Chapter 11
internalizing prejudice and stereotypes study
-"Show me the doll that you'd like to play with," "show me the doll that is nice or bad," "give me the doll that looks white or colored," "give me the dog that looks like you" -Both races chose the black doll for bad and white doll for good
the war on drugs
-11% of illegal drug users are Black; 80% are White -Blacks constitute: -37% of those arrested for drug violations -42% of those in federal prisons for drug violations -60% of those in state prisons for drug violations
outgroup homogenity effect
-people are better at recognizing faces from their own race and age group because we interact with members of our own group as individuals without thinking of race so process the individual features more deeply instead of noticing race or age -We assume outgroup members as the same, so act to them the same, eliciting the same response
Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination
Intergroup enmity is a distressingly common component of the human condition; homosexuals face ridicule, African American's face police violence, and women earn less pay
motivational perspective
Intergroup hostility can develop merely because another group exists; the existence of group boundaries among individuals can initiate group discrimination
basking in reflected glory
Many fans of a team want to be connected to the effort when the outcome is a victory but not when it is a loss Glory study -Researcher investigated how often students wore their school apparel after their football team had just won or lost a game -People wore school colors more after a victory than defeat, and people used 'we' for won and 'they' for loss -Triumphs and failings of a group affect our self-esteem even when we are not on the team, so we change the extent to which we ditty with them
member of stigmatized group
Members of a stereotype group face problems with health, wealth, employment, housing, and are usually aware of the stereotypes held which leads to increased stress, decreased wellbeing, greater diseases, and more unhealthy behaviors
self fulfilling prophecies
People act towards members of a group in ways that encourage the behavior they expect to see from those groups; we may act hostile toward groups we expect to be hostile
integration study
Racial attitudes of white athletes at US colleges were examined and found a positive correlation between the attitudes towards blacks and percentage of minority players they ha don their high school teams (only in team sports)
cognitive perspective
Suggests that stereotyping is inevitable because of the need for categorization of everything to simplify reprocessing stimuli around is
increasing commitment through action
more people bought condoms when faced with comments of hypocrisy, then past failure, then preaching
votimg
more voters when neighbors watching, then own voting record, then being watched, then civic duty
active reflection
people more correct when doing expressive writing than ocntrol
ultimate attribution error
stereotypes are usually negative disposition attributions, and the ultimate attribution error makes dispositional attributions about a whole group
Realistic group conflict theory/ frustration-aggression hypothesis
-Acknowledges that groups sometimes confront real conflict over economic issues -According to the theory, prejudice and discrimination often arises from competition over limited resources -Theory predicts that prejudice/discrimination should increase under conditions of economic difficulty (recessions, unemployment), because competition intensifies when there is fear of losing what people have -Theory predicts that prejudice/discrimination among groups that stand to lose most from another group's economic advance, i.e. White Americans in the Civil rights movement discriminated against black people because when black people could comate more freely for jobs, blue collar jobs became at risk -Groups often compete for ideology and cultural supremacy, i.e. Fighting over the God to worship, values to be taught, and what should be allowed online
social-psychological Interventions
-Also called "wise" interventions -Address subjective construal—how people make sense of or interpret themselves, other people, or a social situation—to improve people's outcomes -Complementary to structural changes
Accentuation of Ingroup Similarity and Outgroup Difference
-Arbitrary categorical bounding's can affect our perception; merely dividing a distribution into 2 groups lead people to see less variability within each group and more between the groups -Prejudice is a byproduct of categorization and can lead people in the group to stereotype, leading to ingroup favoritism and outgroup homogeneity
boost vs threat study
-Asian females were studied -IV: gender vs. ethnicity vs. control questions -DV: SAT quantitative section -Less correct for gender, more for control and most for ethnicity
Attributional ambiguity study
-Black n white students received good or bad feedback form a white student in an adjacent room; half the participants were told the white student could see them through a one-way mirror and half thought they couldn't be seen because a blind covered the mirror -Whether or not the white people could see through affected how the black students reacted; when they thought the other person could not see them or know their race, their self-esteem decreased from unflattering feedback and was boosted by positive feedback -When thy thought the other person could see them, their self-esteem was not injured by the bad news (they did not know whether to attitude the negative feedback to their own failings or others prejudice) nor was it enhanced by good news (they didn't know whether to attribute positive feedback to their skill or others condescension) -Members of stigmatized groups live in a less certain world
diagnostic tests and performance study
