CHAPTER 10 The Family and Household Transition - Exam 3

LECTURE NOTES

LECTURE NOTES

Main Points 1- Married-couple households with children are declining as a fraction of all households, being replaced by a variety of other family and nonfamily household types 2. The direct causes of these changes in household composition are a delay in marriage, an increase in cohabitation and nonmarital births, a rise in the propensity to divorce, and, to a lesser extent, widowhood in the older population. 3. The underlying indirect causes of these changes are the several other transitions associated with the overall demographic transition, including declining mortality, declining fertility, migration to urban areas, and the underlying age structure changes brought about over time by demographic change. 4. The transformation of families and households has accompanied improved life chances for women, including higher levels of education, labor force participation, occupation, and income. 5. Average educational attainment has increased substantially over time in most countries, and, especially in industrialized nations, women appear now to have closed the gender gap in education. 6. In the United States during World War II, a combination of demand for labor and too few traditional labor force entrants created an opening for married women to move into jobs previously denied them, and since 1940, the rates of labor force participation have risen for women, especially married women, while declining for men. 7. Over time in the United States, poverty has declined while at the same time Americans of almost all statuses have become wealthier in real absolute terms, but there have been only minor changes in the relative status of most groups. 8. Race may be just "a pigment of your imagination," but blacks, in particular, tend to be disadvantaged compared to whites in American society. 9. The diversity of households seems to have plateaued in richer nations but is on the rise in most of the rest of the world. 10. Family demographers can prove that the average person in Miami, Florida, is born Cuban and dies Jewish.

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Now, we will examine the shift in the living patterns. By 2000, a substantial share of young adults, married and not married, lived away from their parents. One of the reasons is that modern contraception methods have delinked sexual activity and marriage. Cohabitation has become more prevalent and non-marital births have increased. 1- Living Patterns of Young Adults By 2000, little over a majority of those between ---years old lived with their parents, another 34% lived on their own, and about 12% were married. - Those who lived on their own included cohabiting couples, roommates etc. 2- COHABITATION: BECOMING A NORM Cohabitation: - More and more individuals are cohabiting. This used to be considered a . - In 1970, the ratio of cohabiting to married couples was only 1 to 100; this increased to 14 per 100 by 2012. - In some European nations, such as France, cohabitation is

1- - 18-24 2- - sharing household by persons who have a sexual relationship unmarried. - stepping stone to marriage or trial marriage - More than half of women between 19-44 have cohabited at least once and at least 40% of children have spent time in a cohabitating family. - extremely common- by 1995 (over 20 years ago), 90% of married couples had cohabited.

Now, let us breakdown income inequality by race/ethnicity. Figure 10.4, p. 413. 1- INCOME DISPARITY BY RACE - Research focused mainly on ---for decades. - Income for African Americans rose faster than whites (in percentage), but - In 2000, income of blacks was 0.64 that of whites, but then by 2012 declined to 0.57 that of whites. The income gap between blacks and whites in 2012 was large:. - This difference raises concerns about the underlying causes. This is especially concerning that in periods with structural mobility where nearly in all segments of the population economic gains were being made, these gains were differential, meaning some groups gained more than others. 2- What are some explanations for Black-white income disparity? .

1- - black-white disparity - it is still lower in absolute terms (in dollars). - $30,961 2- - 1. Fewer earners in family. More single parent/mother families. - 2. Because females earn less than males, this compounds the disparity. Accounting for possible known causes of income disparity, e.g. gender, single-mother family, blacks still don't close the income gap with whites

Income 1- Three broad explanations have been offered for the increasing inequality: 2- structural mobility Poverty 3- The poverty index 4-

1- (1) public policy changes, such as tax "reforms" (largely tax breaks for the very wealthy) that benefit some groups more than others, coupled with a low minimum wage and diminished public support for education; (2) labor market changes (occurring throughout the world, not just in the United States), such as an increasing mismatch between the demands of jobs and the skills of the labor force, or a polarization of jobs into those that require high skills and those that require few skills, with little in between; and (3) changes in demographic structure, such as the increasing fraction of households headed by females. 2= that situation in which an entire society is improving its situation economically, even though some groups may be gaining at a faster rate than others 3- was devised initially in 1964 by Mollie Orshansky of the U.S. Social Security Administration. It was a measure of need based on the finding of a 1955 Department of Agriculture study showing that approximately one-third of a poor family's income was spent on food, and on a 1961 Department of Agriculture estimate of the cost of an "economy food plan"—a plan defined as a minimally nutritious diet for emergency or temporary use (Orshansky 1969). By calculating the cost of an economy food plan and multiplying it by three, the poverty level was born.

Finally, let us breakdown income inequality by gender. Table 10.4; p. 405. 1- GENDER GAP IN INCOME - In 1977, US women earned only ---as much as men. - By 2012, that increased to ---. - In --- nations like ---, there is gender gap in income. - Prior to reunification of Germany, in German Democratic Republic (GDR) women earned less than men even though --- - Some explanations for the gender gap are shorter duration in labor force for women than men; delaying education which also delayed attaining higher occupational status. However, 2- Dynamics of lower wages among females: - . Due to increased competition and because of the increased number of people in the labor force,--- . - Thus, when the overall wage depressed combined with gender based discrimination, ---.

