Chapter 12- ENV 101 Straighterline

basic conflict

A __________________ exists between those who prefer to use motorized vehicles and those who prefer to use muscle power in their recreational pursuit. This is particularly strong because both groups would like to use the same public land. Both have paid taxes, and both feel that it should be available for them to use as they wish

floodplains

Because most cities were established along water, many cities are located in areas called __________________. They are the low areas near rivers and, thus, are subject to periodic flooding. Some may flood annually, while others flood less regularly. They are generally flat and so are inviting areas for residential development even though they suffer periodic flooding. Better use of these areas is for open space or recreation, yet developers continue to build houses and light industry in them. Usually, when it's is developed for residential or commercial use, a retaining wall is built to prevent periodic flooding. This boosts the cost of the development, increases the cost of insurance protection, and creates high-water problems downstream. Frequently, tax monies are used to repair the damage that results from the unwise use of floodplains.

30

Almost all population growth in the next _______ years will be concentrated in urban areas, and most of this growth will occur in less-developed countries.

grown tremendously

Although mass transit meets a substantial portion of the urban transportation needs in some parts of the world, such as in Europe, its use in North America has grown slightly, while automobile and air travel have

~Public investments in roads, public buildings, water, sewer, and other infrastructures in peripheral areas; disinvestments in existing centers ~Land-use regulations that promote spread-out, land-consumptive development ~Consumer desire for a rural lifestyle with large homes and large yards, a safe environment, and less traffic congestion ~Preference of business and industry for easy highway access, plenty of free parking ~Demands of commercial tenants for particular locations and designs for buildings and sites ~Other public policies, including tax and utility rate policies ~Higher costs of development in older, traditional centers ~Lower land prices in peripheral areas ~Telecommunications advances ~Commercial lending practices that favor suburban development

Among the causes of sprawl are:

1872 mining law

An ___________________ has also been important in federal land management. The law allows anyone to prospect for minerals on public lands and to establish a claim if such minerals are discovered. The miner is then allowed to purchase the rights to extract the mineral for $5 per acre. Many feel that the law is obsolete, but it is still in force and public land is still being sold to mining interests at ridiculously low prices.

25 percent and 60

An analysis of building costs in the San Francisco Bay area of California determined that it costs between __________________ percent more to build in the city than it does to build in the suburbs.

Suisun City, California

An example of the principles of smart growth being applied is In ____________________. 1989, the San Francisco Chronicle rated Suisun City, a town of 25,000 people between San Francisco and Sacramento, the worst place to live in the Bay Area. Today, Suisun's harbor is filled with boats and lined with small businesses. A train and bus station that connects the city to the rest of northern California is located nearby. The town is diverse, walkable, and picturesque. Its crime rate is low and its housing affordable. This dramatic change occurred because Suisun City's residents, businesses, and elected officials agreed on a common vision for their town's future. The citizens also wanted to reestablish the historic Main Street as a social and retail gathering place In its turnaround, Suisun City avoided large-scale redevelopment projects such as shopping centers and industrial parks that would have altered its historic small-town character

100

Based on 2007 census data, in the United States, there are 80 motor vehicles for every _______ people. Since over 20 percent of the population is too young to drive, this means that there is essentially one motor vehicle for every licensed driver in the United States.

graze cattle

Based on Animal Use Months established by the Bureau of Land Management or the Forest Service, ranchers are allowed to ___________________ on certain public lands. Technically, failure to comply can mean a loss of grazing rights. However, since the establishment of regulations is highly political, many maintain that the political influence of ranchers allows them to use a public resource without adequately compensating the government. In addition, the regulatory agencies are understaffed and find it difficult to adequately regulate the actions of individual ranchers. As a result, some lands are overgrazed. Many people who want to use the publicly owned rangelands for outdoor recreation resent the control exercised by grazing interests. On the other hand, ranchers resent the intrusion of hikers and campers on land they have traditionally controlled.

the developing world

By 2025, about 5 billion people are expected to be living in urban centers. Most of the increase in urban areas will be in _______________________.

In central cities and older suburbs, these include deteriorating infrastructure, poor schools, and a shortage of affordable, quality housing. In newer suburban areas, these problems may include increased traffic congestion, declining air quality, and the loss of open space.

Concern about sprawl is growing because of the sheer pace of land development, which, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, is roughly double what it was only a decade ago. Such development has had a number of negative cultural, economic, environmental, and social consequences. What are they?

10

Currently, less than ______ percent of people work in the central city.

2

Despite this potential for transformation, green building represents only about ___ percent of the new, nonresidential building market in North America. Although the green building market is expected to grow rapidly in the next decade, a substantial shift from the status quo is needed to make these high-performance buildings the norm.

Mixed-Use Strategies

Development that promotes the coexistence of many community locales and services within close proximity, to reduce automobile dependency.

