Chapter 10 Building Successful Information Systems
Joint Application Design (JAD) (similar to using a task force for designing info systems)
A collective activity involving users, top management, and IT professionals. It centers on a structured workshop in which users and system professionals come together to develop an application.
Prototyping (Design Phase)
A small-scale version of the system is developed, but one that is large enough to illustrate the system's benefits and allow users to offer feedback. Prototypes can also be tested to detect potential problems and devise solutions. It has gained popularity in designing information systems because needs can change quickly and lack of specifications for the system can be a problem. Its the fastest way to put an info system into operation. Usually used for the following purposes: gathering system requirements, helping to determine system requirements, determining a systems technical feasibility, selling the proposed system to users and management. It is done in four steps: define the initial requirements, develop the prototype, review and evaluate the prototype, and revise the prototype.
Request for Proposal (Implementation Phase)
A written document with detailed specifications that is used to request bids for equipment, supplies, or services from vendors. Contains detailed information about the functional, technical, and business requirements of the proposed information system. A crucial part is comparing bids from single and multiple vendors. Main advantage is that all vendors get the same information and requirements, so bids can be evaluated more fairly. Can be useful in narrowing down a long list of prospective vendors. Major disadvantage is the time involved in writing and evaluating proposals.
Outsourcing (alternative approach to developing information systems)
An organization hires an external vendor or consultant who specializes in providing development services. This approach can save the cost of hiring additional staff while meeting the demand for more timely development of information systems projects. Another form of outsourcing has become popular: crowdsourcing. This refers to the process of outsourcing tasks that are traditionally performed by employees or contractors to a large group of people through an open call. Its popular among publishers, journalists, editors, and businesses that want to take advantage of the collaborative capabilities offered by Web 2.0.
(SDLC) Phase 3: Design
Analysts choose the solution that is the most realistic and offers the highest payoff for the organization. The details of the proposed solution are outlined, and the output of this phase is a document with exact specifications for implementing the system, including files and databases, forms and reports, documentation, procedures, hardware and software, networking components, and general system specifications. Consists of three parts: conceptual design (overview of the system and doesn't include hardware or software choices), logical design (makes conceptual design more specific by indicating hardware and software), and physical design (created for a specific platform).
(SDLC) Phase 2: Requirements Gathering And Analysis
Analysts define the problem and generate alternatives for solving it. During this phase, the team attempts to understand the requirements for the system, analyzes these requirements to determine the main problem with the current system or processes, and looks for ways to solve problems by designing the new system. The team creates a document called the "system specifications". The document is sent to all key users and task-force members for approval. The document indicates the end of the analysis phase and the start of the design phase. There are two major approaches to the analysis and design of information systems: the structured systems analysis and design (SSAD) approach and the object-oriented approach. To understand the difference, remember that any system has three parts: process, data, and user interface. SSAD approach treats process and data independently and is a sequential approach that requires completing the analysis before beginning the design. The object-oriented approach combines process and data analysis, and the line between analysis and design is so thin that analysis and design seem to be a single phase instead of two distinct phases. The models created during the analysis phase constitute the design specifications. After confirming these specifications with users, analysts start designing the system.
Phased-In-Phased-Out Conversion (Implementation Phase)
As each module of the new system is converted, the corresponding part of the old system is retired. This process continues until the entire system is operational. Although this approach is not suitable in all situations, it can be effective in accounting and finance.
Economic Feasibility (five major dimensions of feasibility study)
Assesses a system's costs and benefits. A system is not economically feasible if the net gain is $250,000 but the system costs $500,000. The systems analyst team must identify all costs and benefits, be aware of opportunity costs. The team tallies tangible development and operating costs for the system and compares them with expected financial benefits of the system. Development costs include: hardware & software, maintenance costs for monitoring equipment and software, computer time for programming, testing, and prototyping, personnel costs, supplies, training employees. Operating costs are typically estimated. After itemizing these costs, the team creates a budget. To complete the study, the team must identify benefits of the information system, both tangible and intangible.
Legal Feasibility (five major dimensions of feasibility study)
Concerned with legal issues; it typically addresses questions like: will the system violate any legal issues in the country where it will be used, are there any political repercussions of using the system, is there any conflict between the proposed system and legal requirements.