1- - 0.58 - 0.80 - developed nations, like Japan = GDR espoused communism that stood for gender equality. - there is evidence that the gender gap in income is closing in the US. This is observed particularly among younger generation where female wages have risen faster than their male counterparts. 2- baby boom females entered the labor force at unprecedented numbers and were absorbed into the labor force - wages of males decreased - gap in income persisted

DETERMINANTS OF FAMILY AND HOUSEHOLD CHANGES DELAY IN THE AGE OF MARRIAGE 1- - USUALLY IN ---SOCIETIES - YOUNGER THE AGE, GREATER IS --- 2- Delay in the age of first marriage: = There was also a similarity --- - Where age of first marriage is low, husband is considerably - Delay in ---acted as a natural contraceptive in U.S. and other western nations when fertility transition was starting to occur (more than 100 yrs ago). - Delay in ----was also a route to increasing life chances of women in an era when it was harder to get divorced and contraception was not very effective. - The average age at first marriage in the US between 2014-2018: F (27.9) M(29.7). (Pop. Reference Bureau) 3- DISCONNECT OF MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY In the post WWII era, age of first marriage was actually decreasing because . - --- and ---- usually took place within marriage. With modern contraception, there occurred a disconnect between sexual activity and marriage. - No longer someone has to be married to ----. This is another reason for the delay in first marriage.

1- - LOW FERTILITY - THE AGE DISPARITY 2- this was first observed in developed nations and in low fertility settings. - in the age of husband and wife's age. - older than wife. - the age of marriage - marriage 3- - of increased prosperity and economic progress - Sexual activity and having children - engage in sexual activity

In the final sections, let us discuss life chances, for example income potential, and examine the nature of income inequality by race and gender. First, let us get a sense of earnings at the highest percentiles of income. 1- INCOME - Income: CEOs of the 500 biggest companies in the US, made about $8 million in around 2007-2008 (a period referred to as The Great Recession). Thus, per day a CEO made more than half an average American's annual income in 2008. Is this level of income justified is another question? - Social class in the US is indicated by money, not just in terms of absolute amount, but --- and --- - Data from 2012 Current Population Survey indicates that, 51% of income earned by richest 20% ; 3% of income earned by poorest 20%; and 46% of income earned by remaining 60%. 2- CAUSES OF INCOME INEQUALITIES? Policies; e.g., tax reforms advantages some more than others. Skills mismatch: = Changes in household structure:

1- - One could argue that no one is worth this amount of money, yet someone else might argue that the nature of this job demands this level of money, or may the answer is somewhere in between. - how and what you spend it on. 2- = market divided into jobs requiring high levels of education and training, and others requiring low levels of education and training, with few in between. - single parent households, especially single-parent households led by females

Now let us consider the effect of increase in education. This meant higher labor force participation of women as education levels increased. How does this contribute to family transition? 1- THE ENTRY OF WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE - During WWII, in the US, economic and demographic factors started the trend of - Males had increased participation in the military; immigration laws in the 1920s were restrictive, thus decreasing population growth; because of demands of weaponry and equipment due to the war, - This was unique because - These were women from the ---era. - With ---, it was easier to work. - Post WWII, when prosperity increased, when war was over, labor force participation of females ---. 2- LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION - Labor force participation increased with increase in --- for --- - Even up to the 1970s, the female labor force participation peaked at their --- than --- - However, this has changed dramatically. One of the reasons was that ---, and the economy absorbed them (these are primarily married females too). - ----of married women closed in on that of single women (who usually have high levels of employment). - By mid 1990s the labor force participation level of married women was at 75%---- 3- WOMEN IN LABOR FORCE HAVE LOW FERTILITY LEVELS - Now, working females have fewer kids. In the US, the trend is combining . - In Europe, there is usually a separation of work and family, e.g., Italy, Spain. Because - If ---is available, with equitable sharing of ---, fertility might increase because females will not have to bear the responsibility of childcare primarily.

1- - female participation (1940s). - women (single, married, married with children) entered the labor force. - married women and women with children entered the labor force, when typically it was single women who used to be employed since the 1900s. - Depression - smaller families - between the ages of 25-34 declined 2- - education levels for both males and females. - 20s, then declined with marriage and childbearing. - baby boomers (57-75 yrs now) entered the labor force in record numbers - Employment level - still lower than participation of single women in 1960. 3- - work and family and adjusting family size accordingly - females choose work/career over family, fertility levels have dropped steeply in Europe. - childcare, domestic chores with husbands

CHANGING FAMILY CHARACTERISTICS IN THE US 1- TRADITIONAL FAMILIES NO LONGER THE NORM - Traditional families no longer the norm. Traditional family is defined as - In 1970, married couples made up ---of all family types and with kids made up for - in 2010 married couples ---of family types and with those children made for - Thus other family types are emerging. 2- DIVERSITY IN FAMILY TYPES (PLURALIZATION) - Is the 2 parent with biological children an age-old tradition in the US? - Before that a variety of family types existed. Why? - Demographically, the pluralism we see in families and households is possible primarily due to - This allows for various family types like

1- - two biological parent nuclear family. - 70.6%, 40.3%; - 48.4% , 20.2%. 2- = Actually not. It has only been around since the 1950s. = Because life expectancies were lower, family building process was unstable. There were more diseases and less prosperity that also impeded family stability. - low mortality and somewhat due to low fertility levels. - marrying and having children, not marrying and having children, or neither.

1- Throughout the world this pattern has been transformed by what some have called the "second demographic transition," which I will discuss as the "family and household transition" in the context of the broader demographic transition: " 2- What Is the Family and Household Transition? 3- . The changes we see occurring all over the world are 4- The demographic transition promotes a diversity of family and household types because:

1- "The demographic transition is in essence a transition in family strategies: the reactive, largely biological family-building decision rules appropriate to highly uncertain environments come eventually to be supplanted by more deliberate and forward-looking strategies that require longer time horizons" ( - "family building by fate" to "family building by design" 2- In general terms, we can describe the family and household transition as the increasing diversity all over the world in family and household structure occasioned by people living longer, with fewer children born, increasingly in urban settings, and subject to higher standards of living 3- the inevitable result of powerful social forces unleashed by the demographic transition 4- (1) people are living longer, which means that they are more likely to be widowed, more likely to tire of the current spouse and seek a divorce, and less likely to feel pressure to marry early and begin childbearing; (2) the latter pressure is relieved by the decline in both mortality and fertility, which means that women, in particular, do not need to begin childbearing at such a young age, and both men and women have many years of life after the children are grown; and (3) an increasingly urban population is presented with many acceptable lifestyle options besides marriage and family-building

