Chapter 10 - What is Motivation?

Historical Perspectives on Motivation

Frederick Taylor's scientific management, the application of scientific principles to the management of work and workers. Taylor believed that employees work only for money and that they must be closely supervised. This thinking led to the piece-rate system, under which employees are paid a certain amount for each unit they produce. The Hawthorne Studies attempted to determine the effects of the work environment on productivity. Results of these studies indicated that human factors affect productivity more than physical aspects of the workplace do. Maslow's hierarchy of needs suggests that people are motivated by five sets of needs. In ascending order of complexity, these motivators are physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization needs. People are motivated by the most basic set of needs that remains unfulfilled. As needs at one level are satisfied, people try to satisfy needs at the next level. Frederick Herzberg found that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are influenced by two distinct sets of factors. Motivation factors, including recognition and responsibility, affect an employee's degree of satisfaction, but their absence does not necessarily cause dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors, including pay and working conditions, affect an employee's degree of dissatisfaction but do not affect satisfaction. THeory X is a concept of motivation that assumes that employees dislike work and will function effectively only in a highly controlled environment. Thus, to achieve an organization's goals, managers must coerce, control, and threaten employees. This theory generally is consistent with Taylor's ideas of scientific management. Theory Y is more in keeping with the results of the Hawthorne Studies and the human relations movement. It suggests that employees can be motivated to behave as responsible members of the organization. Theory Z emphasizes long-term employment, collective decision making, and individual responsibility for the outcomes of decisions, informal control, and a holistic concern for employees. Reinforcement theory is based on the idea that people will repeat behavior that is rewarded and will avoid behavior that is punished.

Dual Role

A combination of the socioemotional and task-specialist roles. The team leader might not always play this dual role, but the team is likely to be most successful when he or she does

Job Enrichment

A method of motivating employees by providing them with variety in their tasks while giving them some responsibility for, and control over, their jobs. At the same time, employees gain new skills and acquire a broader perspective about how their individual work contributes to the goals of the organization.

Management by objectives (MBO)

A motivation technique in which managers and employees collaborate in setting goals. The primary purpose of MBO is to clarify the roles employees are expected to play in reaching the organization's goals. MBO increases employee motivation by empowering them with an active role in goal-setting and performance evaluation.

Flextime

A system in which employees set their own work hours within certain limits determined by employers. Typically, the firm establishes two bands of time: the core time, when all employees must be at work, and the flexible time, when employees may choose whether to be at work. The only condition is that every employee must work a total of eight hours each day. Flextime also ensures that everyone is present at certain times, when conferences with supervisors and department meetings can be scheduled. Flex policies help to reduce employee burnout and keep turnover low in what can be a stressful industry.

Behavior Modification

A systematic program of reinforcement to encourage desirable behavior. Behavior modification involves both rewards to encourage desirable actions and punishments to discourage undesirable actions. Behavior modification involves both rewards to encourage desirable actions and punishments to discourage undesirable actions. Rewards, such as compliments and expressions of appreciation, tend to be much more effective behavior modifiers than punishments, such as reprimands and scorn.

Norming Stage of Teams

After storming and the first burst of activity, the team begins to stabilize during the norming stage. Each person's role within the group begins to solidify, and members recognize the roles of others. A sense of unity grows during this stage. If it has not occurred already, an identified leader will emerge. The group may remain somewhat in flux during norming, and may even regress back to the storming stage if any conflict, especially over the leadership role, occurs.

Compressed Workweek

Allows employees to work the same number of hours in a shorter time period. Compressed workweeks are typically defined as 40 hours of work in four days instead of five, although a few companies specify that it is 80 hours of work over a nine-day period.

Equity Theory of Motivation

Based on the premise that people are motivated to obtain and preserve equitable treatment for themselves. Equity is the distribution of rewards in direct proportion to each employee's contribution to the organization. Everyone need not receive the same rewards, but the rewards should be in accordance with individual contributions.

Reinforcement Theory

Based on the premise that people will repeat behavior that is rewarded and will cease behavior that is punished. A reinforcement is an action that follows directly from a particular behavior. It may be a pay raise after a particularly large sale to a new customer or a reprimand for coming late to work.