-Black, white students solved anagrams -IV: Diagnostic of intelligence or not -DV: Performance -Equal anagrams solved for non-diagnostic condition for black and white, but more solved for white people in diagnostic condition -Due to cognitive concern; for black students, thoughts of race and self-doubt are more accessible, leading to disruptive performance
injustice department
-Blacks, Latinos, and other minorities are considered for the death penalty more often than Whites -Sought in 70% of cases involving crimes committed by Blacks against Whites -Sought in < 35% of cases w/other combinations -Over 60% of murder victims since 1972 have been Black, but 20 of 22 people executed during that time murdered White victims
prejudice reduction study
-British studies assigned during story hour to listen and discuss stories about friendships between disabled and nondisabled children or a control story -Those reading about disabled children later had more willingness to interact with the disabled
benevolent racism and sexism
-Common conviction is that stereotypes must be negative to be harmful, but many of our 'isms' can be ambivalent (positive and negative), i.e. You may believe Asians are more rigid than whites but more intellectual -Ambivalent and benevolent sexist/racist attitudes may be resistant to change; favorable features of such beliefs enable stereotype holder to deny prejudice -By rewarding women and minorities for conforming to the status quo (keeping with their stereotypes) benevolent racism/sexism inhibit progress toward equality because those holding the attitudes act positively toward members of outgroups only f those members fulfill the idealized image of what such people should be like -Members of the outgroup who deviate from the stereotype are treated with hostility, and benevolent can actually be just as bad as hostile; women treated in a paternalistic (benevolent) performed worse on intellectual tests because of self-doubts aroused by the treatment
intergroup approaches to prejudice reduction
-Contact hypothesis: idea that prejudice would be reduced if members of minority and majority groups were in frequent contact with each other -Many studies have shown that when schools are integrated regarding race, prejudice increased, which argues the contact hypothesis -In Robbers cave study, two groups did get along more when integrated
affect misattribution procedure
-Doesn't measure speed but how people evaluate the stimulus after a prime -Subjects are shown a picture of a member of a particular target group which is immediately followed by a neutral image, and the question is if the feeling associated with the target group transfer to the evaluations of the neural image -I.e. If someone has negative associations to Muslims, their ratings of a picture of a belt that follows should be lower than the average rating of images that follow non-Muslim faces -AMP responses can be related to political attitudes, other measures of racial bias, and personal habits (smoking, drinking)
Interpersonal self-fulfilling prophecies
-Endorse stereotype about person --> -Behave toward person as if stereotype is true --> -Person reacts in stereotype consistent manner
implicit knowledge vs. explicit beliefs
-Everyone has knowledge of prejudices, stereotypes (high prejudice people endorse it, but low prejudice people may stereotype when distracted or depleted) -Brief exposure to nonverbal bias on television increased implicit anti-black attitudes -Consequences: certain groups as defaults, internalized prejudice and stereotypes, stereotype threat/lift, strained interracial interactions, social inequalities
Construal processes and Biased Assessments
-On average, richer children do better in school than poorer children; people expect and demand less of working-class children and perceive their performance as worse as if they were upper middle class -Mistaken impressions of Hannah will reinforce the stereotype that working class children are less academically able than middle class -Biased information processing can be based on no validity; if people suspect that a group is different, they may construe information about an individual in that way that confirms the suspicion
stereotype threat
-Fear that people will confirm the stereotypes others have about them and their group -Stereotype undermines performance by increasing arousal and interfering with performance on complex tasks -Knowing that one group is suspect in the eyes of others elicits negative thinking which can undermine performance and make people play it safe by being more obsessed with avoiding failure than striving for success -Stereotype threats to women's math performance has increased physiological markers of increased stress -Vulnerability of black people can cause damage because their academic performance can decrease, undermining confidence and making the individual more susceptible to stereotype threat and making them misidentify from academic pursuits -Stereotype lift: awareness of positive stereotypes of ability can sometimes enhance performance in that domain
robbers cave experiment
-Fifth grade boys taken to Robbers Cave State Park in Oklahoma; they had signed p for a summer camp that was also a study of intergroup relationships -Researchers spent hours screening boys in Oklahoma to find 22 non-unusual, middle-class children with similar ethnic groups, and the boys were divided into 2 groups of 11 and taken to separate areas, not knowing of the other's existence
Robber's cave- competition and intergroup conflict