Technical Feasibility (five major dimensions of feasibility study)
Concerned with the technology that will be used in the system. The team needs to assess whether the technology to support the new system is available or feasible to implement.
Scheduling Feasibility (five major dimensions of feasibility study)
Concerned with whether the new system can be completed on time.
Feasibility Study (Planning Phase)
During planning phase, analysts investigate a proposed solutions feasibility and determine how best to present the solution to management in order to obtain funding. This is the tool used and has five major dimensions.
(SDLC) Phase 1: Planning
During the planning phase, one of the most crucial phases, the systems designer must define the problem the organization faces. The problem can be identified internally or externally. After identifying the problem, an (team of) analyst assesses the current and future needs of the organization by answering why is it being developed, who are the future and current users, is it new or upgrade of an existing system, which departments will be used. Analysts must examine the organizations strategic goals. Establishing evaluation criteria ensures objectivity throughout the SDLC process. Analysts must get feedback from users on the problem and the need for an info system. Users should understand the four W's: Why, Who, When, What. The end result of this phase should give users and top management a clear view of what the problem is and how the info system will solve the problem.
IT Project Management (Implementation Phase)
Includes activities required to plan, manage, and control the creation and delivery of an information system. Activities include everything that take place during the SDLC process. The implementation of an information system can be a complex task. To manage this complexity and keep the implementation plan under budget and on schedule, system analysts employ project management tools and techniques. Project management techniques are used, like PERT (program evaluation review technique), CPM (critical path method), and Gantt charts. PERT and CPM techniques work by determining the "critical path" for the completion of a series of interrelated activities. Using the critical path, the systems analyst can establish a Gantt chart. This chart lists the completion time on the x-axis and all the activities on the y-axis.
Outsourcing company that employs the SDLC approach has the following options:
Onshore outsourcing: the organization chooses an outsourcing company in the same country. Nearshore outsourcing: the organization chooses an outsourcing company in a neighboring country. Offshore outsourcing: the organization chooses an outsourcing company in any part of the world as long as it can provide the needed services.
Proof-Of-Concept Prototype
Shows users how a particular task that was not technically feasible can be done
Computer-Aided Systems Engineering (CASE) (Design Phase)
Systems analysts use these tools to automate parts of the application development process. These tools are particularly helpful for investigation and analysis in large-sale projects because they automate parts of the design phase. Analysts can use them to modify and update several design versions in an effort to choose the best version. Capabilities include: graphics tools, dictionary tools, prototyping tools, code generators, project management tools. CASE tools include these outputs: specifications documents, documentation of the analysts, design specifications, logical and physical design documents, code modules.
Insourcing (Implementation Alternatives)
The SDLC approach is sometimes called this term, meaning an organizations team develops the system internally.
Pilot Conversion (Implementation Phase)
The analysts introduces the system in only a limited area of the organization, such as a division or department. If the system works correctly, its implemented in the rest of the organization in stages or all at once.
Feasibility (Planning Phase)
The measure of how beneficial or practical an information system will be to an organization; it should be measured continuously throughout the SDLC process.
Operational Feasibility (five major dimensions of feasibility study)
The measure of how well the proposed solution will work in the organization and how internal and external customers will react to it.
Parallel Conversion (Implementation Phase)
The old and new systems run simultaneously for a short time to ensure the new system works correctly. However, this approach is costly and can be used only if an operational system is already in place.
Plunge (Direct-Cutover) Conversion (Implementation Phase)
The old system is stopped and the new system is implemented. This approach is risky if there are problems with the new system, but the organization can save on costs by not running the old and new systems concurrently.
(SDLC) Phase 4: Implementation
The solution is transferred from paper to action, and the team configures the system and procures components for it. A variety of tasks take place in the implementation phase including: acquiring new equipment, hiring new employees, training employees, planning and designing the systems physical layout, coding, testing, designing security measures and safeguards, and creating a disaster recovery plan.
Formation of the Task Force (Planning Phase)
To ensure an information systems success, users must have input in all of the phases. The two groups of users from whom the task force should gather feedback: Internal Users- employees who will use the system regularly, and they can offer important feedback on the systems strengths and weaknesses. External Users- not employees but do use the system; they include customers, contractors, suppliers, and other business partners.