Team Conflict and How to Resolve It

Conflict occurs when a disagreement arises between two or more team members. Conflict traditionally has been viewed as negative, but it is unavoidable. If handled properly conflict can improve a team. As long as conflict is handled in a respectful and professional manner, it can improve the quality of work produced. However, if conflict turns hostile and affects the work environment, then steps must be taken to arrive at a compromise. Compromises can be difficult because neither party ends up getting everything he or she wants. The best solution is a middle-ground alternative in which each party is satisfied to some degree. Conflict must be acknowledged before it can be dealt with or used in a constructive manner. Ignoring conflict may cause it to simmer or grow, disrupting team progress.

Punishment

Consequence of undesirable behavior. Common forms of punishment used in organizations include reprimands, reduced pay, disciplinary layoffs, and termination (firing). Punishment often does more harm than good by creating a negative work environment, fostering worker hostility, and encouraging employees to engage in undesirable behaviors behind the backs of supervisors.

Cross-functional Team

Consists of individuals with varying specialties, expertise, and skills that are brought together to achieve a common task. This structure avoids departmental separation and allows greater efficiency when there is a single goal. Although cross-functional teams are not necessarily self-managed, most self-managed teams are cross-functional. Cross-functional teams can also be cross-divisional. Ideally, a cross-functional team consists of a group of people with complementary skill sets and perspectives to enable the group to solve problems effectively and efficiently.

Virtual Team

Consists of members who are geographically dispersed but communicate electronically. In fact, team members may never meet in person but rely solely on email, video conferences, voice mail, and other technological interactions. They are also likely to use video meeting services such as Skype, WebEx, or GoToMeeting to have real-time direct visual interactions. In the global business environment, virtual, or remote, teams connect employees located anywhere in the world on a common task. Clear communication is essential, especially among team members who have never met in person. Email, text, and chat communications, for example, can be misinterpreted. Team members need to be respectful of cultural and language differences in order to focus on the process and results.

Expectancy Theory

Developed by Victor Vroom, a Canadian business professor, is a very complex model of motivation based on a simple assumption. According to expectancy theory, motivation depends on how much we want something and on how likely we think we are to get it

Theory Z: How American Management Can Meet the Japanese Challenge

Different types of management systems dominate in these two countries. In Japan, Ouchi found what he calls type J firms. They are characterized by lifetime employment, collective (or group) decision making, collective responsibility for the outcomes of decisions, slow evaluation and promotion, implied control mechanisms, nonspecialized career paths, and a holistic concern for employees as people. American industry is dominated by what Ouchi calls type A firms, which follow a different pattern. They emphasize short-term employment, individual decision making, individual responsibility for the outcomes of decisions, rapid evaluation and promotion, explicit control mechanisms, specialized career paths, and a segmented concern for employees only as employees. A few very successful American firms represent a blend of the type J and type A patterns. These firms, called type Z organizations, emphasize long-term employment, collective decision making, individual responsibility for the outcomes of decisions, slow evaluation and promotion, informal control along with some formalized measures, moderately specialized career paths, and a holistic concern for employees.

Empowerment

Employees are more involved in their jobs and in the operations of the organization by increasing their participation in decision making. With empowerment, control no longer flows exclusively from the top level of the organization downward. Empowered employees have a voice in what they do and how and when they do it. In some organizations, employees' input is restricted to individual choices, such as when to take breaks. For empowerment to work effectively, management must be involved. Managers should set expectations, communicate standards, institute periodic evaluations, and guarantee follow-up. If effectively implemented, empowerment can lead to increased job satisfaction, improved job performance, higher self-esteem, and increased organizational commitment. Obstacles to empowerment include resistance on the part of management, distrust of management on the part of workers, inadequate training of employees, and poor communication between levels of the organization.

Employee Ownership

Employees own the company they work for by virtue of being stockholders. Employee-owned businesses directly reward employees for success. When the company enjoys increased sales or lower costs, employees benefit directly.

Job Enlargement

Expanding a worker's assignments to include additional but similar tasks, can lead to job enrichment. Job enlargement might mean that a worker on an assembly line who used to connect three wires to components moving down the line now connects five wires.

Advantages and Disadvantages of MBO

MBO can motivate employees by involving them actively in the life of the firm. The collaboration on goal setting and performance appraisal improves communication and makes employees feel that they are an important part of the organization. Periodic progress reviews also enhance quality control within an organization. Shortcomings of MBO are that it must have the support of top management, it can result in a lot of paperwork, and managers may not like to work out goals with subordinates.

Extinction Hope

Managers who rely on extinction hope to eliminate undesirable behavior by not responding to it with the hope that the behavior will eventually go "extinct."