1- Religion is not exactly an ascribed characteristic, but worldwide it is 2- Life chances are also directly related to achieved characteristics or your personal human capital, those sociodemographic characteristics, such as 3- Ascribed characteristics affect your life chances primarily by affecting your access to achieved characteristics, which then become major ingredients of social status— 4- . Population characteristics affect your own demographic behavior, especially 5- The demographics of your family, in turn, affect life chances through the possession or acquisition of social capital—the ability to

1- typically a function of race or ethnicity and, as with ascribed characteristics, it is often a focal point for prejudice and discrimination, which influence life chances. 2- education, occupation, labor force participation, income, and marital status, over which you do exercise some degree of control 3= education, occupation, and income 4- family formation and fertility, although they also influence mortality and migration 5- facilitate or retard your access to opportunities for higher education, a higher status occupation, or a better-paying job.

1- In the United States, for example, Jews have generally had lower fertility levels than the rest of the population. Trends in Jewish fertility have followed the American pattern (a decline in the Depression, a rise with the baby boom, a drop with the baby bust), but at a consistently lower level. Why? 2- Although Jews in Europe and the United States tend to be relatively secular and have low fertility, the ultra-orthodox (i.e., highly religious) Jewish population (the Israeli haredim) 3- Will Muslims follow the pattern of Catholics and quickly lower fertility levels to replacement or below? 4- In terms of doctrine, Islam may not be any more pronatalist 5-

1- "Widespread secularization processes, upward social mobility, a value system emphasizing individual achievement, and awareness of minority status have all been indicated as factors that are both typical of American Jews and conducive to low fertility" 2- has one of the highest levels of fertility of any group in the world, at about 7 births per woman 3- If secularization is a key to low fertility, then it is not religion per se that matters, but how strongly one holds any given set of religious beliefs, which we call religiosity. 4- (expressing an attitude that favors high fertility) than other religions (McQuillan 2004), but the way in which Islam structures societies may generate a type of religiosity that lowers status for women relative to men and indirectly promotes pronatalism. At the same time, the extent to which communities are structured like this may well be regionally variable, reflecting underlying cultural attributes shared by all populations in a region, whether Muslim or not.

1- Organizations such as the International Labour Organization and the World Bank have adopted an international standard that defines poverty as an income of less than 2- . Using this definition, data from the World Bank produce the estimate that about Wealth 3 -Poverty implies not only the lack of adequate income from any and all sources, but also 4- Typically, wealth is measured as 5- There are three basic ways to generate wealth:

1- $1.25 per day—an astonishingly small amount of money on which to try to survive 2- one in five humans lives in poverty, 3- the lack of any other assets from which a person might draw sustenance 4- net worth—the difference between the value of assets and the money owed on those assets 5- (1) inherit assets from your parents or other relatives (the easiest way), (2) save part of your income to purchase assets (the hardest way), and (3) borrow money to purchase assets (the riskiest way).

1- Since most of us do not have fabulously wealthy parents, our ability to inherit enough from our parents (assuming that they have been able to accumulate some wealth) to build on to create our own wealth will, in fact, be determined importantly by two basic demographic characteristics: Race and Ethnicity 2- The assimilation model of immigration, 3- The multicultural model, 4- The assimilation model assumes that distinctions of race and ethnicity will eventually be wiped out by intermarriage, whereas the multicultural model 5- Recognizing that race and ethnicity are important issues in a society does not necessarily mean that they will be easy to measure - why

1- (1) how many siblings we have; and (2) how long our parents can expect to live. 2- assumes that a nation is a melting pot where everyone eventually shares cultural values and norms, and ultimately every person becomes pretty much like everyone else - This is sometimes referred to as the "North American Model" of race and ethnic relations, which is aimed at combating racial discrimination and ethnic inequality 3- on the other hand, assumes a salad bowl where everybody stays different but gets along just fine. 4- assumes not only that things won't work like that, but that people prefer to remain separate. 5- They are not easy to measure, of course, because they are not easy to define and so measurement becomes more of an art than a science

1= n if you have never before held a job, you are considered to be in the labor force. Unemployment rates are strongly related to age—the older the age, the lower the rate. A 2- Working, as I have mentioned before, cuts down on fertility under normal circumstances, and this is one of the ways in which working has an effect on the family and household structure. It is certainly no coincidence that the birth rate in the United States began to drop at about the same time that labor force participation rates for married women began to rise. 3- The ability of married women to work helps bring fertility down and maintain it at low levels, but, as I mentioned in Chapter 6, it can also help keep fertility from dropping to below-replacement levels. 4- We have already discussed the new household economics as an approach to explaining why fertility is kept low in developed societies and why households might encourage family members to migrate. Now, we can call on it again to explain why the rise in the status of women and increased female labor force participation might generate the household transformations w 5- e, it was during World War II that the particular combination of demographic and economic circumstances arose to provide the leading edge of a shift toward labor force equality of males and females.

1- At younger ages, considerable numbers of people are looking for work even if they haven't found it yet, whereas at older ages, people are more likely to give up on employment and seek a retirement pension as soon as it is available if they experience difficulty finding a job. Women also tend to have lower unemployment rates than men do 2- Overall, the highest levels of fertility in the United States are found among poor women who do not work, whereas the lowest levels of fertility are among those who do work and are well paid 3- When women are able to combine having a family, even if small, with a career, they are more likely to choose both. 4- One idea is that "the rises in women's employment opportunities and earning power have reduced the benefits of marriage and made divorce and single life more attractive. - Yet another perspective is that the benefits of marriage for women have shifted from being largely economic to be more related to the investment in children: "Marriage is the commitment mechanism that supports high levels of investment in children and is hence more valuable for parents adopting a high-investment strategy for their children" - 5- The demand for armaments and other goods of war in the early 1940s came at the same time that men were moving out of civilian jobs into the military, and there was an increasing demand for civilian labor of almost every type