-Groups first independently engaged in activities to foster group unity and took part in camp activities to develop cohesion (teams were Eagles and Rattlers) -2 groups were brought together for a tournament (each member of the winning team would get a medal and pocketknife), and the tournament lasted 5 days -Competitive nature of the tournament was to encourage groups to see the others as an obstacle to getting the reward and thus as a foe -Groups insulted each other and called each other names, but glorified and congratulated their own group -Eagles captured and burned the Rattlers' flag and the Rattlers stole the Eagles' flag, food fights broke out, cabins were raided, and fights were engaged in
how integration increases liking
-Groups need equal status -Different groups should have a shared goal requiring cooperation, promoting common ingroup identify -Community support: a community's broader social norms must support intergroup contact (if students go to mixed school but parents disapprove of the racial diversity, the students are likely to ignore the outgroup) -Merely knowing that someone in your ingroup if friends with a member of an outgroup can reduce stereotyping -Intergroup conflict should encourage interactions with member of different groups to put our identity as an individual in the foreground and downplay group membership
concealment study
-Half participants concealed their sexual orientation during a mock interview while the controls were free to say what they wanted -Investigators predicted that the act of concealment would be mentally taxing, making them less able to perform well on subsequent tasks -Across many experiments, they found that those asking to conceal their sexual orientation did worse on spacial ability, self-control, and stamina tests
exception study
-Horse racing study was investigated, and researchers showed residents of 2 districts sketches depicting a member of their own team or the rival team (membership established by color of shirt) -Some sketches showed derisible actions and others showed undesirable, and people's responses on the depictions were scored for abstraction -Participants maintained positive views of their own group by describing negative actions of members of their own group concretely (making themselves less implicated) -Participants maintained their less favorable views of the other group by describing negative actions of members of other group at a high level of abstraction -Participants made positive actions of their groups as abstract and negative as concrete -Shows tendency to perceive the ingroup favorably as abstractly evaluating events fitting one's stereotype lends them to greater import, concretely evaluating events violating one's preferences renders them les consequential
implicit association test study
-IAT responses correlate with indirect measures of prejudice -Participants in a brain imaging machine viewed pictures of black and white faces, and their earlier IAT responses to black faces were correlated with heightened neural activity in the amygdala (associated with fear and emotion) in response to black faces -Their scores on more conscious measures (Modern Racism Scale) were not correlated with this neural activity, suggesting that the IAT assessed a component of attitudes that the participants could not articulate
guess who and race study
-IV: race neutral or race relevant (for race relevant, people have a swatch of color next to them) -IV: 8/9-year old's or 10/11-year old's -DV: performance -For race neutral, older children asked less questions than younger children -For race relevant, older children asked more questions than younger children- as kids get older, they are less willing to use race as a cue
distinctiveness and illusory correlations
-Illusory correlations: correlations we see in things not actually related, and sometimes arise from how we process unusual or distinctive events -We attend more closely to distinctive events so remember them better and they become over represented in our memory, so minority groups are distinctive to the majority so stand out -Negative behaviors are less common than positive behaviors, so we often remember them more from minority grow members, leaving them vulnerable to stereotype -Paired distinctiveness: pairing of 2 distinctive events that stand out because they occur together -When we already have an expectation, this will exaggerate the effect of illusory correlation; we recall events that conform to our expectations
individual approaches to prejudice reduction
-In order to make our common humanity clear, we can improve relationships in didactic ways, using the media or programs to promote acceptance of outgroups or to convince individuals that their peers' frown on the endorsement of unfounded serotypes and discrimination -These efforts are often resisted because people don't hold their beliefs alone, but instead belong to groups that pressure them into their old ways of thinking -Studies aimed at convincing participants that the prevailing norms like outgroups can reduce stereotypes I the short term, and reading programs promoting acceptance of outcomes have been successful
benevolent racism and sexism study
-Interviews of men and women in 19 nations found that benevolent sexism -Found that benevolent sexism (chivalrous ideology marked by protectiveness and affection toward women who embrace conventional rules) coexists with hostile sexism (dislike of nontraditional women and those viewed as taking men's power) -Even seemingly positive stereotypes aren't benign
processing study