Theory X is based on the following assumptions:

People dislike work and try to avoid it. Because people dislike work, managers must coerce, control, and frequently threaten employees to achieve organizational goals. People generally must be led because they have little ambition and will not seek responsibility; they are concerned mainly about security. The logical outcome of such assumptions will be a highly controlled, autocratic work environment—one in which managers make all the decisions and employees take all the orders.

Theory Z (Ouchi)

Theory Z posits that some middle ground between his type A and type J practices is best for American business (see Figure 10-4). A major part of Theory Z emphasizes participative decision making. The focus is on "we" rather than on "us versus them." Theory Z employees and managers view the organization as a family. This participative spirit fosters cooperation and encourages the dissemination of information and organizational values.

Socioemotional Role

Role played by the individual who supports and encourages the emotional needs of the other members, placing the team members' personal needs above the task at hand. Although this may sound like an unimportant role, the socioemotional member's dedication to team cohesiveness leads to greater unity and higher productivity.

Self-Managed Teams

Self-managed teams are groups of employees with the authority and skills to manage themselves. Experts suggest that workers on self-managed teams are more motivated and satisfied because they have greater task variety and job control. On many work teams, members are cross-trained to perform everyone else's jobs and rotate through all the jobs for which the team is responsible. In a traditional business structure, management is responsible for hiring and firing employees, establishing budgets, purchasing supplies, conducting performance reviews, and taking corrective action. When self-managed teams are in place, they take over some or all of these management functions.

Negative Reinforcement

Strengthens desired behavior by eliminating an undesirable task or situation. Suppose that a machine shop must be cleaned thoroughly every month—a dirty, miserable task. During a month when the workers do a less-than-satisfactory job, the boss requires them to clean the factory themselves, rather than bringing in the usual private maintenance service. The employees will be motivated to work harder the next month to avoid the unpleasant cleanup duty.

Positive Reinforcement

Strengthens desired behavior by providing a reward, such as praise or recognition from supervisors for a job done well. A reward increases (strengthens) their willingness to perform well in the future.

Two common problems associated with using flexible schedules

Supervisors sometimes find their jobs complicated by having employees who come and go at different times and Employees with more conventional work schedules sometimes resent co-workers who have flextime.

Team Cohesiveness

Team cohesiveness is affected by different factors, internal and external to the team. To assure cohesiveness, the ideal team size is generally 5 to 12. Anything larger and relationship development becomes too complicated. Anything smaller and the group may be excessively burdened and tasks may not get completed. One of the most reliable ways to build cohesiveness within a team is through competition with other teams. When two teams are competing for a single prize or recognition, they are forced to become more goal-oriented and to put aside conflict. A favorable appraisal from an outsider may strengthen team cohesiveness.

Forming Stage of Teams

Team members are introduced to one another and begin to develop a social dynamic. The members of the team are unsure about how to relate to one another, what behaviors are acceptable, and what the ground rules are for the team. Through group member interaction over time, team members become more comfortable and a group dynamic emerges.

Goal Setting Theory

That employees are motivated to achieve goals that they and their managers establish together. The goal should be very specific, moderately challenging, and one that the employee will be committed to achieve. Rewards should be tied directly to goal achievement. Using goal-setting theory, a manager can design rewards that fit employee needs, clarify expectations, maintain equity, and provide reinforcement.

Target Behavior (TB)

The behavior that is to be changed (e.g., low production levels or a high rate of absenteeism). Next, managers provide positive reinforcement in the form of a reward when employees exhibit the desired behavior (e.g., increased production or less absenteeism). The reward might be praise or a more tangible form of recognition, such as a gift, meal, or trip. If the target behavior has not changed significantly in the desired direction, the reward system must be changed to one that is likely to be more effective. The key is to devise effective rewards that will not only modify employees' behavior in desired ways, but also motivate them.

Theory X and Theory Y

The concepts of Theory X and Theory Y were advanced by Douglas McGregor, an American business professor, in his book, The Human Side of Enterprise, in 1967. They represent opposing sets of assumptions that underlie management's attitudes and beliefs regarding workers' behavior.

Theory Y is based on the following assumptions:

Theory Y is a concept of employee motivation generally consistent with the ideas of the human relations movement. Theory Y is based on the following assumptions: People do not naturally dislike work. In fact, work is an important part of all of our lives. People will work toward goals to which they are committed. People become committed to goals when it is clear that accomplishing the goals will bring personal rewards. People often seek out and willingly accept responsibility. Employees have the potential to help accomplish organizational goals. Organizations generally do not make full use of their human resources.