Ramapo, New York

Does not permit development until municipal services are established in an area

waterfront

During the early stages of industrial development, there was little control of industry activities, so the ___________________ typically became a polluted, unhealthy, undesirable place to live.

Boca Raton, Florida

Established a cap on growth at 40,000 dwellings in 1972. The ordinance was eventually overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court.

Sanibel, Florida

Established growth limits based on environmental carrying capacity. The city is adjacent to an important wildlife refuge.

True

No two streets, neighborhoods, or cities are identical. There is no "one-size-fits-all" solution. True or false?

essentially rural

North America remained until industrial growth began in the last third of the 1800s and the population began a trend toward greater urbanization.

53

Not including Alaska, the United States has lost about ______ percent of its wetlands from pre-European settlement to the present. That equates to a loss of 89 million to 42 million hectares (220-100 million acres). The current loss rate is about 50,000 hectares (124,000 acres) per year.

Walking 33% Skiing 4%

Number of People Who Participated in Selected Outdoor Recreational Activities in 2007

green buildings

One aspect of smart growth is the building of ____________________. They have been built over the past few years using a standard called Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). Introduced in 2000 by the U.S. _____________________ Council, the guidelines call for using recycled materials, ensuring better ventilation in buildings, and reducing water and energy use, among other goals.

automobiles and homes

One of the factors that has supported urban sprawl is the relative wealth of the population. This wealth is reflected in material pos- sessions, two of which are

brownfields

One problem that has plagued industrial cities is vacant industrial and commercial sites. Many of these buildings have remained vacant because the cost of cleanup and renovation is expensive. Such sites have been called

urban growth limit

One very effective tool that promotes efficient use of the land is to establish an urban growth limit for a municipality. An establishes a boundary within which development can occur. Development outside the boundary is severely restricted. One of the most important outcomes of setting urban growth boundaries is that a great deal of planning must precede the establishment of the limit. This lets all in the community know what is going on and can allow development to occur in logical stages that do not stress the community's ability to supply services. This mechanism also stimulates higher-density uses of urban land.

large, well-financed levels

Only of government can afford to pay for the growing cost of adequate land-use planning. State, provincial, and regional governments are also more likely to have the power to counter the political and economic influences of land developers, lobbyists, and other special-interest groups when conflicts over specific land-use policies arise.

reverse migration

People have migrated back to some cities on a limited scale because of the lower cost of urban houses and the fact that public transportation is generally more efficient in the city than in the suburbs, thus freeing urban residents from the cost of daily commuting. This _____________________ however, is still greatly offset by the continual growth of the suburban communities.

transit oriented design

Planning and design strategies for the development of mixed-use, walkable communities sited adjacent to transit access.

urban forestry

Planting and maintenance of trees within a city or community as a strategy for reducing both carbon emissions and energy expenditures for heating and cooling

high-tech, modern practices such as sensor-controlled and compact fluorescent lighting, high-efficiency heat pumps, geothermal heating, photovoltaic cell arrays, and reuse of waste-water, as well as simple and often time-tested practices like attention to building orientation and design, increased use of fresh air and natural light, improved insulation, radiant cooling systems that take advantage of naturally occurring conditions, managed forest or salvaged lumber products, recycled concrete aggregates, green roofs, rainwater collection, waterless urinals, facilities for bicyclists, permeable pavers, and local products.

Green building features can include

William Levitt

In 1947 _____________________a developer from the east coast of the United States put forth a new plan for building affordable homes away from congested cities. He bought thousands of hectares of potato fields on New York's Long Island. For no money down and $65 a month, a $6900 Cape Cod home could be bought—and many were! His dream was so successful that he built and sold thousands of houses, completing as many as 36 in a day. Levittown, New York, and the suburban tract home and lifestyle were born— and a new form of "the American dream" took hold. At first, this form of land planning and building worked. Large numbers of people found themselves homeowners, with a yard where they could plant a garden reminiscent of the farms and country villages from which many of them had come. Land was plentiful, and with cheap oil and labor, it appeared the answer had been found: A person could work in the city and "live in the coun- try." Cars were also cheap, allowing workers to drive to town and be home by sundown.

30

In 1950, about 60 percent of the urban population lived in the central city; by 1990, this number was reduced to about ____ percent.