FAMILY & HOUSEHOLD 1- FAMILY: --- 2- HOUSEHOLD: --- 3- IMPLICATION OF FAMILY HOUSEHOLD: THE FAMILY AND LIFE CHANCES 4- ASCRIBED CHARACTERISTICS & ACHIEVED CHARACTERISTICS - Experience within --- and --- depends - Ascribed characteristics = Life chances also depends on ===, which are --- that require ---. - Thus, demography of family impacts life chances by making it

1- Group of people related together by birth, marriage, or adoption. 2- people sharing housing unit form a household. There could be family household and nonfamily household. 3- a Family Household makes a powerful consumption unit- think of family sizes of consumer items. 4- - the family and of the family depends on these characteristics. - are attributes over which we have no control, e.g., race, sex, sexual orientation etc. these affect our life chances and outcomes. - achieved characteristics, sociodemographic characteristics that we acquire and that can change, e.g., education, occupation, and marital status - easier or harder to gain access to opportunities for higher education, SES, well-paying jobs etc.

Divorce 1- Not only has marriage been increasingly pushed to a later age, but once accomplished, marriages are also more likely to end in divorce than at any previous time in history. This trend reflects many things 2- Friedberg (1998) concluded that divorce laws alone might explain about 17 percent of divorces in the United States. For the other 83 percent of the explanation, we can start by asking ourselves 3- Andrew Cherlin (2013) summarizes the major risk factors for divorce as including

1-An obvious reason is that changes in divorce laws since the 1970s have made it easier for either partner to end the marriage at any time for any reason 2- why legislators were motivated to make those changes 3- low income for the couple (which causes stresses and tension), early age at marriage (which often means a poorer job of choosing a spouse), spouses' lack of similarity (this kind of similarity is known as homogamy, referring to the fact that people who are more similar to one another are more likely to get along with each other or, conversely, those who are less similar will be more likely to divorce), parental divorce (the copycat phenomenon, in which people whose parents divorced are more likely themselves to divorce), and cohabitation.

Women's empowerment resulted in the greater access to fulfilling life chances because a move towards a more gender egalitarian society means higher level of educational attainment of females. This, in turn, would have an influence on family structure. Table 10.3; p. 404 LIFE CHANCES EDUCATION GENDER INEQUALITY REDUCING, ALTHOUGH STILL PREVALENT MOST INEQUITABLE IN DEVELOPING NATIONS EDUCATION RELATED TO FERTILITY - OPPORTUNITIES 1- Education: education levels are increasing- more than 87.6% were ---graduates in the US by 2013. - In some western nations, more females had ---education than males. - Globally education level is increasing, but there is still gender disparity in some less developed nations (---,---,---, and ---), especially where status of women are lower. - Notably, in nations that make up almost a third of world's population, female literacy among young age group (15-24) --- 2- Educational homogamy is similar to ===. - People likely marry people of similar ----. - In the US, there is ---between various levels of education, e.g., a post graduate earns twice as much as a HS graduate. - Those with college degrees earn more than ===times than those with less than HS education. - There is a "====increases human capital. Yet, in all of the income categories, females earn substantially less than males. Thus, income disparity is a result of --- and ---.

1- HS - secondary - sub-Saharan Africa, southern Asia, northern Africa, and Middle East - exceeds male literacy by over 10%. 2- religious homogamy - education levels - income gap - three - College Premium"à education - education and gender

1- Given the previous discussion of cohabitation, it is of some interest to note that, contrary to popular belief in the value of "trial" marriage, cohabitation before marriage appears to be one of the factors that increases the odds of a marriage ending in divorce, at least in North America. 2- Another key to the rise in divorce is that many marriages that in earlier days Widowhood 3= As death has receded to older ages, the incidence of widowhood has steadily been pushed to the older years as well. The Combination of These Determinants 4- As the demographic transition unfolds, then, we are finding that people are waiting longer to marry, although often cohabiting in the meantime, and when they do marry, their marriage is more likely to end in divorce than in widowhood 5-

1- However, a significant number of studies have shown that cohabitation is selective of people who are mistrustful of marriage, probably because of their own "social inheritance of divorce" (Diekmann and Englehardt 1999:783). Thus, people who are at greatest risk of dissolving a marriage are more likely to cohabit than marry directly and that self-selection effect seems to explain the difference in divorce among those marrying directly and those marrying after cohabitation ( 2- would have been dissolved by death are now dissolved by divorce. 3- Divorce is a more important cause of not being married than is widowhood up to age 65, beyond which widowhood increases geometrically because of the higher death rate of men, undoubtedly compounded by the tendency of divorced women to change their status to widow upon the death of a former husband 4- Schoen and Standish (2001) used life table methodology to try to quantify the relative importance of these changes in family demography. Their results showed that between 1970 and 1995, for example, the proportion of women who could expect ever to marry declined from 96 percent to 89 percent. At the same time, the average age at marriage was increasing, the percentage of marriages ending in divorce was increasing, and the percentage of marriages ending in widowhood was declining. Furthermore, as life expectancy increases while the average duration of a marriage shortens, and the percentage of divorced people remarrying goes down, the percentage of a person's life spent being married declines, thus adding to the individual diversity of household types in which a person might live during an entire lifetime.

1- an Example of family PluralisM: --- 2- By 2010, mother-only family was --- 3- Most prevalent among --- - For African Americans, single Mother families peaked in 1990, declined between 1990-2000 and increased slightly between 2000-2010.