-Investigated if what separates prejudiced and nonprejudiced people was not their knowledge of derogatory stereotypes but whether they resist those stereotypes -Relied on distinction between controlled, conscious processes and automatic processes -Stereotype activation is automatic so they can be triggered even if we don't want them to be, and even a non-prejudice person will assess stereotypical associations that are present in our culture -Selected high and low prejudiced participants on the basis of their Modern Racism scale, and to show that the groups don't differ in automatic processing in stereotypical information she presented each participant with a set of words one at a time (briefly and non-conscious) -Some words were neutral, and others were stereotypically associated with black people, and the hypothesis was that the basically unconsciously brief words would still prime the participants stereotypes -Participants were presented with a description of an individual who acted ambiguously hostile, and he was seen as more hostile by the participants who were primed with stereotypes associated with black people (equal of prejudiced and nonprejudiced people) -Shows that because the words activated the stereotypes unconsciously, nonprejudiced participants were unable to suppress the automatic processing -Participants were then asked to list characteristics of black people, ad prejudiced people had more negative stereotypes and thus voiced them whereas the nonprejudiced people rejected them
contemporary prejudice
-It is illegal today to engage in many types of prejudice that were common 50 years ago, and it is not acceptable to express prejudices that were common until recently -People are conflicted between what they think and what they believe they should think and feel -For many, the changes in what is acceptable have created a conflict between competing beliefs and values as well as a desire to make up for past injustice towards racial minorities -People may be conflicted between abstract beliefs and gut level reactions, and some people's responses to members of other groups are nonconscious and automatic and may differ from their more thoughtful explicit beliefs -Some argue that old fashioned racism in the US has been replaced by a subtler, more modern counterpart -Modern racism: rejection of explicitly racist beliefs, i.e. That black people are inferior to white people, while still feeling animosity, discomfort, or suspicion toward African-Americans -Many people hold strong egalitarian values that lead them to reject prejudice and discrimination, yet they also have unacknowledged feelings toward minority groups that come from ingroup favoritism and a desire to defend the status quo (but they do not always discriminate/express prejudice)-If these people cannot identify a disguise for discriminatory action, their responses will conform to their egalitarian values, but if they sense that a suitable rationalization is available, the modern racist prejudices emerge
resume and discrimination study
-Man and woman with either white or African American name submitted resumes either high or low quality -Average callback for white names were much higher, and low quality for white was higher than high quality for black
reducing stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination
-Many factors such as the law and economic development have improved relationship between various groups, and the cause and consequence of these developments is the increased interactions between groups -When people interact, they like each other more and see each other mores individuals rather than representatives -Being methodical and aware -Constructed criteria: set criteria and pay in advance for hiring decisions -Being cautious about language -Paying attention to small cues
cost of concealment
-Many people hide their true identity, and the concealment of sexual orientation can lead to stress cardiovascular and progression of HIV -Being out of the closet is associated with better mental health, less anger, and higher self esteem
modern racism evaluation
-Modern racist would never join the KKK but may give a black passerby wider berth, never uttering a racist worth but believing discrimination does not exist anymore -Contemporary prejudice theories are important because they track progress that has been made in how members of marginalized groups are treated and uncover subtle forms of prejudice and discrimination that still persist -Old-fashioned hatred and discrimination are still present, such as terrorist groups or white supremists
social identity theory
-Most people organize the world with the us/then distinction, and ingroup favoritism even in the minimal group situation isn't the product of cognition alone -Social identity theory: based on the idea that self-esteem comes not only from our personal identity and accomplishments but also from the status and accomplishments of the various groups to which we belong -Being 'an American' is an element in the self-concept of Americans which comes with pride ad shame at the same time -Group memberships are part of every individual's identity, and people are often motivated to denigrate outgroup members not just when they personally are under threat, but when their groups are -When white people are made aware of changing racial demographics of their country, their attitudes toward minorities are more negative and their pro-white bias increase while their interest in affiliating with non-white member decreases -Self-identity personal achievement self esteem -Group identity ingroup achievement/outgroup failure self esteem
teachings of robber's cave
-Neither differences in background or appearance or prior history of conflict is needed for development of intergroup hostility; all is required is that the two groups enter into competition over rewards only one can attain -Competition against outsiders often increases group cohesion, i.e. when political voices invoke threat of outsiders to deflect attention from conflict within the group -To reduce hostility between groups, policy makers should make them work together to fulfill common goals; putting adversaries together to get to know one another is not enough but a superordinate goal is needed to keep people's eyes on the prize and away from sub-group distinctions
Reducing intergroup conflict through superordinate goals