Hawaii State Land-Use Commission

In 1961, the __________________ was founded. This commission designated all land as urban, agricultural, or conservational. Each parcel of land could be used only for its designated purpose. Other uses were allowed only by special permit. To date, the record for Hawaii's action shows that it has been successful in controlling urban growth and preserving the islands' natural beauty, even though the population continues to grow.

urban areas

In _________________ , recreation often takes the form of sports programs, playgrounds, and walking. Most recognize the need for such activities and facilities and develop extensive recreation programs for their citizens

purchase them

Probably the simplest way to protect desirable lands is to

~Because most wetlands receive constant inputs of nutrients from the water that drains from the surrounding land, they are highly productive and excellent places for aquatic species to grow rapidly. ~Wetlands are frequently critical to the reproduction of many kinds of animals. Many fish use estuaries and marshes for spawning. ~Wetlands also provide nesting sites for many kinds of birds and serve as critical habitats for many other species. ~Waterfowl hunters and commercial and sport fisheries depend on these habitats to produce and protect the young of the species they harvest. ~Human impact on wetlands has severely degraded or eliminated these spawning and nursery habitats. ~Wetlands provide natural filters for sediments and runoff. This filtration process allows time for water to be biologically cleaned before it enters larger bodies of water, such as lakes and oceans, and reduces the sediment load carried by runoff. ~Wetlands also protect shorelines from erosion.

Pros of wetlands:

Solar Access Protection

Regulatory measures to provide legal protection to property owners investing in solar energy systems through solar access ordinances.

green features

Research supports the health and productivity benefits of _______________ such as daylighting, increased natural air ventilation and moisture reduction, and the use of low-emitting floor carpets, glues, paints, and other interior finishes and furnishings. In the United States, the annual cost of building-related sickness is estimated to be at $58 billion.

the United States

In __________________ , about 47 percent of the land is used for crops and livestock, about 45 percent is forests and natural areas (primarily west of the Mississippi River), and nearly 5 percent is used intensively by people in urban centers and as transportation corridors.

allocate and regulate the lands

Several U.S. governmental agencies, such as the National Park Service, the Bureau of Land Management, the Forest Service, and the Fish and Wildlife Service, __________________ they control. However, these agencies have conflicting roles. The Forest Service has a mandate to manage forested public lands for timber production. This mandate often comes into conflict with recreational uses. Similarly, the Bureau of Land Management has huge tracts of land that can be used for recreation, but it traditionally has been mandated to manage grazing rights.

~It is less expensive to build on agricultural and other nonurban lands than it is to build within established cities. ~The land is less expensive, the regulations and permit requirements are generally less stringent, and there are fewer legal issues to deal with. ~Several tax laws also contributed to encouraging homeownership Since homes usually increased in value, this created a market for increasingly expensive homes.

Several economic forces operate to encourage sprawl development:

~The Industrial Revolution led to improvements in agriculture that required less farm labor at the same time industrial jobs became available in the city. Thus, people migrated from the farm to the city. The average person was no longer a farmer but, rather, a factory worker, shopkeeper, or clerk (with a regular paycheck) living in a tenement or tiny apartment near where he or she worked. ~The influx of immigrants from Europe. Although some became farmers, many of these new citizens settled in towns and cities, where jobs were available. ~They offered a greater variety of cultural, social, and artistic opportunities than did rural communities. Thus, cities were attractive for cultural as well as economic reasons. San Antonio, Texas, and Las Vegas, Nevada, are examples of cities that developed around unique cultural attractions.

Several forces led to this rural-to-urban transformation. What are they?

1) Evaluate and record any unique geologic, geographic, or biologic features of the land. 2) Preserve unique cultural or historic features. 3) Conserve open space and environmental features. 4) Recognize and calculate the cost of additional changes that will be required to accommodate altered land use. 5) Plan for mixed housing and commercial uses of land proximity to one another. 6) Plan for a variety of transportation options. 7) Set limits and require managed growth with compact development patterns. 8) Encourage development within areas that already have a supportive infrastructure so that duplication of resources is not needed

Several things should be considered when land-use decisions are made. what are they?

aesthetic pollutants

Since _____________________ —odors, tastes, sounds, and sights— are extremely difficult to define, it is difficult to establish such standards. One of the simplest ways to eliminate many of these annoyances is to separate the generator of the offensive stimulus from the general public. Proper land-use planning can greatly reduce the amount of pollution of this type. For ex. It does not make sense to allow new home construction in the vicinity of farming operations that will produce odors or industrial operations or airports that will generate noise.

nonrenewable resource

Since land and the resources it supports (soil, vegetation, elevation, nearness to water, watersheds) are not being created today (except by such phenomena as volcanoes and river deltas), land should be considered a _______________________.

1. Mix land uses. 2. Take advantage of compact building design. 3. Create a range of housing opportunities and choices. 4. Create walkable neighborhoods. 5. Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place. 6. Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas. 7. Strengthen and direct development toward existing communities. 8. Provide a variety of transportation choices. 9. Make development decisions predictable, fair, and cost-effective. 10. Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions.

Smart growth principles

~creating a vibrant local economy that gives access to satisfying and rewarding work without damaging the local, national, or global environment ~valuing unpaid work ~encouraging necessary access to facilities, services, goods, and other people in ways that make less use of the car and minimize impacts on the environment ~making opportunities for culture, leisure, and recreation readily available to all.