1- Mother-only families 2- almost quarter (24.2%) of all family types. 3- African Americans

1- Our cultural heritage, not our genetic heritage, distinguishes us, and that is not easy to measure. whereas Race and ethnicity Race and Ethnicity in the United States 2- The underlying purpose was to be able to capture more accurate information about multiracial individuals. If you accept the assimilation theory, 3- Being of African origin in the United States is associated with Ethnicity in Canada and Mexico 4- The United States does not have a corner on the racial and ethnic minority market, nor are demographic differences by race and ethnicity peculiar to the United States 5- . Ethnicity is essentially

1- Race and ethnicity represent human differences with some type of physical manifestation that allows people to identify and be identified with a particular group. 2- then you would expect an increasing fraction of the population to identify with more than one racial/ethnic group, whereas the multicultural perspective would not expect this to be happening. 3- higher probabilities of death, lower levels of education, lower levels of occupational status, lower incomes, and higher levels of marital disruption than for the non-Hispanic white population. 4- ). As befits a multiracial, multiethnic, officially bilingual society, Canada has several ways to measure diversity. What would be called "racial minority" in the United States is labeled "visible minority" in Canada. 5- a geographic concept, based on a place with which you identify, similar to the concept of "ancestry" as measured by the U.S.

FAMILY DEMOGRAPHY 1- FAMILY AND HOUSEHOLD TRANSITION (AKA ---) - Family building more ===and not constrained by ---. - Family building shifts from --- TO ---. 2- TRANSITION FROM "FAMILY BY FATE" TO "FAMILY BY DESIGN" WHY HAS THIS SHIFT TAKEN PLACE? = ---- - The ---is changing. The ---is increasing, level of ---is increasing, and ---- births is increasing.

1- SECOND DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION - deliberate, time - fate to design 2- Because declines in mortality, fertility, increase in migration, and changes in age-sex structure of population. - state of the family , age of first marriage , cohabitation , non-marital births

1- Among younger women, the non-use of contraception and the increasing lack of local access to abortion may push up the likelihood of young women getting pregnant and bearing a child. 2- A disproportionate share of younger women bearing children outside of marriage are ---. 3- Furthermore, it is not just that the children are born outside of marriage; they are likely to grow up outside of a two-parent family which may, in turn negatively affect their life chances, as I noted previously. Childlessness 4- r, childlessness has slowly but steadily been increasing, reaching 19 percent by 2010 ( 5- An important consequence of gender equality is that there is less pressure on a woman to

1- The United States is more restrictive than most lowfertility societies in providing teenagers with easy and inexpensive access to methods of fertility limitation. 2- African American 3- For example, data from the 1968-1996 Panel Study of Income Dynamics as analyzed by Michael Rendall (1999), revealed that during that period only 15 percent of black mothers raised their children in an intact two-parent family, compared with 60 percent of non-Hispanic white mothers. 4- Once we get above 10 percent, the assumption is that women/couples are deliberately choosing to be childless 5- have children, even if she is married, particularly if she has a rewarding career that she doesn't want to interrupt or, as certainly happens in some cases, she and her husband simply prefer a life without children.

1- Earlier in American history, the demand for labor would have been met by foreign workers migrating into the country, but the Immigration Act passed in the 1920s (see Chapter 7) had set up national quotas that severely limited immigration 2- With neither males nor immigrants to meet the labor demand, women were called into the labor force. Indeed, not just women per se, but more significantly married women, and even more specifically married women with children Occupation 3- Occupation is without question one of the most defining aspects of a person's social identity in an industrialized society 4- There is a global tendency for women not to be in the best jobs, and there are three important issues that the International Labour Organization sees as still needing considerable improvement in order to achieve gender equality in the workplace:

1- The only quotas large enough to have made a difference were those for immigrants from countries also involved in the war and thus not a potential source of labor. 2- Single women had been consistently employable and employed since at least the beginning of the century, as each year 45-50 percent of them had been economically active, as I pointed out earlier. It is a clue to education, income, and residence—in general, a clue to lifestyle and an indicator of social status, pointing to a person's position in the social hierarchy. 4- (1) the "global glass ceiling" (women being less likely than men to make it to top management) (Coleman 2010); (2) the gender pay gap (worldwide, women earn an average of about two-thirds what men earn); and (3) the "sticky floor" (women tend to get stuck in the lowest-paid jobs) (International Labour Organization 2013a).

1- In the late nineteenth century, the older age at marriage already alluded to in North America and Europe had been accompanied by 2- The ---tended to delay marriage for men until those expectations could be met. 3= Under conditions of rising material expectations, as was the case in the late nineteenth century, marriage had to be delayed even a bit longer than in previous generations because 4- Delayed marriage typically meant that young people stayed with their parents in order to save enough money to get ahead financially and thus be able to afford marriage. Cohabitation 5- The delay in marriage has not necessarily meant that young people have been avoiding a family-like situation, nor that they have necessarily avoided having children out of wedlock, as I have already mentioned

1- a delay in the onset of regular sexual activity—the Malthusian approach to life 2- societal expectation that a man should be able to provide economic support for his wife and children 3- the economic bar had been raised higher than before 4- Staying with parents also minimized the opportunities for younger people to be able to engage in premarital sexual intercourse, which might lead to an unintended pregnancy and destroy plans for the future. - Thus, prior to the latter half of the twentieth century, delayed marriage did not typically lead younger people to leave home and set up their own independent household prior to marriage. 5- When leaving the parental home, young people may set up an independent household either by living alone (a very small percentage); they may move into nonhousehold group quarters such as a college dormitory; or they may share a household with nonfamily members

1- . Demographic and Health Survey data also indicate that the age at marriage has been on the rise in most developing countries, signaling 2- In the United States, as in many northern and western European countries, the early decline in fertility more than 100 years ago was accomplished especially by 3- At a time when very few effective contraceptives were available, and when it was extremely difficult to get a divorce, --- and ---was the principal route by which women were able to increase their options in life. 4- The age at marriage stayed relatively high for both males and females until 5- Thus, since the 1960s, the contraceptive revolution, especially the birth control pill, has allowed people to