-On 7 occasions of the next two days after the competition ended, the two groups were brought together in noncompetitive settings to see if the hostility would dissipate, but it led to more name-calling, fighting, and insults -Investigators confronted the boys with crises that could be resolved only through cooperation, i.e. Facing the water supply or restarting a broken-down truck -In the case of the truck, a large rope section was left near it and the researchers wanted the boys to pull it to start it, and the boys all intermingled to tug-of-war the truck -Superordinate goals: goals only achieved when both groups work together that led to drop in name calling and formation of friendships -Boys all wanted to return on the same bus at the end of the study, and Rattlers spent their own money on everyone -Hostility formed in 5 days of competition was erased by pursuit of common goals
overt racism study
-Participants and two confederates; black confederate bumps into white confederate -IV: no comment, "I hate when black people do that," or "clumsy n***" -IV: forecaster vs, experiencer -DV: mood, preferred partner -Less negative distress from both (but more for forecaster) in no comment condition -In both racism conditions, equal distress and more for forecaster than experiencer -More white partners chosen for no comment section (a bit more for forecaster), and much less for racism conditions for forecaster but not for experiencer -Even overt racism is rarely resisted
construal and bias - hannah study
-Participants watched a video of 4th grade Hannah playing either in a rich area (and told the portents were professionals) or in a rundown environment (and told the parents were working class) -Hannah then answered question about math, science, and reading with ambiguous performances (good I some difficult questions and bad in some easy ones) -Participants had to rate how well Hannah would perform in relation to her classes; those who saw a richer Hannah thought she would do better than average whereas those who saw a poorer Hannah thought she would perform worse
division and difference study
-Participants were divided into 2 groups and filled out an attitude survey twice (one to record their attitudes and one to record how they thought another ingroup or outgroup might respond -Participants assumed that their beliefs were more similar to those of another ingroup member than to those of an outgroup member, even though the basis of group membership was arbitrary -People make assumptions that people in a group are more similar that between groups even if the groups are arbitrarily formed that has no attitude on behavior or attitude -Categorization distorts judgement and the more people think of outgroup members as homogenous, the more likely thy are to put prejudices about them
stereotype and schema study
-Participants were more likely to show stereotypes when tested at the low point of their circadian rhythm due to lack of mental energy -Morning people tested at night involved stereotypes about athletes and cheating, whereas night people tested in the morning were more likely to make stereotypes about black people and cheating -Stereotyping also increases when people are drunk and mental capacity is low
expectations and biased information processing
-People don't generalize everything they witness to the same degree; some acts discourage generalization (i.e. A seizure) but others invite it (rudeness) -People are more likely to generalize behaviors they already suspect are typical of the group members, so stereotypes can be self-reinforcing because actions consistent with the stereotype are remembered whereas those at variance are dismissed -Influence of stereotypes can be even greater when the episode is presented secondhand and thus is more open to being construed in different ways, and information consistent with the group stereotype has more impact than inconsistent information
Attributional ambiguity
-People in stigmatized groups can't always tell hither their experiences have the same causes as those members of the ingroup o the majority or whether their experiences are instead the result of prejudice -Attributional ambiguity: not knowing the underlying causes of what they experience, i.e. wondering whether an accomplishment is the product of an affirmative action policy
gender and discrimination study
-People read resumes of Jennifer or John -John was seen as more competent, hirable, and a potential mentor, and John's estimated salary was much larger than Jennifer's -People with Asian sounding names are 28% less likely to get interviews when applying for Jobs
priming and implicit prejudice
-Priming: measures prejudice that individuals may not know they have or that they wish to deny if your ese the word butter and then have to say whether a string of letters Is a word, you'll recognize bread faster than car because of the preexisting association -We can measure prejudice implicitly by comparing a person's average reaction time to real and fake words preceded by faces of members of a category (whereas controls see positive and negative words primed by faces not in the categories) -People who are sure they aren't prejudiced against blacks respond quicker to negative than positive words preceded by pictures of black faces
common intervention techniques
-Prompting with new meaning or information -Direct labeling -Increasing commitment through action -Active reflection
stereotype threat study
-Researchers examined the effect of women's math test scores of bringing to mind stereotypes that women don't perform as well as men in mathematics -In one condition, participants were told there was nongender difference on a test they were about to take, whereas others were told there was a gender difference favoring men -Men and women performed equally when they were told there was a gender difference in favor of men, but women performed worse when they were told there was a gender difference
paired distinctiveness study