Smart growth promotes economic success by

Civano—Tucson, Arizona

The 700-hectare traditional neighborhood development is designed to promote economic growth while maintaining important social values and ecological harmony. Civano buildings use the best available technology to reduce energy and water demands. The project also focuses on land-use planning and sustainable transportation design.

cool cities Michigan

The Cool Cities initiative launched by the Michigan governor is an urban redevelopment endeavor aimed at attracting creative young workers to the state's cities. A series of forums throughout the state—and an on-line survey—collected input on ways to revitalize cities, strengthen the economy, and make Michigan a magnet state for new job creation and business expansion.

50-90

The Green Building Council estimates that green building reduces energy use by 30 percent, carbon emissions by 35 percent, and water use by 40 percent and generates waste cost savings of ___________ percent.

geologic status

The _______________ of an area must also be considered in land-use decisions.

~increasing traffic congestion and commute times ~air pollution ~inefficient energy consumption and greater reliance on oil ~loss of open space and habitat ~inequitable distribution of economic resources ~loss of sense of community

The complex problems shared by many cities are evidence of the impacts of urban sprawl, such as:

sprawl

The current pattern of growth throughout most of North America is commonly referred to as

national

The designation of lands as wilderness, forests, rangelands, or parks at the federal level often involves a balancing of _______________ priorities with local desires. As with local land-use issues, the conflicts over the use of federal lands are often economic and involve compromise.

hawaii

The first state to develop a comprehensive statewide land-use program was

$168 million

The local transportation commission in Ventura County, California (a semirural county with a population of approximately 650,000 located just north and west of Los Angeles County), found that the county will need to spend $1.35 billion over the next eight years to widen roads and build interchanges just to maintain and slightly improve the current level of service. That equals over _________ per year

suburban metropolitan

The more affluent moved to the outskirts of the city, and the development of _____________________ regions began. Thus, the agricultural land surrounding the towns was converted to housing. Most cities originally had good farmland near them, since the floodplain near rivers typically has deep, rich soil and agricultural land adjacent to the city was one of the factors that determined whether the city grew or not.

Alaska

There are also 68 million hectares (170 million acres) of wetlands in ____________. These are mostly peat-lands, with almost no loss in the past 200 years.

land-use decisions can be assigned to a regional governmental body, the land or its development rights can be purchased, and laws or ordinances can be used to regulate land use.

There are basically three components that contribute to the successful implementation of a land-use development plan:

1. Economically feasible only along heavily populated routes 2. Less convenient than the automobile 3. Extremely expensive to build and operate 4. Often crowded and uncomfortable

In the United States, where the automobile is the primary method of transportation, mass transportation systems are often underfunded and difficult to establish because mass transit is:

World War II

In the early 1900s, people who could afford to leave began to move to the outskirts. This trend continued after ____________________, in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, as a strong economy and government policies that favored new home purchases (tax deductions and low-interest loans) allowed more people to buy homes

Petaluma, California

Limited the number of building permits to 500 per year and established criteria for awarding permits that emphasized planning

Land Trusts

Local, regional, or statewide nonprofit organizations directly involved in protecting important land resources over the long term

floodplain zoning ordinances

Many communities have enacted ____________________ to restrict future building in floodplains. Although such ordinances may prevent further economic losses, what happens to individuals who already live in floodplains? Floodplain building ordinances usually allow current residents to remain. Relocation, usually at a financial loss, is the only alternative. Such situations are unfortunate; perhaps proper planning in the future will prevent these problems.

~First of all, until recently, little coordinated effort has been given to planning how development should occur in metropolitan areas. There are several reasons for this. Most metropolitan areas include hundreds of different political jurisdictions (the New York City metropolitan area includes about 700 separate government units and involves the states of New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut). It is very difficult to integrate the activities of these separate jurisdictions in order to achieve coordinated city planning. ~In addition, it is very difficult for a small local unit of government to see the "big picture," and many are unwilling to give up their autonomy to a regional governmental body. ~Local zoning ordinances often fostered sprawl by prohibiting the mixing of different kinds of land use. ~Many government policies actually subsidize the development of decentralized cities. For example, developers and the people who buy the homes and businesses they build are able to avoid paying for the full cost of extending services to new areas.

Many planning and policy issues have contributed to sprawl development:

dissuade automobile use

Many urban planners recognize that the automobile's disadvantages may outweigh its advantages, so some cities, such as Toronto, London, San Francisco, and New York, have attempted to ______________________ by developing mass transit systems and by allowing automobile parking costs to increase substantially.

short-term

Most local zoning boards are elected or appointed and often lack specific training in land-use planning. As a result, zoning regulations are frequently made by people who see only the ____________________. Often the land is simply zoned so that its current use is sanctioned and is rezoned when another use appears to have a higher short-term value to the community. Even when well-designed land-use plans exist, they are usually modified to encourage local short-term growth rather than to provide for the long-range needs of the community

political boundaries seldom reflect the geological and biological database used in planning. Larger units contain more diverse collections of landscape resources and can afford to hire professional planners. A regional approach is also likely to prevent duplication of facilities and lead to greater efficiency. For example, airport locations should be based on a regional plan that incorporates all local jurisdictions. Three cities only 30 kilometers (20 miles) apart should not build three separate airports when one regional airport could serve their needs better and at a lower cost to the taxpayers.