1- a potential change in fertility, female empowerment, and family change throughout the world 2= a delay in marriage. It is thus easy to understand that it was in these countries that some of the early feminist movements were able to take root. 3- postponement of marriage (and postponement of sexual intercourse, as well) 4- World War II and the post-war baby boom, when it dropped quickly and bottomed out between 1950 and 1960 5- disconnect marriage from sexual intercourse, and it is not a coincidence that the rise in marriage age after 1960 was especially noticeable among women who reached maturity just as the pill was coming onto the market

1-a family household is a housing or residential unit occupied by people who are all related to one another. - on the other hand, a nonfamily household is 2- while the household part of it makes it a consumption unit. 3- Family demography is concerned largely with the study and analysis of family households: 4- Families represent the fusion of people who were born into other families, and long before a family household dissolves, it is likely to have fissured into yet 5- We can additionally describe a family in terms of its geographic location because

1- considered by the Census Bureau to be a housing unit that includes only a person who lives alone, or consists of people living with nonfamily co-residents, such as friends living together, a single householder who rents out rooms, or cohabiting couples. 2- This means that when family members live in the same household some or all of them will be responsible for producing goods and services that are shared by, and for the mutual benefit of, the family members who live together 3- their formation, their change over time, and their dissolution. 4- other families, as children born into the family grow up and leave the family household of their parents to create (fuse) their own households. 5- where you are in the world will influence the kinds of social, cultural, economic, and physical resources that will be available to the family.

Proximate Determinants of Family and Household Changes 1-The increasing diversity in household structure is a result of several interdependent trends taking place in society, including especially Delayed Marriage Accompanied by Leaving the Parental Nest 2- One of the most important mechanisms preventing women from achieving equality with men is early marriage. 3- You will not be surprised to notice that the highest percentage married at young ages occurs in those countries where fertility is highest and where the status of women is known to be low. By contrast, it is no coincidence that in 4- Even though women typically marry at young ages in high-fertility societies, men tend to be under less constraint on that score. This means that 5- t as the percentage of women who are married at ages 15-19 goes up, the difference in age between husband and wife also increases. - thus,

1- delays in marriage, accompanied by young people leaving their parents' home (which in most more developed nations has increased the incidence of cohabitation), and an increase in divorce (which also contributes to cohabitation); whereas at the older ages, the greater survivability of women over men has increased the incidence of widowhood, which has an obvious impact on family and household structure. I 2- When a girl is encouraged or even forced to marry at a young age, she is likely to be immediately drawn into a life of childbearing and family-building that makes it very difficult, if not impossible, for her to contemplate other options in life. This is one of the principal reasons why high fertility is so closely associated with low status for women. 3- the low-fertility regions of North America, Europe, Oceania, and East Asia, the percentage of women who marry at young ages is very low and the status of women is higher than in other places in the world. 4- in those places where women are young when they marry, the chance is good that their husband is several years older. 5= s, in those countries where less than 10 percent of women are married at ages 15-19, a man is on average 2.8 years older than the woman he marries

1- Language is the other major Religion 2- Virtually everyone is born into some kind of religious context, which is why I have likened religion to an ascribed characteristic, closely affiliated with ethnicity. 3- n. Like race and ethnicity, religion sets people apart from one another and has historically been a common source of intergroup conflict throughout the world. Because it is an often-discussed sociodemographic characteristic, 4- America's history of religious pluralism 5- Does this mean that religion is less important demographically than it used to be? Obviously, the relationship between religion and demographic behavior is not a simple one, but there are two major themes that run through the literature:

1- identifier in Canadian society, with English being listed most often as the language spoken at home 2- Yet people can willingly change their religious preference during their lifetime, so it is also akin to an achieved status. 3- religion has regularly come under the demographer's microscope, with particular attention being paid to its potential influence on fertility, which is bound up with factors including gender equity and family and household structure 4- in which a wide variety of religious preferences have existed side-by-side, perhaps sensitized American demographers to the role of religion in influencing people's lives 5- (1) religion plays its most important role in the middle stage of the demographic transition; and (2) religiosity (how intensely you practice your religion) may be more important than religious belief

NON-MARITAL BIRTHS (NMB) 1- NMB INCREASED DUE TO DELAY IN MARRIAGE AND INCREASE IN PREMARITAL SEXUAL ACTIVITY: NMB in the US, 2- NMB VARIES BY AGE: 3- NMB HIGH AMONG AFRICAN AMERICANS: almost 2 out of 3 births are non-marital among ---. - Blacks appear to have children at ===and also stop having children at ----. - Data from 2012, indicate that birth rates for blacks were ----at ages lower than 25, but ---were higher than blacks at ages greater than 25. - According to data, the percentage of children growing up in an intact two-parent family is 15% for blacks and 60% for whites. Yet, in absolute terms, because of the higher number of whites in the population, of all the non-marital births in 2006 in the US, 39% were to ---, 30% to Hispanics, and 26 percent to African Americans. - This is a highly discussed phenomenon- especially the ramifications of ---,---, and ---. - The question is how can life chances of children been born in non-marital relationships be improved?

1- increased from just over 1 out of 10 births in 1970 to just over 4 out of 10 by 2012. 2- about 90% of all births below the age of 20 and 66% (2 out of 3) of all births between 20-24 are to unmarried females 3- African Americans - younger ages - younger ages compared to whites - higher than whites , birth rates of whites - non-Hispanic whites - non-marital childbearing in terms of life chances of the children, social costs, and financial costs

1-This combination of demographic processes is found largely in the 2- Given the fact that societies have historically changed in response to demographic conditions, it should be no surprise to you that since the end of World War II with demographic conditions undergoing tremendous change all over the globe, the status of women Gender Equity and the Empowerment of Women 3- The demographic transition does not inherently produce gender equity and the empowerment of women, but it creates 4- The combination of longer life and lower fertility, even if achieved in an environment in which women are still oppressed, 5- the fact that this combination of low mortality and low fertility typically occurs in an urban setting means that women have many more