-Researchers presented participants with information's about actions of group A or B -They learned examples when people from were kind or selfish, and most actions were positive from each group so here was no correlation between group membership and behavior -2/3 of the actions were about group A so A was the majority -Participants later overestimated the extent to which negative behaviors were performed by the minority group and rated these members worse because although the good/bad ratio was the same, B was the minority -Distinctive based illusory correlation occurred; they detected false correlation based on distinctiveness of minority group and negative behaviors (we overestimate and co-occur the two events) -Researchers presented participants with information's about actions of group A or B -They learned examples when people from were kind or selfish, and most actions were positive from each group so here was no correlation between group membership and behavior -2/3 of the actions were about group A so A was the majority -Participants later overestimated the extent to which negative behaviors were performed by the minority group and rated these members worse because although the good/bad ratio was the same, B was the minority -Distinctive based illusory correlation occurred; they detected false correlation based on distinctiveness of minority group and negative behaviors (we overestimate and co-occur the two events)
Denigrating outgroups to bolster self esteem study
-Researchers threatened participant self-esteem but telling them they had just preformed bad on attest (the other half were told they had done well) -Participants (Italian) watched a videoed interview of a job applicant that made it clear to half the participants that the candidate was Jewish but not the other half (who were Italian/ingroup) -Participants whose self-esteem had been threatened rated the candidate negatively if they thought she was Jewish (and increased self-esteem after) but did not if their self-esteem was not threatened
implicit association test
-Reveals subtle, nonconscious prejudices, even among those believing they are bias free -A series of words. or pictures are presented on a screen and the respondent presses a key with the left hand If the picture/word conforms to one rule and another with the right hand if it conforms to another -Respondents would be faster to press one key for members of a particular group and words associated with that group and then they wood to press the same key for members of that group and words that contradict the stereotype associated with that group -For implicit prejudice, participants press one key for both positive words and people in one group and another for negative words and people in another group -Participants repeats the procedure with pairings of the two groups and the +/- words switched. -A nonconscious prejudice toward old people would be captured by a difference between the time it takes to respond to old faces/positive words and time taken to respond to old faces/negative words -Someone with negative views toward the elderly would take longer to respond to old faces/positive words than they would take to old faces/negative words -Both young and older individuals show pronounce prejudice in favor of the young over the old, and about 2/3 of white respondents show prejudice for white over black (about half of black respondents show some prejudice favoring white faces).
outgroup homogeneity effect study
-Showed Princeton and Rutgers students videos of other students making decisions as to what music to listen to or whether to wait alone or with others during a break -Have the participates were told the students were from Princeton, another half from Rutgers -Participants estimated percentage of students at the same college who would make the same choices they had seen on the video, and results indicated that the participants assumed more similarity among outgroup members than among ingroup members -Princeton students who thought they had witnessed a Rutgers student behavior were willing to generalize it to other Rutgers students, whereas when they thought the people were from Princeton, they were less willing to generalize (opposite for Rutgers) -People see more variability of the ingroup than outgroup; we often have more contact with our ingroup than outgroup, so we are more likely to see divergent opinions among members and sometimes all we know about the outgroup is its stereotype -We share the same group membership with the ingroup members so see them as individuals rather than representative of a group, whereas we treat outgroup members as a representative of a group instead of as a unique person
automatic and control processing
-Some of our cognitive processes giving rise to stereotyping are conscious whereas others are automatic (i.e. Distinctive based illusory correlations and outgroup homogeneity effect) -Our reaction to different regroups of people are guided by quick and automatic manta processes we can override but not eliminate, which explains our discrepancy between our immediate reactions and more reflective responses
economic perspective
-Some of the most intense intergroup tensions arise between groups vying for the same limited resources, i.e. Israelis and Palestinians claim ownership of much of the same small strip of land and struggle getting along -Groups develop prejudices about each other and discriminate against one another when they compete for material resources
characterizing ingroup bias