National and regional planning is often more effective than local land-use planning because

Community Greens—Arlington, Virginia

This concept promotes more urbane, livable cities through the creation of parks that are collectively owned and managed by the neighbors whose homes and backyards, decks, patios, and balconies enclose the green. According to Community Greens, such parks have multiple benefits: "accessible and safe play spaces for children, community building, increased safety and security and property values, and a prime antidote to sprawl by making city living more attractive, especially to families with children."

brownfields development

This involves a more realistic approach to dealing with the contamination at these sites. Instead of requiring complete cleanup, the degree of cleanup required is matched to the intended use of the site. Although an old industrial site with specific contamination problems may not be suitable for housing, it may be redeveloped as a new industrial site, since access to the contamination can be controlled. An old industrial site that has soil contamination may be paved to provide parking.

Stapleton Development Corporation—Boulder, Colorado

This is the redevelopment of the former Stapleton International Airport site, near Denver. The project involves constructing a community of urban villages, employment centers, and greenways that focus on sustainability, environmental preservation, and economic and social development.

Jackson Meadow—Marine on St. Croix, Minnesota

This new 64-home residential development focuses on ecological land use. Jackson Meadow has a "commitment to create a sustainable environment that respects the unique nature of this special place." The development is combined with more than 100 hectares of open space for people and wildlife and includes a communally constructed wetlands and natural ponds for water filtration and runoff.

The Vail Environmental Strategic plan—Vail, Colorado

This plan describes a program that was adopted to maintain and improve environmental quality in the Vail Valley and to ensure the prolonged economic health of the region. Efforts include monitoring and improving air and water quality, preserving open space, and protecting the area's natural wildlife.

Livability

To address these problems, smart growth advocates emphasize the concept of developing "livable" cities and towns. _______________ suggests, among other things, that the quality of our built environment and how well we preserve the natural environment both directly affect our quality of life.

Learning Corridor—Hartford, Connecticut

Trinity College helped turn around the decline of its neighborhood by build- ing a $175 million "Learning Corridor," according to a piece for the Elm Street Writers Group. The development combines a neighborhood school, job training facility, playing fields, and open space to revitalize what had been an urban area in serious decline. The "Learning Corridor" has become a model for other communities that want to avoid "school sprawl" that pushes neighborhood schools to suburbs accessible only by car

~Zoning ordinances that isolate employment locations, shopping, services, and housing locations from each other. ~ Low-density growth planning aimed at creating automobile access to increasing expanses of land.

Two main features of our land-use practices over the past several decades have converged to generate haphazard, often inefficient, and unsustainable urban sprawl. What are they?

Forest - 62% Managed for hunting & fishing - 12.3% Wilderness - 10% Other - 8% Regional community and neighborhood parks - 7.2%

U.S. Federal Recreational Lands

Chattanooga, Tennessee

has achieved a reputation for revitalizing its inner-city area. The process of revitalization involved extensive planning activities that included the public, public and private funding of redevelopment activities, establishment of an electric bus system to alleviate air pollution, renovation of existing housing, redevelopment of old warehouses into a shopping center, and incorporation of a condemned bridge over the Tennessee River into a portion of a park that is also an important pedestrian connection between a residential area and the downtown business district.

Infrastructure

includes all the physical, social, and economic elements needed to support the population

Canada

is 54 percent forested and wooded and uses only 8 percent of its land for crops and livestock. Less than 1 percent of the land is in urban centers and transportation corridors. A large percentage of its remaining land is wilderness in the north.

zoning

is a common type of land-use regulation that restricts the kinds of uses to which land in a specific region can be put. When this happens to land, it is designated for specific potential uses. Common designations are agricultural, commercial, residential, recreational, and industrial.

urban sprawl

is a pattern of unplanned, low-density housing and commercial development outside of cities that usually takes place on previously undeveloped land. In addition, blocks of housing are separated from commercial development, and the streets typically form branching patterns and often include cul-de-sacs. These large housing tracts surrounded cities, which made it difficult for people to find open space. A city dweller could no longer take a bus to the city limits and enjoy the open space of the countryside.

land-use planning

is a process of evaluating the needs and wants of the population, the characteristics, and values of the land, and various alternative solutions to the use of a particular land surface before changes are made. Planning land use brings with it the need to examine the desires of many competing interests. The economic and personal needs of the population are a central driving force that requires decisions to be made.