1- middle phase of the demographic transition, when mortality has dropped but fertility is still above replacement level 2- has been one of the facets of social organization undergoing a significant transition 3- the conditions under which they are much more likely to happen. 4-opens the eyes of society—including women themselves—to the fact that women are in a position to contribute in the same way that men do when not burdened by full-time parenting responsibility 5- opportunities than would exist in rural areas to achieve the same kind of economic and social independence that has been largely the province of men for much of human history

1-Cherlin (2009) argues that family life in the United States, even more than in other nations, is characterized by frequent transitions. I argue, of course, that these transitions—whether you like them or not—have come about only because Changing Life Chances 2== The leading explanations for the shift in household structure in Western nations combine elements of the demographic transition perspective with the life course perspective. The demographic transition perspective relates changing Education 3- Becoming educated is probably the most dramatic and significant change you can introduce into your life. It is the 4- Note that the ---gets the "honor" of having the lowest level of gender equity with respect to literacy. 5= Our interest in education lies especially in the fact that by

1- of the other transitions that make up the overall demographic transition, including the drop in the death rate and birth rate, the resulting changing age structure, and the migration and urban transitions. 2- demographic conditions (especially declining mortality, declining fertility, and urbanization) to the rise in women's status. This is aided especially by delayed marriage, which encourages higher levels of educational attainment. 3- locomotive that drives much of the world's economic development, and it is a vehicle for personal success used by generation after generation of people in the highly developed nations of the world 4- sub-Saharan African country of Niger 5= altering your worldview, education tends to influence nearly every aspect of your demographic behavior

1- Not that education is inherently antinatalist; rather, it 2- When men were generally more educated than women—a difference arising from the more traditional kind of society that also places a higher emphasis on religion—well-educated men, in particular, were less likely to find women with a level of education similar to their own. But 3- Gender equity, combined with the greater proportion of people going to college, has altered the lifestyles of many young Americans. Labor Force Participation 4- As education increases, so does the chance of being in the labor force. Among both males and females in the United States, the higher the level of education attainment among people aged 25-64, the higher the percentage of people who were currently in the labor force. 5- Keep in mind as we talk about labor force participation rates that most countries include unemployed persons as being in the labor force. Thus

1- opens up new vistas—new opportunities and alternative approaches to life, other than simply building a family—and in so doing it delays the onset of childbearing, which is a crucial factor in setting the tone for subsequent fertility 2= as women caught up with men in terms of education—due to the modernization of society—men and women began to sort themselves into marriage with a similarly educated mate 3- . It has been accompanied by delayed marriage, delayed and diminished childbearing, and consequently, higher per-person income among young adult householders 4- Women are less likely than men to be in the labor force at any given level of education, but it is nonetheless true that the pattern over time has been for women to be working more and men to be working less. 5- s, if you are looking for work, even though you are not actually working or even if you have never before held a job, you are considered to be in the labor force.

1- Widely discussed in public debate is the fact that substantial 2- the percentage of African American mother-only families has 3- In 2010, one in three households in the United States was a nonfamily household, 4- -----prevented this type of household from being the norm for most of human history 5-The bottom line here is that what we think of as the "traditional" family depends on

1- racial/ethnic differences exist with respect to female-headed households, especially among families with children, 2- increased considerably just in the past few decades, although it too declined a bit between 1990 and 2000 before bouncing back in 2010 3- This is part of the trend away from what is often thought of as the traditional family, enshrined by old TV sitcoms—a family in which a married couple live together with their children and the husband works full-time while the wife cares for the children and attends to domestic chores. 4- High mortality alone (but especially when combined with high fertility and an agrarian economic environment) 5- low mortality, which is an historically recent phenomenon, in combination with a fairly young age structure, characterized by young adults with their children.

1- uch as a college dormitory; or they may share a household with nonfamily members. Within the latter group is the option of cohabitation, which can be defined as the 2- iting to married couples had climbed to 14 per 100 (U.S. Census Bureau 2013h). Snapshot numbers like these almost certainly underestimate the importance of cohabitation, however, because Nonmarital Childbearing 3- The delay in marriage accompanied by high rates of premarital sexual activity (aided by the fact that many young people have been getting out of the parental home before marriage) means that the 4- Data from the American Community Survey provide a broader portrait of the women who are bearing a child outside of marriage. There are two ways to look at these data. 5- With respect to the first perspective, certain groups have stood out for many years:

1- sharing of a household by unmarried persons who have a sexual relationship 2- it has become a widely accepted part of the life course in many low-fertility societies 3- United States and some of the other lowfertility nations have been experiencing an increase in the proportion of nonmarital births 4- - The first perspective is to ask about the percentage of births in a given demographic category (e.g., age or educational level) that are taking place outside of marriage, whereas - the second perspective asks which groups of women are having the greatest number of nonmarital births. 5= (1) nearly 90 percent of births to girls under age 20 and nearly two-thirds of births to women aged 20-24 are nonmarital; and (2) more than two-thirds of births to African American women of all ages are outside of marriage.

1- We can also describe a family in terms of its social location (where it is positioned in the local social system) because 2- we can describe the family in terms of its own social structure, which refers to 3- Your own life chances refer, for example, to your probability of having a particular set of demographic characteristics, such as 4- what a society and its members are like. We are born with certain ascribed characteristics, such as 5= These characteristics affect life chances in very important ways because

1- that standing will influence the family's access to whatever local resources exist on which the family can draw. 2- the number of people within the family, their age and gender, and their relationship to each other 3- having a high-prestige job, lots of money, a stable marriage or not marrying at all, and a small family or no family at all. 4- sex or gender and race and ethnicity, over which we have essentially no control (except in extreme cases). 5- virtually every society uses such identifiable human attributes to the advantage of some people and the disadvantage of others.