-Stereotypes (comes from cognition): beliefs that certain attributes are characteristic of members of particular groups; a way of categorizing people in a positive, negative, true, or false way -Prejudice (comes from affect): attitudinal and affective repose toward a group and its members; negative attitudes usually get the most attention, but you can also be positively prejudiced -Discrimination (comes from behavior): favorable or unfavorable behavior directed toward group members; involves unfair treatment of others because of their group membership -Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination refer to beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors that drive negative relationships between groups, and the three often go together but do not have to -Ingroup favoritism can arise without hostility toward different outgroups, but sometimes we were sincere and do not have bad intent when we cause injuries
stereotype and conservation of cognitive resources
-Stereotypes are schemas that enable us to process information, so we use them when we are overloaded or tired -Use of stereotypes should free up extra cognitive resources because it conserves mental energy
minimal group paradigm study
-Tajfel created groups based on arbitrary criteria and examined how the members of the groups behaved -The participants performed a trivial task and then were divided into 2 groups on their responses, i.e. one task involved participants estimating number of dots on a screen -Some participants were told they belonged to overestimations and others that they were underestimates, but the participants were actually randomly assigned to the groups and learned only about the assignment- not who else was in their or the other group -Participants were taken to separate cubicles and asked to assign money points to pairs of their fellow participants -They were shown pairs of preassigned point values where one amount would go to a participant in the in group and another in the outgroup (i.e. You give an ingroup member 18 and an outgroup member gets 3) -Participants didn't know the individuals in their ingroups or outgroups, and researchers wanted to see how the points were assigned -Most experiments show that most participants maximize the relative gain for their ingroup over their outcomes instead of maximizing gain for ingroup -Participants still favor the ingroup despite not knowing the members, even at the cost of their own group
basketball and stereotype study
-Task: Listen to 20-minute audio broadcast of a basketball game by "Mark Flick" who is white or black -DV: How good at basketball is Mark? -Results: more athletic ability presumed when Mark was Black -Played a better game -Had greater "hustle" and "basketball sense
homosexuality study
-Task: Rate job applicants (confederates) from the community; homosexual or heterosexual -Results: employers were less verbally positive and spent less time interviewing homosexual confederates
contact theory
-interacting with people from diverse backgrounds can help reduce prejudice and stereotyping toward these groups -Conditions: equal status, common goals/cooperation, societal or institutional support (authorities, laws, norms), personal interactions -Conditions help but contact itself is most important ingredient -Jigsaw classroom oEach student responsible for one portion of the information to be tested oHad to work in groups to get information from each other oRaised performance of black students, liking for group members and school, frequency of black students attendance, black students high self esteem, students showed more empathy toward others
explaining exceptions
-The way peopled respond to disconfirmation of their stereotypes varies according to their emotional investment in the stereotype, whether the stereotype is specific to the holder or widely shared, or other factors -People don't give up on their stereotypes easily, people evaluate disconfirming evidence that reduce its impact -Subtyping: no one expects perfectly consistent behavior from a given group, so people are unmoved but disconfirmation because anyone acting at variance is seen as an exception -People treat evidence that supports a stereotype differently from evidence that refutes it; people accept supportive evidence at face value but critically analyze and discount contradictions -People attribute consistent behavior to the dispositions and attribute insistent behavior to external causes -We treat supportive and contradictory information differently by varying how concretely or abstractly we evaluate the actions of people from different groups -If you see a person lifting someone who has fallen, you could describe the action as concrete "lifting" or abstract "helping"; abstract descriptions say more about the person than concrete
Interracial/intergroup interactions tend to be distracting and draining
-Those from group without stereotypes goals are to not stereotype and be liked -Those from stereotyped group do not want to fulfill stereotypes and want to be respected -Interracial interaction study oWhite student told they are going to talk with two other students (who both happen to be back) about relationships or racial profiling oDV: how far apart white student spaces the chairs oWhite student placed the chair further away when the topic was about race
measuring attitudes about groups
-We can ask people their attitudes about a certain group, such as with surveys that list trait adjectives and ask the surveyed to indicate which they believe characterize members of different groups -Self-report questionaries' can ask respondents about their attitude's bout members of different groups (Attitudes towards Blacks Scale, Fraboni Scale of Ageism) -Surveys can't always be trusted because respondents may be hesitant to express their true feelings or may report only part of their stance toward other groups (they may have deep, hidden feelings) -So many forms of prejudice and hidden and so not easily tapped through self-reports -Subtle self-report measures (indirect measures of prejudice and stereotyping) involve the implicit association test and priming procedures
boosting the ingroup status