Smart growth

is an approach that argues that these problems are two sides of the same coin and that the neglect of our central cities is fueling the growth and related problems of the suburbs. It recognizes the benefits of growth. It invests time, attention, and resources in restoring a sense of community and vitality to center cities and older suburbs. In new developments, its practices create communities that are more town-centered, are transit-and pedestrian-oriented, and have a greater mix of housing, commercial, and retail uses.

Riverfront property

is ideal for park and recreational use, but it is also prime land for industry, commerce, or high-rise residential buildings.

Tract development, ribbon sprawl

is the construction of similar residential units over large areas. Initially, these tracts are often separated from each other by farmland. New roads are constructed to link new housing to the central city and other suburbs, which stimulates the development of the third form of urban sprawl along transportation routes. This is referred to as ___________________ and usually consists of commercial and industrial buildings that line each side of the highway that connects housing areas to the central city and shopping and service areas. This results in high costs for the extension of utilities and other public services. It also makes the extent of urbanization seem much larger than it actually is since the undeveloped land is hidden by the storefronts that face the highway

Green building

refers to the use of environmentally preferable practices and materials in the design, location, construction, operation, and disposal of buildings. It applies to both renovation and retrofitting of existing buildings and construction of new buildings, whether residential or commercial, public or private

New York City

set aside approximately 200 hectares (500 acres) for Central Park in the late 1800s. Boston has developed a park system that provides a variety of urban open spaces. Recreation is a basic human need.

~Conserve energy and land resources. ~Provide efficient and inexpensive transportation within the city, with special attention to people who are unable to drive, such as many elderly, young, handicapped, and financially disadvantaged persons ~Provide suburban people opportunities to commute efficiently. ~Reduce urban pollution.

urban transportation planning usually involves four major goals:

Public transport

was not considered important because rising automobile ownership and improved highway systems would accommodate the transportation needs of the suburban population.

Waterways

were the primary method of transportation, which allowed exploration and the development of commerce in the early European settlement of North America. Thus, early towns were usually built near rivers, lakes, and oceans.

In Los Angeles

70 percent of surface area in the city is dedicated in some way to the automobile (roads, parking garages, etc.), compared with only 5 percent devoted to parks and open space.

locating recreational facilities near residential areas. Facilities that are not conveniently located may be infrequently used. For example, the hundreds of thousands of square kilometers of national parks in Alaska and the Yukon will be visited every year by a tiny proportion of the population of North America. Large urban centers are discovering that they must provide adequate, low-cost recreational opportunities within their jurisdiction

A major problem with urban recreation is

Transfer of Development Rights

A method of exchanging development rights among property developers to increase development density and protect open space and existing land uses.

San Jose

A once agricultural _______________ California, is now known as a high- tech area. The orange groves that were characteristic of Miami and Los Angeles have long been transformed into suburbs, office complexes, and shopping malls

wilderness

A particularly sensitive issue is the designation of certain lands as __________________________ areas. Obviously, if an area is to be ___________________human activity must be severely restricted. This means that the vast majority of Americans will never see or make use of it. Many people argue that this is unfair because they are paying taxes to provide recreation for a select few. Others argue that if everyone were to use these areas, their charm and unique character would be destroyed and that, therefore, the cost of preserving wilderness is justifiable.

Urban Growth Boundaries

A regulatory strategy for limiting urban sprawl by creating a geographical boundary for new development over a period of time.

infill development

A strategy to promote greater development density and efficiency within existing urban boundaries.

80

A study of traffic in the Washington, D.C., area concluded that the average commuter spent _____ hours per year stuck in traffic, in addition to the time normally needed to make the commute.

~using energy, water, and other natural resources efficiently and with care ~minimizing waste, then reusing or recovering it through recycling, composting, or energy production, and finally, sustainably disposing of what is left ~limiting pollution to levels that do not damage natural systems ~valuing and protecting the diversity of nature

A sustainable community seeks to protect and enhance the environment by

three-fourths

About ____________ of the population of North America live in urban areas

Nine

According to the U.S. Department of Transportation, the average person in the United States spends _______ hours per week traveling in a car.

Davis Student Center

An increasing number of buildings on college and university campuses are being "built green." One example of a new campus green building is the ____________________________ at the University of Vermont in Burlington, Vermont. It is a 186,000 square foot facility and is located on 4.3 acres of space. In its construction, the building used 1500 tons of structural steel, 280,000 bricks, and 23,000 tons of concrete. The environmental footprint of the new building was greatly reduced through efforts to obtain Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification in green design. During the construction, efforts were made to use recycled, and locally produced materials whenever possible. For example the building's 62,000 slate shingles were made locally and 65 percent of all materials were manufactured within 500 miles. Ninety-two percent of all construction waste, including 94 percent of the weight of the building that was deconstructed to make way for the new building, was reused or recycled. Features like the building's green roof, automatic faucets, and computerized energy management and lighting control system are anticipated to result in a 52 percent reduction in electricity usage and 40 percent estimated the reduction in water cost. A similar green building campus plan is underway at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Under a policy enacted in 2007 all-new buildings constructed on the campus at a cost of more than $5 million and any major renovations would require LEED standards.

