) advocated research on human cognition instead of on animal cognition and computer cognition. d) developed the parallel distributed processing (PDP) approach to understanding behavior.

b) said that psychology should focus only on objective reactions to environmental stimuli.

All of the following contributed to the rise of cognitive psychology EXCEPT for: a) Noam Chomsky's arguments about the inadequacy of behaviorist principles for fully explaining human language acquisition. b) the lack of interest in understanding how humans internally store (or represent) information in their minds. c) increased interest in human memory. d) the publication of Neisser's Cognitive Psychology.

b) the lack of interest in understanding how humans internally store (or represent) information in their minds.

B. F. Skinner

behaviorism; pioneer in operant conditioning; behavior is based on an organism's reinforcement history; worked with pigeons

The rise of cognitive psychology was heavily inluenced by: a) the rise of behaviorism, which provided cognitive psychologists new ways to measure memory and thinking. b) the rise of Gestalt psychology, which provided clinical psychologists with new ways to conduct psychoanalysis. c) disenchantment with behaviorism and fascination with developments in linguistics, memory, and developmental psychology. d) disenchantment with behaviorism and fascination with emerging psychoanalytic studies of human adjustment.

c) disenchantment with behaviorism and fascination with developments in linguistics, memory, and developmental psychology.

An important characteristic of the connectionist approach to cognition is that: a) it handles information by processing it one step at a time b) it first analyzes an object's shape, then its size, and finally its color. c) it can perform many operations at the same time d) it predicts that humans perform cognitive tasks much more accurately than they actually do.

c. it can perform many operations at the same time

issues of ecological validity

cannot be applied to the way people learn in the real world

According to the principle of ecological validity: a) experiments should be as carefully controlled as possible, in order to avoid confounding variables. b) laboratory settings should be employed whenever possible. c) behavior should be initially studied in its simplest, most basic form; more complex kinds of behavior should be studied later on. d) experiments should be conducted that will have some application to experience outside the laboratory.

d) experiments should be conducted that will have some application to experience outside the laboratory.

Gestalt psychology emphasizes: a) observable, objective reactions. b) the introspective technique. c) emotional causes of behavior. d) the basic human tendency to organize our perceptions.

d) the basic human tendency to organize our perceptions.

A researcher wants to study how people's attention shifts when they see a visual stimulus in an unexpected portion of the screen that they are viewing; this attention shift occurs in just a fraction of a second. Which of the following techniques is this researcher most likely to use? a) the neural-network approach b) a positron emission tomography (PET) scan c) The functional magnetic resonance imaging technique (fMRI) d) the event-related potential technique (ERP)

d) the event-related potential technique (ERP)

empirical evidence

emphasized by Aristotle, this term is referred to as scientific evidence obtained by careful observation and experimentation.

introspection

emphasized by Wilhelm Wundt, this term is referred to as the examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings.

John B. Watson

founder of behaviorism

parallel distributed processing (PDP) approach

information is stored in memory as patterns of neuron activation. Also known as connectionist approach.

cognition

refers to the acquisition, storage, transfor- mation, and use of knowledge.

recency effect

refers to the observation that our recall is especially accurate for the final items in a series of stimuli (such as a list of words or numbers).

why learn about cognition?

• Cognition occupies a major portion of human psychology. • The cognitive approach has widespread influence on other areas of psychology as well as disciplines outside psychology. • Cognitive psychology provides an "owner's manual" for your mind.