-We may be tempted to boost the status of our group because our self-esteem is biased part on the various group status, we have -One cause of ingroup favoritism is that we do whatever we can to feel better about our ingroup to feel better about ourselves -Those allowed to show ingroup favoritism have higher self-esteem, and people with strong group pride are more prone to ingroup favoritism when placed in a minimal group situation (and people identified with a group react to criticism of the group's though it is of the self)
outgroup homogeneity effect
-We tend to call to mind an image of groups we are not a part of wherein all members think, act, and look alike, assuming members in that group are more similar than us in our ingroup -I.e. Americans often lump all Latin Americans as "Latinos"
dimensions of productive intergroup conflict
-When groups with history of animosity and conflict have one on one contact with on another under conditions of equal status, interdependence, and supportive social norms, three important changes take place then together reduce prejudice -Personalization: people begin to see members of the outgroup as individuals rather than as stereotyped member of a social category -Personalization makes it easier for people to emphasize with outgroup members and to think of them as similar -In this kind of one on one contact, a person's positive feelings for particular outgroup members to start to generalize to the outgroup as a whole (happens when outgroup members one interacts with are seen as typical of the group in question) -When the individual members behavior is not construed in a way that reinforces pervious stereotypes about the group -Positive intergroup sentiments are solidified when members of both groups come to think of themselves as sharing a common identity -Members of sports teams come to think of themselves primarily as teammates, not as white or black teammates
information processing study
-White participants watched a video of a discussion with a black and white man and had to code the behavior into 'gives information' 'playing around' or 'aggressive' -One man shoved the other at one point (black in half the videos white in the other) -When perpetrate by a white man, the action was seen as "playing around" whereas when it was by a black man, it was seen as "aggressive"
modern racism study
-White participants were in a position to aid a white or black person needing medical help -If the participants thought they were alone, they helped the black person more often than the white person, but when they thought others were present and their own inaction could be justified on nonracial grounds, they helped the black person less than the white person -Prejudice or discrimination is masked, and the individual remains comfortably unaware of any racist impulses
self fulfilling prophecy study
-White undergrads interviewed black and white men pretending to be job applicants; the white interviewers sat further away from black applicants and ended the proceedings earlier than if the applicant was white -Interviewer were trained to treat a new set of white applicants, and the interviews were taped and rated by judges later -The new applicants were evaluated more negatively than those who been interviewed in the way the white applicants had been interviewed earlier -By placing black applicants at a disadvantage by treating them differently, the white interviewers confirmed their negative stereotypes of blacks -Interviewers came in with negative expectations so acted in ways that elicited negative behaviors they expected -Black applicants didn't perform well in study but neither did later sample of white applicants when treated the same
direct labeling
-connect to someones identity to make them more convinced -"You are a person of worth"- fewer re-admits
ethnocentrism
-develops when the other group is vilified and the own group is glorified, and people in the outgroup are stereotyped and treated poorly whereas loyalty to the ingroup intensifies -Explains why after 9/1, many people reported that individuals across ethnic groups pulled together more than they had before that, and telling white students that the attacks were directed towards Americans serves to reduce prejudice toward African-Americans
Prompting with new meaning or information
-implicit theories- fixed vs. growth mindset
colorblindness
the inability to see color in race -Colorblindness study oKids read a storybook that had the message of working hard to support racial inequality oBook was either color-blind (focusing on similarity between people) or value-diversity (focusing on recognizing and appreciating differences) oResponded to 3 events at another school, with either no, ambiguous, or explicit discrimination oStudents identifying discrimination; did not in control, did more after value diversity than color blind story for ambiguous condition, and even more in both for explicit condition oTeachers read the description, and their intervention was less likely in response to color blind story than diversity story
theoretical perspectives of stereotyping
•-here will never be a single theory of the causes of prejudice/stereotyping; the causes are varied, and any account of the phenomena must incorporate many elements -Economic perspective: identifies roots of intergroup hostility in competing interests that set groups apart -Motivational perspective: emphasizes psychological need that lead to intergroup conflict -Cognitive perspective; traces the origin of stereotyping to the same cognitive processes that enable people to categorize things into classes- explains conflict between peoples consciously held beliefs and their automatic reactions to members of other groups -The 3 perspectives often influence each other, reasons for discriminations are partly due to money, which drives perceptions, which leads to motivation of anger and actions -Us vs them thinking oCompetition produces group-based biases, i.e. Ingroup empathy