nature centers

An outgrowth of the trend toward urbanization is the development of _______________________. They are basically teaching institutions that provide a variety of ways for people to learn about and appreciate the natural world. Zoos, botanical gardens, and some urban parks, combined with interpretative centers, also provide recreational experiences.

urban redevelopment

Another important focus in _________________________ is the remodeling of abandoned commercial buildings for shopping centers, cultural facilities, or high-density housing

Southern California, Beijing, China,

Another problem in some locations is lack of water. __________________________and metropolitan areas in Arizona must import water to sustain their communities. The risk of serious water shortages in _______________ has forced the government to consider a massive 1200-kilometer (745-mile) diversion of water from the Yangtze River to the city

regional city

As cities grow outward, they eventually grow together to form a ___________________. The land between them, once used for farming, becomes developed for residential and commercial purposes. Improved transportation routes and joint facilities (such as airports, shopping centers, and community colleges) hasten this loss of farmland.

megalopolis

As suburbs continued to grow, cities (once separated by farm-land) began to merge, and it became difficult to tell where one city ended and another began. This type of growth led to the development of regional cities. Although these cities maintain their individual names, they are really just part of one large urban area called a ____________________. The eastern seaboard of the United States, from Boston, Massachusetts, to Washington, D.C., is an example of a continuous city. In the midwestern United States, the area from Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to Chicago, Illinois, is a further example. Other examples are London to Dover in England, the Toronto-Mississauga region of Canada, and the southern Florida coast from Miami northward.

~Transportation problems ~Air pollution ~Low energy efficiency ~Loss of sense of community ~Death of central city ~Higher infrastructure costs ~Loss of open space ~Loss of farmland ~Water pollution problems ~Floodplain problems

As the population increased and metropolitan areas grew, several kinds of problems were recognized. They fall into several broad categories.

increased consistently

Auto-mobile use in the United States has _______________________ since 1960, while rail and bus transport use has remained low.

natural phenomena

Floods are _______________________ . Contrary to popular impressions, no evidence supports the premise that floods are worse today than they were 100 or 200 years ago, except perhaps on small, isolated watersheds. There is little doubt, however, that urban flood control methods (walls, barriers, and levees) have had detrimental downstream effects during high-water periods because preventing the water from spreading into the floodplain forces increased amounts of water to be channeled to areas downstream.

Grand Valley Metropolitan Council—Grand Rapids, Michigan

Grand Valley Metropolitan Council (GVMC) is an alliance of govern- mental units in the Grand Rapids, Michigan, metropolitan area that are appointed to plan for growth and development, improve the quality of community life, and coordinate governmental services. Through joint planning they coordinate land-use planning with transportation and other systems.

~Increased dependency on the auto, fuel consumption, and air pollution ~Increased commuting times and costs ~Reduced opportunity for public transportation services ~Increased health problems in children and adults due to a sedentary lifestyle ~More time in cars and less time for family, friends, and recreation ~Loss of a sense of place and community decline, resulting in fragmented and dispersed communities ~A decline in social interaction and the isolation of some populations, such as the poor and the elderly, in urban areas

Sprawl affects our quality of life in several ways, including:

~Excessive public costs for roads, utility line extensions, and service delivery to dispersed development ~Decline in economic opportunity in traditional centers ~Premature disinvestments in existing buildings, facilities, and services in urban and village centers ~Relocation of jobs to peripheral areas at some distance from population centers ~Decline in the number of jobs in some sectors, such as retail ~Isolation of employees from activity centers, homes, daycare facilities, and schools ~Reduced ability to finance public services in urban centers

Sprawl impacts the economy in several ways, including:

~Fragmentation of open space and wildlife habitat ~Loss of productive farmland and forestland ~Decline in water quality from increased urban runoff, shore- line development, and loss of wetlands ~Inability to capitalize on unique cultural, historic, and public space resources (such as waterfronts) in urban and village centers

Sprawl impacts the environment in several ways, including:

~Excessive land consumption ~Low densities in comparison with older centers ~Lack of choice in ways to travel ~Fragmented open space, wide gaps between development and a scattered appearance ~Lack of choice in housing types and prices ~Separation of uses into distinct areas ~Repetitive one-story development ~Commercial buildings surrounded by large areas for parking ~Lack of public spaces and community centers

Sprawl is typically characterized by the following:

Agricultural Land Protection

Strategies for preserving the land that feeds and clothes us, provides open space, food, and habitat for diverse wildlife, and maintains a link to our nation's agricultural heritage.

brownfield redevelopment

Strategy to preserve open spaces and natural systems, and provide recreation opportunities, by connecting cities, suburbs, and rural areas through linear corridors such as parks and trails.