1-t at no time in human history has there been a good justification for the domination of women by men, but 2- Demographic conditions no longer provide that prop, and in most of the world the impediment to full social, economic, and political empowerment of women is simply the attitude of men, often aided by women who have grown up as "co-dependents" in the system of male domination. Thus, 3- Countries at the later stages of the demographic transition have generally discovered the benefits of 4- n. Since 1979, the United Nations has been encouraging all countries to sign on to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and as of 2014, it had been ratified by 186 out of 194 countries. Only seven countries have not yet ratified CEDAW: 5- The empowerment of women contributes to further change in society by

1- the demographic conditions that prevailed for most of human history did at least facilitate that domination. 2- an important part of the demographic divide in the world is the gender divide or, as Inglehart and Norris (2003) have called it—"the true clash of civilizations." 3- unleashing the resources of the half of the population that had previously been excluded from full societal participation. S 4- the United States, Iran, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, and two small Pacific Island nations (Palau and Tonga). 5- expanding women's life chances, which, in turn, expand economic opportunity and enrich society and households

The Growing Diversity in Household Composition and Family Structure 1-The "traditional" family household of a married couple and their children is 2- Families headed by females, especially with no husband present, are common, as are "nontraditional" households inhabited by unmarried people (including never---), by older adults raising their grandchildren, or by married couples with no children. 3= What may be less obvious is that these changes are closely linked to demographic trends. The total number of households in the United States nearly doubled from 63 million in 1970 to 117 million in 2010, but within that increase was a 4- The phrase that best describes the changes in household composition as shown in Figure 10.2 is increased diversity or "pluralization" (meaning that ---). 5- Although I focus here on the United States, all of the other richer countries have also experienced similar declines in the relative importance of households composed of a married couple with children. What is particularly noteworthy , is

1-no longer the statistical norm in North America and in many other parts of the world, even if it remains the ideal type of household in the minds of many people. 2- married, divorced, widowed, and cohabiting couples, who may represent opposite sex or same-sex couples 3= dramatic change in the composition of the American household, 4- no single category captures a majority of households 5= the shift in household composition n which children are involved. - In 1970, 45 percent of households in the United States were families with children, among which 89 percent were married-couple households. By 2010, only 30 percent of households were families with children, but among them, only 69 percent were married-couples.

1- Their analysis is consistent with other research showing that in general the strength of one's religious beliefs is predictive of fertility because the greater the level of religiousness, Does Marriage Matter? 2- At the beginning of this chapter, I noted that the family is usually thought of as both a kinship and an economic unit. 3- The cultural model prevalent for the past few decades in the richer nations has been that 4- So, does marriage matter? 5- Waite and Gallagher (2000) reviewed the literature and analyzed numerous data sets in order to draw the following conclusions about the benefits of marriage:

1= the more traditional are family values and the more oppressed are women, and it is these factors that are especially influential in determining family size 2- The kinship part provides its members with social capital (the connection to networks of people who may be in a position to help you out in life), and the economic part provides its members with human capital (access to resources such as education). 3- self-fulfillment and individual autonomy are the most important values in life and serve to justify scrapping a marriage. 4- A substantial body of evidence suggests that marriage matters very much even in a rich modern society—it enhances household income and wealth and promotes the well-being of spouses and children, while adding to sexual gratification in the bargain 5- (1) married couples have higher household income than the unmarried; (2) married couples save more of their income than the unmarried; and therefore (3) married couples have more wealth than the unmarried; (4) married men and women live longer than the unmarried, and engage in fewer highrisk behaviors; (5) children in a married-couple family are better off financially than those in a one-parent family; (6) children in a married-couple family are less likely to drop out of school, less likely to have a teenage pregnancy, and less likely to be "idle" (out of both school and work) as a young adult than children in a one-parent family; and (7) married couples have sex more often and derive greater satisfaction from it than the unmarried do.

1- I begin the chapter with a discussion of exactly how the structure of households and living arrangements have, in fact, changed over time—how big is this transition in the United States and elsewhere? 2- A critical element is the changing set of life chances that people are experiencing in the United States and all over the world—changes in the population (or demographic) characteristics that influence how your life will turn out. Defining Family Demography and Life Chances 3- In a general sense, a family is any group of people who are related to one another by marriage, birth, or adoption. - The nature of the family, then, is that it is a kinship unit. But it is also a . 4- . We usually make a distinction between the nuclear family (---) and the extended family, which can extend upward to other generations (----) and can also extend laterally to other people within each generation (---) 5- The next question of interest to us is, Where do these people live?

1=I have referred to that repeatedly in previous chapters, but we need to keep reminding ourselves that gender equity is central to the well-being of any society. Next I turn to the specific demographic changes that have contributed to the increasing diversity in household structure. 2- These include especially education, labor force participation, occupation, and income, which in turn affect gender roles (the social roles considered appropriate for males or females) and marital status. 3- mini-society, a micro-population that experiences births, deaths, and migration, as well as changing age structures as it goes through its own life course 4- at least one parent and their/his/her children - add in grandparents and maybe even great-grandparents - V 5- People live in a housing unit, which is the physical space used as separate living quarters for people.

Family Household in Transition

In this lesson, we will discuss another transition- that of the family and household. We will first build some background and then describe the overall changes that the family has undergone in the last several 50 to 70 years or so. We will focus on the changing family characteristics in the US and a shift to various family types. We will go over the explanations of the family and household changes and some relatively newer family trends such as moving out of parental home, cohabitation, and families with non-marital births. We will then move on to understanding some of the factors that lead to marital dissolution. Next, we will discuss gender equality and how the move towards gender egalitarianism has had an influence on family structure. In this part, we will first cover the role of an increase in educational attainment among females. Increase in education also means higher labor force participation of women. How does this contribute to family transition? Next, we will take up life chances, for example income potential, and discuss income inequality by race and gender.

Divorce - Part of the reason that can be attributed to the changing family and household structures is the easier access to divorce. This is due in part to the women's movement that increased women's empowerment.

n Changes in divorce laws n Low income n Early age of marriage n Spousal dissimilarity n Parental divorce n Marriage preceded by cohabitation