5 steps in MBO process

The first step in setting up an MBO program is to secure the acceptance of top management. It is essential that top managers endorse and participate in the program if others in the firm are to accept it. This also provides a natural starting point for educating employees about the purposes and mechanics of MBO. In the second step, top management and other parties must establish preliminary goals that reflect a firm's mission and strategy. The intent of an MBO program is to have these goals filter down through the organization. The third step is the heart of MBO. It consists of three smaller steps: The manager explains to each employee that he or she has accepted certain goals for the organization, or a group within the organization, and asks the individual to think about how he or she can help to achieve these goals. The manager later meets with each employee individually. Together they establish individual goals for the employee. Whenever possible, the goals should be measurable and should specify the time frame for completion (usually one year). The manager and the employee decide what resources the employee will need to accomplish his or her goals. As the fourth step, the manager and employees meet periodically to review each employee's progress. They may agree to modify certain goals during these meetings if circumstances have changed. For example, a sales representative accepted a goal of increasing sales by 20 percent. However, an aggressive competitor has since entered the marketplace, making this goal unattainable. In light of this circumstance, the goal is revised down to 10 or 15 percent. The fifth step in the MBO process is evaluation. At the end of the designated time period, the manager and each employee meet again to determine which of the individual's goals were met and which were not, and why. The employee's reward (in the form of a pay raise, praise, or promotion) is based primarily on the degree of goal attainment.

Task-specialist Role

The group member who pushes the team toward achieving goals and objectives plays the task-specialist role by concentrating fully on the assigned task. In a cross-functional team, this might be the person with the most expertise relating to the current task.

Motivation

The individual internal process that energizes, directs, and sustains behavior. Motivation is affected by employee morale—that is, the employee's feelings about the job, superiors, and the firm itself. Motivation, morale, and job satisfaction are closely related.

Storming Stage of Teams

The interaction may be volatile and the team may lack unity. This is the stage at which goals and objectives begin to develop. Team members will brainstorm to develop ideas and plans and establish a broad-ranging agenda. It is important for team members to grow comfortable with each other so that they can contribute openly. It is unlikely that a team leader has come forth by this stage, although an informal leader may emerge. The success or failure of the ideas in the storming stage determines how long the team will take to reach the next stage.

Problem-Solving Teams

The most common type of team in business organizations is the problem-solving team . It is generally used temporarily in order to bring knowledgeable employees together to tackle a specific problem. Once the problem is solved, the team typically is disbanded.

Outcomes

The rewards we get from the organization, such as pay, benefits, recognition, and promotions.

Performing Stage of Teams

The team achieves its full potential, finally focusing on the assigned task. This stage may take a long time to develop, as team development issues can be complicated. The members of the team finally work in harmony under the established roles to accomplish the necessary goals.

Adjourning Stage of Teams

The team is disbanded because the project is complete. Team members may be reassigned to other teams or tasks. This stage will not occur if the team is placed together for a task with no specific date of completion.

Inputs

The time, effort, skills, education, experience, and so on that we contribute to the organization.

Nonparticipant Role

This role behavior is characterized by a person who does not contribute to accomplishing the task and does not provide favorable input with respect to team members' socioemotional needs. He or she is obviously not a desirable team member to have.

Job Redesign

Type of job enrichment in which work is restructured in ways that cultivate the worker-job match. Job redesign can be achieved by combining tasks, forming work groups, or establishing closer customer relationships. Employees often are more motivated when jobs are combined because the increased variety of tasks presents a more rewarding challenge. Depending on the form it takes, job redesign can give employees a stronger sense of belonging to a team, a clearer image of how their work contributes to the organization as a whole, and a more personal investment in the satisfaction of clients. Furthermore, a job redesign that carefully matches worker to job can prevent stress-related injuries. Employees may play an active role in redesigning their jobs to their liking. If an employee recognizes an opportunity at work to rework his or her job in such a way as to improve efficiency or productivity, he or she may want to approach a superior with the idea.

Telecommuting

Working at home all the time or for a portion of the work week. Technology such as email, cloud computing, smart phones, laptops, tablets, video conferencing, and overnight couriers all make working at home easier and more convenient than ever before. Working at home means that individuals can set their own hours and have more time with their families as long as they produce the desired results.

Three contemporary views of motivation

equity theory, expectancy theory, and goal-setting theory. Equity theory maintains that people are motivated to obtain and preserve equitable treatment for themselves. Expectancy theory suggests that our motivation depends on how much we want something and how likely we think we are to get it. Goal-setting theory suggests that employees are motivated to achieve a goal that they and their managers establish together.