~creating or enhancing places, spaces, and buildings that work well wear well and look well ~making settlements "human" in scale or form ~valuing and protecting diversity and local distinctiveness and strengthening the local community and cultural identity ~protecting human health and amenity through safe, clean, pleasant environments ~emphasizing health service prevention action as well as cure ~ensuring access to good food, water, housing, and fuel at reasonable cost ~meeting local needs locally wherever possible ~maximizing everyone's access to the skills and knowledge needed to play a full part in society ~empowering everyone in the community to participate in decision making and to consider the social and community impacts of decisions.

Such a community meets social needs by

wildlife, habitat preservation, recreation, lumbering, and watershed protection. This act was designed to encourage both economic and recreational use of the forests.

The 1960 Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act divided the use of national forests into four categories:

As people became more affluent, they could afford to own automobiles, which are a convenient, individualized method of transportation. Governments in North America encourage automobile use by financing highways and expressways, by maintaining a cheap energy policy, and by withdrawing support for most forms of mass transportation. Thus, they encourage automobile transportation with hidden subsidies (highway construction and cheap gasoline) but maintain that rail and bus transportation should not be subsidized. North Americans will seek alternatives to private auto- mobile use only when the cost of fuel, the cost of parking, or the inconvenience of driving becomes too high.

Unlike North America, Japan and countries in Europe that have extensive public transportation are much smaller geographically. In addition, they have more uniformly dense populations. Thus, it is easier to make public transportation work in those settings. A variety of forces has contributed to this situation:

a commodity to be bought and sold

Until land transportation systems became well developed, farms needed to be close to the city so that farmers could transport their produce to the markets in the city. This rich farmland adjacent to the city was ideal for the expansion of the city. As the population of the city grew, demand for land increased. As the price of land in the city rose, people and businesses began to look for cheaper land farther away from the city. Developers and real estate agents were quick to respond and to help people acquire and convert agricultural land to residential or commercial uses. Land was viewed as _________________________for a profit, rather than as a nonrenewable resource to be managed.

Transportation, open space, and improving the quality of life

Urban areas present a large number of planning issues. What are they?

400,000 hectares

Urban development of farmland is proceeding at a rapid pace. Currently, land is being converted to urban uses at a rate of over ______________________ (1 million acres) per year. About one-third of this land is prime agricultural land.

(a) The wealthy suburbs with large lots are adjacent to the city. (b) Ribbon sprawl develops as a commercial strip along highways. (c) Tract development results in neighborhoods consisting of large numbers of similar houses on small lots.

Urban sprawl occurs in three ways:

Open Space Protection

Ways to protect a community's urban open space, farmland, wetlands, riparian lands, rangeland, forests and woodlands, and coastal lands.

$1.5 billion

What has increased is the economic loss from the flooding. In 1993, during an extensive flooding event that involved both the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers estimated over __________ in damage to residential and commercial property. This loss reflects the fact that more cities, industries, railroads, and highways have been constructed on floodplains. Sometimes there are no alternatives to floodplain development, but too often risks are simply ignored. Because flooding causes loss of life and property, floodplains should no longer be developed for uses other than agriculture and recreation.

Wetlands

are areas that periodically are covered with water. They include swamps, tidal marshes, coastal areas, and estuaries. Some such as estuaries and marshes are permanently wet, while others, such as many swamps, have standing water during only part of the year. Many may have standing water for only a few weeks a year, often in the spring of the year when the snow melts. Because they breed mosquitoes and are sometimes barriers to the free movement of people, they have often been considered useless or harmful.

public, private landowners, developers, government, and special interest groups.

When land-use decisions are made, the decision process usually involves the what?

St. Louis, Montreal, Chicago, Detroit, Vancouver

Where abrupt changes in elevation caused waterfalls or rapids, goods being transported by boat or barge needed to be offloaded, transported around the obstruction, and loaded onto other boats. Cities often developed at these points. Buffalo, New York, and Sault Sainte Marie, Ontario, are examples of such cities. Without access to water ____________________ and other cities would not have developed.

~Many migrate to the cities because they feel they will have greater access to social services and other cultural benefits than are available in rural areas. Many also feel there are more employment opportunities. ~However, the increase in the urban population is occurring so rapidly that it is very difficult to provide the services needed by the population, and jobs are not being created as fast as the urban population is growing. ~Many of the people live in poverty on the fringes of the city in shantytowns that lack water, sewer, and other services. Often these shantytowns are constructed without permission only a short distance from affluent urban dwellers. Because the poor lack safe drinking water and sewer services, they pollute the local water sources, and disease is common. Because they burn wood and other poor-quality fuels in inefficient stoves, air pollution is common. The additional people also create traffic problems of staggering proportions.

Why are so many migrating to cities? and what are the consequences?

Industrial development

began on the waterfront, since water supplied transportation, waste disposal, and power.