Selling Prototype
Used to sell a proposed system to users or management by showing some of its features.
Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) (when SDLC is not appropriate)
a philosophy and a software and system development methodology that focuses on the development, use, and reuse of small, self-contained blocks of codes to meet the software needs of an organization. SOA attempts to solve software development issues by recognizing, accepting, and leveraging the existing services. The fundamental principle behind SOA is that the "blocks of codes" can be reused in a variety of different applications, allowing new business processes to be created from a pool of existing services. SOA offers many potential benefits to organizations, including reduced application development time, greater flexibility, and an improved return on investment. SOA advocates that core business functions and the dynamic functions that change all the time should be decoupled. SOA allows an organization to pick and choose those services that respond most effectively to the customers needs and market demands.
Extreme Programming (XP) (when SDLC is not appropriate)
a recent method for developing software applications and information system projects. XP divides a project into smaller functions, and developers cannot go on to the next phase until the current phase is finished. analysts write down features the proposed system should have on index cards. The cards include the time and effort needed to develop these features, and then the organization decides which features should be implemented and in what order, based on current needs. XP method delivers the system to users as early as possible and then make changes that the user suggests. In XP environment, programmers are usually organized into teams of two, sharing a workstation and working on the same code. This is called pair programming, each programmer performing the actions the other programmer is not currently performing.
Request for Information (Implementation Phase) (alternative to RFP)
a screening document for gathering vendor information and narrowing the list of potential vendors. Can help manage the selection of vendors by focusing on the project requirements that are crucial to selecting vendors. Limitations are that its not suitable for complex projects because it can be used only for selecting three or four finalists from a list of candidates.
Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
also known as the "waterfall model," is a series of well-defined phases performed in sequence that serves as a framework for developing a system or project.
Rapid Application Development (RAD) (when SDLC is not appropriate)
concentrates on user involvement and continuous interaction between users and designers. it combines the planning and analysis phases into one phase and develops a prototype of the system. RAD uses an iterative process that repeats the design, development, and testing steps as needed, based on feedback from users. Its known as low-code or no-code systems development approach. it uses visual interfaces to allow IS personnel to drag various components from the software library, connect them in specific ways, and create an application with little or no coding required. after initial prototype, the software library is reviewed, reusable components are selected from the library and integrated with the prototype, and testing is conducted. After, the remaining phases are similar to SDLC approach. Shortcomings of RAD is narrow focus, which might limit future development.
Outsourcing disadvantages
loss of control, dependency, vulnerability of strategic information
Agile Methodology (when SDLC is not appropriate)
similar to XP in focusing on an incremental development process and timely delivery of working software. However, there is less emphasis on team coding and more emphasis on limiting the projects scope. this focuses on setting a minimum number of requirements and turning them into a working product. strives to delivery software quickly to better meet customers needs. Two popular agile frameworks: Scrum and Kanban. Scrum focuses on a delivery cadence called a sprint and meeting structures that include planning, commitment, and daily standup meetings, allowing teams to communicate updates on their development status and strategies. a sprint ends with a demo meeting where the key features of the system are shown to users. a follow-up meeting completes the process where the team discusses what went well and what needs improvement in the next round. Kanban is a visual system for managing a project as it moves through various processes. using this framework, the design team pulls user requests from an intake board and funnels them through a staged development process until they are completed. both focus on delivering finished products fast within a transparent culture.
(SDLC) Phase 5: Maintenance
the information system is operating, enhancements and modifications to the system have been developed and tested, and hardware and software components have been added or replaced. The maintenance team assesses how the system is working and takes steps to keep the system up and running. The team collects performance data and gathers information on whether the system is meeting its objectives by talking with users, customers, and other people affected by the new system. Creating a help desk to support users is another important part of this phase.
Self-Sourcing (alternative approach to developing information systems)
when end users develop their own information systems, with little or no formal assistance from the information systems team. These users might not know how to write programming code, but they are typically skilled enough to use off-the-shelf software, such as spreadsheet and database packages, to produce custom-built applications. Has resulted from long backlogs in developing information systems, the available ability of affordable hardware ad software, and organizations increasing dependence on timely information. Disadvantages: possible misuses of computing resources, lack of access to crucial data, lack of documentation, inadequate security, lack of support, lack of training
